1547-1552
FRANCE AND ITALY;
Build up to war
Fighting broke out at Piacenza in 1547. Pierluigi Farnese, a relative of Pope Paul III and an unpopular ruler was killed by rebels. The Spanish quickly seized the city, activating an alliance between the Pope and France.
Henry II re-occupied Saluzzo, on the border between France and Savoy in 1548.
In spring 1549 the French attempted to recapture Boulogne, but an assault was foiled. Boulogne was under siege until the following year. In March 1550 England and France made peace, Henry II bought Boulogne as part of the peace treaty, leaving him free to prepare for war with Charles V.
Meanwhile, the new Pope, Julius III, had restored Parma to Ottavio Farnese, grandson of the previous Pope and son-in-law of Charles V. Ottavio's relationship with Charles was poor, he had been dispossessed by Imperial forces after the murder of his father in 1547. Ottavio clashed with the Imperial Viceroy of Naples, who had already occupied Piacenza and wanted to take Parma. In December 1550 Ottavio asked for assistance from France to counter the pressure from the Viceroy, Henry II accepted his request and moved an army to Mirandola, in the northern Romagna.
The Hapsburg-Valois War (1551-59)
Pope Julius stripped Ottavio of Parma and Piacenza in May 1551 and, in June, a combined Papal and Imperial army prepared to move against Parma. The fighting involved both Imperial and French troops, but wasn't seen as a direct war between Henry and Charles. Fighting began with a minor defeat for the Papal forces en route to join with the Imperial army. French allies, the Farnese, threatened Papal territory at Bologna, causing the Pope to pull part of his army back to defend the city.
French troops from Mirandola moved to Parma. The Viceroy decided to try and attack both places.
Another French army began operations in Savoy in September 1551 and Charles lacked the resources to conduct two campaigns so Parma and Mirandola held out.
In January 1552 Henry II allied with the Protestant Schmalkaldic League, led by Elector Prince Maurice of Saxony. In the agreement they agreed to give the French the three Bishoprics of Toul, Metz and Verdun, surrounded by the Duchy of Lorraine and theoretically part of the Holy Roman Empire.
In March 1552 Henry II invaded Lorraine to establish his power in the Bishoprics, he also attempted to capture Strasburg, on the Rhine, but was repulsed.
Charles V was caught out by the outbreak of warfare in Germany, he tried to reach his forces in the Netherlands, but spent most of the summer trying to avoid the League. Eventually he came to terms with them, raised an army and besieged Metz between October 1552-January 1553. Charles's troops suffered heavy losses in the siege and the attack had to be abandoned.
In April 1552 Pope Paul made peace with Henry II, Ottavio was able to keep Parma. In July revolt broke out in Siena, where the Spanish were building a castle, the Spanish were expelled from the city. Cosimo de Medici, Duke of Florence, stopped trouble spreading, but the French got a garrison into the city. A siege started in 1553, but the French held out against the Spanish until 1555.
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THE EMPIRE;
The Second Schmalkaldic War
An uprising of German Protestant Princes led by Elector Maurice of Saxony against Emperor Charles V broke out in 1552. The Protestants were supported by King Henry II of France who sought to expand his territory in Lorraine.
The war was effectively a continuation of the First Schmalkaldic War in which Charles V and Maurice of Saxony jointly defeated the Schmalkaldic League of almost the same Protestant Princes. That conflict was settled by the Augsburg Interim, but discontent was growing at Augsburg in 1548. The Protestant Princes formed an alliance by the Treaty of Torgau in May 1551.
They sought to defend Protestantism and "Teutonic Liberty" which meant the freedom of the Imperial Princes. They also wanted to liberate Philip of Hesse, incarcerated by Charles in 1547.
France declared war in the autumn of 1551, and invaded Germany. In the Treaty of Chambord of January 1552, France promised financial and military aid in return for the three Bishoprics of Metz, Verdun, and Toul.
The Saxon elector, Maurice, acting for Charles, marched at the head of an army against Magdeburg, but allied himself with the city and the Emperor's opponents instead. Troops of the allied Princes conquered the southern German cities that remained loyal to the Emperor, and advanced into Tyrol in March 1552.
The Catholic Imperial Estates stressed they were neutral in this conflict. It was not in their interest to increase the Emperor's power. Charles barely escaped capture in Innsbruck and fled to Villach to rally new troops, meanwhile, his brother Ferdinand was negotiating with Maurice and the other Protestant princes.
Both parties signed the Peace of Passau in August 1552. The Princes gave up their alliance with France, and the Imperials released their prisoners.
They reached a compromise on the religious question, the basis for the Religious Peace of Augsburg of 1555.
The Second Margrave War
Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Brandenburg-Bayreuth, instigated numerous raids, plunderings and the destruction against many towns and castles in Franconia. Other towns were also affected, such as Mainz, Worms, Oppenheim, Metz, Verdun, Frankfurt, and Speyer.
Despite having been part of the Schmalkaldic League, Alcibiades did not desist with the peace. In June 1552, Nuremberg capitulated followed by the capture of Forchheim and Bamberg.
In July 1553, Maurice, Elector of Saxony and Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg defeated Albert Alcibiades at the Battle of Sievershausen, Maurice was killed in the battle. Hof and Kulmbach surrendered to the allies later in 1553
Alcibiades was defeated in the Battle of Schwarzach in June 1554 effectively ending the war.
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HUNGARY;
For much of John II's reign, Eastern Hungary was governed by his mother, Isabella, with Bishop George Martinuzzi as regent. Martinuzzi and Isabella fell out, and Martinuzzi also turned against the Ottomans. He allied instead with Ferdinand, and compelled Isabella to sign the Treaty of Nyírbátor in 1549, which ceded Transylvania to Ferdinand. Isabella opposed the dispossession of her son and informed the Sultan immediately. A struggle between Isabella's forces and Martinuzzi's pro-Habsburg troops saw the royal residence at Gyulafehérvár besieged in 1550 and 1551.
Ferdinand was distracted by events in Germany which would impact on the intrigues for the impending election for the Imperial crown. The Habsburg army sent to Transylvania was composed of mercenaries, commanded by Giovanni Castaldo. Martinuzzi continued his intrigues, sending feudal tribute to the Sultan, and was killed by Castaldo in 1551. John II abdicated as king, and together with Isabella left for Poland.
Szeged was taken from the Turks by stealth but was recaptured by a force from Buda. A Turkish raid in 1551 temporarily captured southern Banat but these were re-taken after it withdrew.
In 1552 two Ottoman armies crossed the border, one campaigned against the western and central part of the country whilst the second attacked the Banat region, another force was active on the Croatian front. In the north, news of Drégely's fall allowed the Turks to take possession of the nearby castles without a fight. Outside Fülek, a 7,000-strong army, including German troops was completely destroyed and Fülek fell into the hands of the Turks.
In the south, Aldana, the Habsburg commander, retreated rather than reinforce Temesvár with his troops. Temesvár could possibly have withstood siege with reinforcements but fell in late July. Aldana retreated leaving Lippa, Karánsebes, and Lugos to the Turks.
The two armies marched on Szolnok, a new, modern, castle. The defenders had no trust in their commander and fled, Szolnok was captured without a struggle. The Turks turned their attention to Eger in the north, few expected it to put up much resistance as the two armies arrived before Eger.
The defenders numbered at most 2,000, all Hungarians, who fought for their homeland and family. The city fell to the Turks and cannon were now in close proximity to the walls of the outer castle.
Although assaulted several times, the Turks were repulsed. When called on to surrender, the messenger was driven out unanswered. The carronade continued and most of the walls were in ruins. After three days of attacks in four places, with full force, the Turks broke into the castle from three sides but, after hours of hard fighting, all seemed lost.
It was then that the women of the castle rushed to aid the fighters, throwing rocks, pouring hot water and oil on the enemy. Eger was saved.
The enormous loss, lack of food and early onset of winter forced the enemy into retreat.