The Battle of Hulunbuir: the Japanese dragon halts the Chinese dragon and the bear While the Nasists had pulled away troops from the Siberian and Eastern Front, they still had considerable forces in the frontlines, well capable to go on the offensive. On particular, the Russians were still determined to push the Japanese out of Siberia and Manchuria, territories that were seen as rightfully Russians. For that, they were aided by the Chinese army, who were promised half of Manchuria and the remaining Central Power holdings into China. The Japanese, alone in the struggle, were ready do defend their land to their last breath, but it seemed like the Nasists were unstoppable in Asia, especially considering the conquest that they made in the region.
The Siberian-Manchurian front up to now, with the red x showing Russian interests in Siberia and Manchuria, and the yellow x showing the Chinese ones
Russian plan of offensive was against Hulunbuir, the nearest major city in Manchuria on the Nasist border. The Japanese had fortified the city the best they coudl, and also had received support by American equipment that was shipped from the West Coast.
Rensuke Isogai, commander of the Japanese 31st Division, positioned his 184th Regiment (led by Itagaki Seishiro) inside the city itself. He deployed his 182nd Regiment to the west, at the northern railway station, while the 183rd and 181st Regiments respectively guarded the western and southern areas outside the city. Isogai positioned his divisional command post at the southern railway station, which was on the southern bank of the Yimin river.
Japanese troops preparing to battle after a Nasist bombardment
On 25 March 1942, the Russians launched an all-out attack on Hulubuir, with a 300-strong contingent successfully breaching the north-eastern defensive positions. However, they were then forced into Baorixilezhen. The Japanese then launched an offensive, annilihating the Russians. The next day, the Chinese launched an assault through Old Barag. While they were also forced, the Japanese weren't able to destroy the contingent after the arrival of Nasist aircraft. The Chinese were thus able to use the region as a base, from which they began to systematically clear the areas, launching at least seven attacks per day. In the house-to-house combat that followed, the Japanese struggled to hold the line in the face of vastly superior firepower. The Chinese, aided by the Nasists, eventually secured the western portion of the area, before also breaching the north-eastern corner from the outside and capturing Xie'ertalazhen. By this time, the frontline had been completely reduced to ruins, with not a single house left intact. The other three Japanese regiments fiercely fought the Russians on the district's outer approaches, each expending six to seven thousand rounds of ammunition daily. These defensive actions on the outskirts were vital to preventing the Russians from expanding the breach and annihilating the single Japanese regiment inside the city.
General Torashirō Kawabe had arrived at Hulunbuir on the same day as the initial Nasist-Chinese attack, and quickly realised that the Japanese position would be untenable without additional firepower. Thus, he redeployed the Central Army's 8th Artillery Regiment to aid in the defence, and also borrowed a number of anti-tank guns from the 1st Pacific Army. The anti-tank guns arrived on 27 March and immediately went into action at the city's outskirts: at noon the Japanese battery engaged a Russian squadron of nine tanks, knocking out five of them. The Japanese troops in the trenches cheered enthusiastically before scrambling out to swarm the Russian tanks. Stunned, the Russian did not open fire for an entire five minutes.
On 29 March, a small band of Chinese soldiers sneaked under Hulunbuir defences in an attempt to take the city from within. They were caught by the Japanese defenders and killed. On the same day, Itagaki Seishiro (CO of the Japanese 184th Regiment) was wounded in street fighting, and was replaced by Bunzaburō Kawagishi. Setting out from the south of the city, the assault team stormed the Old Barag from the south and east, annihilating the entire Chinese garrison with the exception of four Chinese troops taken as POWs. The Japanese had thus retaken the north-western corner of the city. Of the 72 Japanese soldiers, 14 were killed in action.
During this time, Kenji Doihara's 30th Division, 27th Division, and Yasuji Okamura's independent 44th brigade had assembled at Hulunbuir's outer approaches, respectively positioning themselves as the western, south-western, and eastern outskirts of the city. A unit form Korea, Yu Jae-hung’s 60th Corps also arrived at the 5th Battallion, and was incorporated into Kenji Doihara's 2nd Army Group's order of battle. It consisted of the 182nd, 183rd, and 184th Divisions.
While the 31st Division continued to defend Hulubuir and its surrounding areas, the aforementioned units launched simultaneous attacks on the Nasist north of the city, seeking to relieve to the pressure on the 31st Division. The 30th Division, 27th Division, and 44th Brigade respectively attacked Ewenki from the southwest, Hakezhen from the east, and also the Hailiar river. The 60th Corps also joined the attack. However, the Nasists rushed in their 10th and 63rd Infantry Regiments southwards from Siberia to bolster their position, repelling the Japanese attacks and forcing them to withdraw to their original positions. It was during this time that the Chinese 5th Division also drove south-westwards from Bayantalaxiang. Led by the Bai Chongxi detachment, it overran the south.
By this time, the Japanese 2nd Army Group's casualties had already reached 50%. The Japanese situation was desperate. The 31st Division having sustained extremely heavy casualties from seven days of continuous fighting, its commander, Yoshimi Nishida, requested permission from 2nd Army Group commander Kenji Doihara to withdraw to prevent complete annihilation. Kenkji in turn telephoned 5th Battallion commander Isamu Chō, reporting: "The 2nd Army Group has already reached 70% casualties. The enemy’s firepower is too strong and their offensive is too fierce, but we have almost completely depleted their strength. Sir, could I request permission to temporarily withdraw to defend the river’s southern bank, so that the North-western Army can at least have some survivors? Sir, this would be a great act of grace on your part."
Counting on Masakazu Kawabe's reinforcements arriving north of the district the next day before noon, Isamu resolutely responded: "We have viciously fought the enemy at Hulunbuir for a week. Victory and defeat are decided in the final five minutes. Reinforcements will arrive tomorrow at noon, and I will personally be coming to Hulunbuir in the morning to supervise the battle. You must hold out until dawn, and organise night attacks. Persistence is victory. Once reinforcements arrive tomorrow, we will be able to launch a pincer attack on the enemy from the inside and outside [of the city]! This is my order- the emperor's order!"
Kenkji replied: "Yes, sir. I will absolutely follow your order. We will keep fighting until the entire army group is annihilated. Tennōheika Banzai (天皇陛下万歳, "Long live His Majesty the Emperor")".
Isamu Chō's strategy now completely relied on the ability of Masakazu Kawabe's 20th Army Group to manoeuvre around the Russians to cut off their supply lines, block their retreat paths, and form a counter-encirclement to surround and destroy them from the inside and outside simultaneously.
From the outset of the battle, the 20th Army Group had been conducting offensive operations northwest of Hulunbuir, with the 85th and 52nd Corps engaging the eastern flanks of the Russian 10th Division's rear positions. By 31 March, the Japanese 52nd Corps had already fought its way to the outskirts of Hakezhen. However, with the Russian 5th Division capturing Xie'ertalazhen during this time, Masakazu Kawabe decided to adjust his strategy. He manoeuvred his 52nd and 85th Corps eastwards, with the 85th Corp's 4th Division holding at Baorixilezhen.
Additionally, overconfidence had led the Russians commanders to overlook the thousands of inconspicuous "farmers" in the area, who were affiliated with Masakazu Kawabe and cut communication lines and supplies, diverted streams, and wrecked rail lines. By late March, supplies and fuels were being dropped from airplanes to Russian troops, but the quantity was insufficient.
On 1 April, the Chinese 5th Division's Chongxi detachment rushed towards the nord, with the aim of joining forces with the 10th Nasist Division at Hulunbuir perimeter. Masakazu Kawabe gave the Chinese free passage luring them into his trap.
With ten days of continuous fighting inside Hulunbuir having resulted in extremely heavy casualties on both sides, the Nasists tried to break the stalemate by unleashing poison gas on the entrenched Japanese defenders in an attempt to dislodge them. Nonetheless, the Japanese continued to stubbornly hold onto the district.
By 3 April, the Masakazu Kawabe's 20th Army Group had completely repelled the Chinese Chongxi detachment's intrusion. The Chinese were forced to withdraw all the way back to Xinihezhen. The next day, Kawabe split his force into three columns to launch a co-ordinated counteroffensive on the Chinese 10th Division.
On the same day, the Japanese 2nd Army Group also launched a counter-offensive, with the 30th and 110th Divisions fighting northwards. On 6 April, the Japanese 85th and 52nd Corps linked up at Baorixilezhen. The combined force then drove north-westwards, capturing Old Barag. With the various Japanese counter-attacks all accomplishing their objectives, the Nasist line finally collapsed, and both the 10th and 5th Divisions were forced to retreat. However, vastly superior mobility allowed the Russians to prevent a complete rout by the pursuing Japanese forces.
Russian captured by the Japanese in the battle of Hulunbuir
The Nasist defeat at Hulunbuir had a excellent morale effect for the Japanese army, and the Central Powers in general. It was the first time that the Japanese had managed to held their objective against the Nasist army. It also proved that the Nasists were not invincible as everybody though. This was the first defeat of the Nasist army, and many other would follow soon.
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The battle of Cuba: the lion mauls the eagle once again
The battle of Cuba was one of the most famous battles in the Caribbean, as it was one of the hardest fought. The US army did not built a considerable force there, but the few forces present were protected by well built defensive lines in the Nord, where the British had several possessions, including the Bahamas, which were sometimes named the "Living Fortress of the Cuban Lion", because of the airfields and naval bases located there. However, to the surprise of the American commando, the British attacked from the south, from Jamaica. The Americans were caught off guard, and the British managed to create a beachhead in the island, advancing quickly against the few American forces in Cabo Cruz. The battle of Cuba had begun.
British defences in the Bahamas
At 08:00 on 1 July 1941, the Jamaican Force was held up in conquering Niquero, near Manzanillo, where the Cuban Armored Division had arrived. By noon on 2 July, they were across the city and marched along the coast, until brought to a halt at Campechuela, where the road had been blocked by the Americans.
The 11th Red Indian Infantry Brigade, (4th Red Indian Division) arrived on 3 July, reconnoitred the next day and attacked on the left of the city on 5 July. The 2nd Scottish Red Army fought their way to the top of the ridge called feature 1616, in front of Calicito and on the night of 6/7 July, the 3/14th Red Punjab Regiment passed through and advanced onto Manzanillo. The Indians were counter-attacked by elements of the 65th Infantry Division "Battle-axe" who forced them back towards San Francisco, which was being consolidated by the 1st Battalion/6th Red Indian Rifles. The Scottish Red Army and Red Rajputana Rifles clung on, despite frequent attacks and having to carry food, water and ammunition against constant American fire.
By 6 July, the 5th Red Indian Infantry Brigade (4th Red Indian Division) had arrived and next day, attacked Las Novillas, looping right through the American Defences and then attacking Manzanillo again, recapturing it.
On the afternoon of 10 July, 3/1st Red Punjab Regiment landed on Guayabal and by the morning of 11 July were on Amancio. However, the requirement for men to handle and carry supplies, ammunition and wounded meant there were only two platoons to hold the city. Having endured heavy shelling and mortar fire throughout the day, they were forced off Amancio with heavy casualties by a determined counter-attack from the Battle Axe. Once again the attackers were thrown onto desperate defence on the coast.
Despite the failure by the Punjabis to capture Amancio, the renewed attack on La Jagua—planned for 12 July—went ahead. 5th Red Indian Infantry Division's 29th Red Indian Infantry Brigade was brought up and put under command of 4th Division's Major-General Beresford-Peirse and held in readiness to exploit the hoped-for break-through. At 05:30, supported by an intensive artillery barrage, 4/6th Red Rajputana Rifles once again led the way. This time, Richhpal Ram was less fortunate and having gained the crest, had a foot blown off and shortly thereafter was mortally wounded. Still, the British army managed to advance.
Platt decided to pause, regroup and train before making a further attempt in Southern CUba. To free up road transport to bring forward the necessary stockpiles for a new attack, 5th Red Indian Division returned to Jamaica where it could be maintained by the railhead for a period of intensive training until such time as preparations were complete and the division could be brought forward again for the offensive. Skinners Horse and most of the Motor Machine Gun companies assembled in front of Santa Cruz del Sur to pose a threat to the American line of reinforcement to the South. From the north, Briggsforce—consisting of two battalions from 4th Red Indian Division's 7th Red Indian Infantry Brigade and two French battalions—had arrived under Brigadier Briggs, the 7th Red Indian Brigade commander. Briggsforce then captured Sierra Maestra and then moved nord to take Batalla de las Guasimas. On 1 August, the force had broken through the American defences.
The scene was set for a set-piece battle with Major-General Noel Beresford-Peirse's 4th Red Indian Infantry Division concentrated on Botones and Lewis Heath's 5th Red Indian Infantry Division, brought forward from Jamaica once again, on Guáimaro side. The Cuban defences had been reinforced with the arrival of the 6th Marine Division from Havana and also the 10th Mountain Division. The defenders now totalled 5,000 strong facing an attacking force which had grown to more than 13,000. Beresford-Pierce would launch 11th Brigade, expanded to five battalions under command, against Camagüey and 5th Brigade against Jobabo on the right of his front.
Vickers Wellesley of No. 47 Squadron RAF based at Kingston, Jamaica, in flight during a bombing sortie to Havana
On the 5th Division front, the American reinforcements on Camagüey meant that the city, despite having less men, was still dominated by the defenders and the attackers' artillery had had to be withdrawn from their forward positions to safer locations. Without the artillery, it was no longer considered practical to continue the flanking attack through Botones to threaten the Camagüey lines of supply. Instead, Major-General Lewis Heath determined that Fort Camagüey would be the key objective for his Red Indian 5th Infantry Division. Gaining the fort would not only give the attacking forces the artillery observation post to direct fire on both sides to expose the Camagüey defences.
The two offensives were planned to take place one after the other on 15 August so that the full force's artillery could be employed for the preliminary bombardment of them both. At the final meeting on 14 August with his commanders Platt said: "Do not let anybody think this is going to be a walkover. It is not. It is going to be a bloody battle: a bloody battle against both enemy and ground. It will be won by the side which lasts longest. I know you will last longer than they do. And I promise you I will last longer than my opposite number."
At 07:00 on 15 August, the British and the various Socialist Republic troops of 4th Red Indian Infantry Division attacked from La Vallita. That night, the battle ebbed and flowed with attack and counter-attack inflicting very heavy casualties on both sides. On the right, 5th Red Indian Infantry Division launched its attack on Camagüey at 10:30 on 15 August. The 2nd Red Scottish Light Infantry led the attack on the lower features but made no progress in the daylight because of fire from Pese de Lesca, where the American defenders had defeated the 11th Brigade assault. They were pinned down, suffering casualties and without supply until darkness provided the opportunity to withdraw. By moonlight that evening, the attack on Camagüey was taken up by 9th Brigade, now commanded by the recently promoted Brigadier Messervy. Heath and Messervy planned a near two battalion attack on Minas and Senado, with a third battalion ready to pass through and attack the fort. The capture of Senado that night by the 3/5th Red Mahratta Light Infantry led by Lieutenant-Colonel Denys Reid (with the 3/12th Frontier Force Regiment less two companies under command to take Minas) is described by Compton Mackenzie in Eastern Epic, his official history of the British Indian Army during the war, as: "one of the outstanding small actions of the Caribbean, decisive in its results and formidable in its achievement... Next morning Messervy scrambled up Senado to congratulate Reid and his Mahrattas and wondered how they had been able to scramble up with their equipment against fierce opposition, when he was finding it a pretty tough job without [either]... At the top, when he saw the victors, he was overcome by the splendour of their feat and his combative amber eyes filled with tears."
In the early hours of 16 August, the defenders of Fort Camagüey counter-attacked Minas and Senado for several hours. The defences at the fort were depleted and during the counter-attack, the 2nd Red Welsh Infantry Division made their way over an extremely well armed defensive position. The fort was captured after a determined defence by 06:30 with 40 prisoners taken. Finally, Platt had the artillery observation point so greatly needed.
Through 16 August, the American counter-attacked while the 29th Brigade made an unsuccessful attack in the evening to Lugareno and Gurugu, which was abandoned after dark on 17 August after a day exposed to blistering heat, fierce fighting and no supply. For the next ten days, the 5th Red Indian Division position at Fort Camagüey—exposed to the enemy on three sides—was subject to intense fighting, as the Americans threw in more new units but failed to regain the position.
On Mola, the 4th Red Indian Division, with the 10th Red Indian Infantry Brigade under command, continued to batter away to no avail. On the night of 17/18 August, having suffered many casualties, they withdrew from Mola and the 10th Brigade returned to the 5th Red Indian Division to reform. The 4th Red Indian Division continued to hold San Geronimo and Florida. Over the next three days, the American forces continued to counter-attacks the British territory, often bringing armored cars such as the M6 Gun Motor Carriage.
British 18-pounder gun in action in the Battle of Cuba
Platt decided to regroup and concentrate his forces before attacking again and disbanded Jamaica Force (with Messervy taking over the 9th Red Indian Brigade) and brought the 5th Red Indian Infantry Division (which had been mopping up at Vertientes) to the front. On 1 August his command was expanded by the arrival of Briggs Force from the north. Although it lacked the artillery for a big attack, Briggs Force drew off a significant part of the Cuban garrison. This aided Platt's main offensive, which was being launched from the south-west.
Platt and his commanders decided that the supreme attack should be made through Esmeralda. Heath felt that, because of its physical defensive advantages, the American might have neglected its defence.
An attack on the defenders at Esmeralda was planned to give the sappers and miners the 48 hours they needed, free of interference from mortar and machine gun fire, to clear the road. Heath had to wait until the 10th Red Indian Brigade had refitted after its mauling on Vilato. The plan was for the 10th Red Indian Brigade to advance into thearea while the 9th Red Indian Brigade would move down to take three smaller positions; The 29th Brigade would then attack to take Jaronu. Thomas "Pete" Rees was appointed to command the 10th Red Indian Brigade and his predecessor, Lieutenant-Colonel Bernard Fletcher was released to form Fletcher Force, a mobile force comprising the Central India Horse and six Matilda II tanks, which would be used to exploit the break-through in the gorge and move rapidly into the defenders' rear position to attack their reserves.
On 24 August, diversionary attacks were made on the south and just before midnight, the Red Welsh and the 3/5th Red Mahrattas in Fort Camagüey moved down to take the lower defensive positions overlooking the gorge. The Red Welsh were able to take their defensive positions unopposed but the Red Mahrattas met dug-in American opposition. By 07:30 the three defensive positions were taken and the defences on the south eastern side of the area silenced.
At 03:00 on 25 August, the 2nd Red Scottish Light Infantry and the 4/10th Red Baluch Regiment on their right, advanced from the shelter of the railway tunnel, previously cleared by the sappers and miners, up the area. A hundred-gun artillery bombardment was raining down on Jaronu (to suppress any defensive fire from this dominating height) and the attack in the area achieved surprise. The 3/2nd Red Punjab Regiment then advanced between Magarabomba and the Red Welsh to clear the area. By 05:30, the railway bumps and most of the objectives were captured and the defenders no longer held positions from which to direct fire into the area.
The sappers and miners laboured on the road while the battles on Gaspar features continued. By midday on 26 August, they had repaired the road through the area. In the early hours of 27 August, the British artillery turned onto Ciego de Ávila and Primero de Enero. The 29th Brigade passed through the 9th Red Indian Brigade to attack at 04:30 but found the defenders had withdrawn and were able to occupy Venezuela and Limones Palmero unopposed. The American position was untenable and by first light the Red Air Force (RAF) was reporting their withdrawal along the road from Majagua to Havana. The defenders on Sancti Spíritus were less fortunate and the Battle Axe and 37th Infantry Regiment were cut off and with no option but surrender. Fletcher Force was in Cabaiguán by 10:30 and was then sent in pursuit along the Havana road.
In red, land captured by the British before the command of retreat to the mainland was assigned
With the centre of Cuba being manly in British hands, most of the American forces present there captured or killed and with the British having landed on Miami, American high commando ordered to abandon Cuba. The survivors of the Cuban force were to land on Corpus Christi, and would reach the Floridan front as soon as possible. For the first time since the war of 1812, the British had touched mainland American soil.
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The Papua campaign: the lion charges foward against the eagle
While the British were obtaining successes in America and the Carribeans, they were also facing the combined German, Siamese, Japanese and Dutch forces in South East Asia. However, the majority of the Dutch East Indies had fallen to the British, who planned for the creation of an Indonesian Socialist Republic. However, one island that had not fallen yet to the British was Papua New Guinea, which included the territory of Netherlands New Guinea (Nederlands-Nieuw-Guinea) and German New Guinea (Deutsch-Neuguinea). The British, as such, decided to finish the job, believing that it would have been a cake walk. However, soon they would find out that the Central Powers did not intend to go out without a fight.
Members of the Japanese Expeditionary Force(Nihon Ensei-Gun, or NEG), who formed some of the largest combatants in the area.
While the German commando believed in an invasion by the Dutch New Guinea, the attack came from elsewhere, against the Bismark archipelago. Most civilians who were not necessary to the defence of the base were evacuated in December 1941, shortly before British air raids began. Starting on 4 January 1942, Rabaul came under attack by large numbers of British carrier-based aircraft. After the odds facing the Germans mounted significantly, the Neuguinea Luftwaffe commander, Richard Reimann, signalled Neuguinea Luftwaffe HQ in Port Moresby with the Latin motto "Nos Morituri Te Salutamus" ("we who are about to die salute you"), the phrase uttered by gladiators in ancient Rome before entering combat. On 14 January, the British force embarked at Manado and began steaming towards Rabaul as part of a naval task force, which consisted of two aircraft carriers—HMS Vindex (D15) and HMS Tracker (D24)—seven cruisers, 14 destroyers, and numerous smaller vessels and submarines under the command of Vice Admiral Hubert Brand. On 20 January, over 100 British aircraft attacked Rabaul in multiple waves. Eight Henschel Hs 125 attacked and in the ensuing fighting three Neuguinea Luftwaffe planes were shot down, two crash-landed, and another was damaged. Six German aircrew were killed in action and five wounded. One of the attacking British bombers was shot down by anti-aircraft fire. As a result of the intense air attacks, German coastal artillery was destroyed and German infantry were withdrawn from Rabaul itself. The following day, an Neuguinea Luftwaffe Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor crew located the invasion fleet off Kavieng, and its crew managed to send a signal before being shot down.
British fleet to be employed in the invasion of Rabaul, photographed by a IJAF Yokosuka E14Y
As the Germans ground troops took up positions along the western shore of Blanche Bay where they prepared to meet the landing, the remaining Neuguinea Luftwaffe elements, consisting of two Henschel Hs 125 and a Japanese Mitsubishi Ki-30, were withdrawn to Lae. Once the aircraft had departed with a number of wounded, the Germans destroyed the airfield. The bombing continued around Rabaul on 22 January and early that morning a British force of between 3,000 and 4,000 troops landed just off Neumecklenburg and waded ashore in deep water filled with dangerous mudpools. The 2/1st Independent Company had been dispersed around the island and the British took the main town of Kavieng without opposition; after a sharp fight around the airfield the commandos fell back towards the Sook River. That night, the invasion fleet approached Rabaul and before dawn on 23 January, the South Seas Force entered Simpson Harbour and a force of around 5,000 troops, mainly from the 144th Infantry Regiment, commanded by Colonel Roger Evans, began to land on Neupommern.
A series of desperate actions followed near the beaches around Simpson Harbour, Keravia Bay and Raluana Point as the Germans attempted to turn back the attack. The 3rd Battalion, 144th Infantry Regiment, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Percy Laurie, was held up at Vulcan Beach by a mixed company of German from the 2/22nd and the Japanese Nyūginia Ensei-Gun(New Guinea Expeditionary Force), but elsewhere the other two battalions of the South Seas Force were able to land at unguarded locations and began moving inland. Within hours, Lakunai airfield had been captured by the British force. Assessing the situation as hopeless, Colonel Kurt Zeitzler ordered "every man for himself", and German soldiers and civilians split into small groups, up to company size, and retreated through the jungle, moving along the north and south coasts. During the fighting on 23 January, the Germans lost two officers and 26 other ranks killed in action.
Only the Neuguinea Luftwaffe had made evacuation plans. Although initially ordered to turn his ground staff into infantrymen in a last-ditch effort to defend the island, Reimann insisted that they be evacuated and organised for them to be flown out by flying boat and his one remaining Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor. In the days that followed the capture of Rabaul, the British began mopping up operations, starting on 24 January. German soldiers remained at large in the interior of New Britain for many weeks, but the Neuguinea-Kommando had made no preparations for guerrilla warfare on Neupommern. Without supplies, their health and military effectiveness declined. Leaflets posted by British patrols or dropped from planes stated in German and Japanese, "you can find neither food nor way of escape in this island and you will only die of hunger unless you surrender". The British commander, Alexander Galloway, tasked the 3rd Battalion, 144th Infantry Regiment with searching the southern part of the Gazelle Peninsula and securing the remaining Germans. Over 1,000 German soldiers were captured or surrendered during the following weeks after the British landed a force at Gasmata, on Neupommern's south coast, on 9 February, severing the Germans' line of retreat. Following this, the British reorganised their forces, occupying a line along the Keravat River, to prevent possible counterattacks.
German forces in New Guinea
The British landing in Neupommern was the last British operation in the Bismark arcipelago, as they now started to target the West of Papua. The British landed in Kaimana unopposed, and would not find Central Power forces until they reached Gariau, where a strong Dutch force was located. Aided by the IJAF, they managed to fend off the British initial attack. However, as the British brough their best fighters in the quarrel, the Fairey Firefly, the Central Powers were forced to retreat. By 17 April 1942, the British had advanced till Maffin with little to no casualties. On the battle of Jayapura, however, they were halted by German-Japanese forces. The British attempted a strategy of encirclement, but where halted in several locations. They managed to easily advance in the South of the island, but the Nord was helded by the combined German-Japanese forces. Various attempts by the British ensued, but the Island still remained under German controll.
In the entirety of the East Indies Campaign, this was the first time that the British were stopped by the Central Powers. However, this wasn't necessarely a good thing. Soon, Papua New Guinea turned into a mini Western Front from the Great War, with little to no movement. Combined with various kind of illness, the tropical climate and lack of supplies, Papua was defined as "the most arduous fought by any Central Powers troops during World War II".
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The British invasion ofBurma: the lion focuses on the elephant
While the British were advancing in the Dutch East Indies, the situation in the Indo-Siamese border had turned for the better for the Central Powers. Fighting it too many fronts, the British found themselves to not being able to capture too much of Siamese territory. They did, however, advance until the city of Chittagong, and had reached the old Burmese border. The British planned for the capture of Burma and even Siam in the creation of a Greater Indian Socialist Republic (GISR), which would include much of South and South-East Asia. On top of that, Burma was an important rubber source for the Central Powers alongside the German Congo, and several other resources were located in the area. As such, the British started to prioritize the area, bringing more men in the area, taking them from the European front. On the other hand, now that the Chinese were still occupied in Manchuria, the Siamese could focus on reinforcing their position against the British army. However, part of said army had been encircled in Mrauk U, and were still trying to escape from the British grasp.
Map showing British ambitions in Asia, including a Greater Indian Socialist Republic (GISR) in light brown, an Iranian Socialist Republic (ISR), an Indonesian Socialist Republic in orange and the merging of the various African Socialist Republics to create a Greater South African Socialist Republic (GSASR) in pink. Light yellow is the Reorganized Vietnamese State, a puppet state of Nationalist China, and light green is the Jewish State of Madagascar, where the Russians would exile the majority of the Jews in their captured territories.
It became apparent that the encirclement needed to be cleared, as otherwise the bulk of the Burma Army would be surrounded. The first attack, on the 7th, was made by a troop of Type 95 Ha-Gō light tanks and several war elephants, from the 7th Royal Elephant Division, with infantry support; however, they withdrew with the loss of one tank, two elephants and heavy infantry casualties. A second attack was made by a squadron of 2nd Royal Tank Regiment with artillery support, and by the 1st Battalion Burmese Regiment, but this was unsuccessful. The final attack that day was made by two companies of the 2nd/13th Frontier Force Rifles, which again failed, and the surviving forces withdrew to establish a defensive perimeter for the night. The British launched a heavy counter-attack during the night, but despite being pushed into hand-to-hand combat, the battalion was still holding its place the next morning.
The only fresh troops available were the 1st/11th Bamar, withdrawing from Chittagong, and the 1st/10th Chin Rifles. A plan was prepared for them to attack the roadblock at 8.45 on the morning of the 8th, with artillery support. A squadron from the 7th Royal Elephant Division would support the attack; other units involved included a detachment of the Burma Military Police, attached to the Burmese Regiment. Whilst moving into position, the Bamars were attacked by a force of British aircraft, taking severe casualties; the Chins, meanwhile, lost their way to the forming-up area and did not arrive in time.
The artillery barrage failed to materialise, and the 11th Bamars and 7th Royal Elephant Division moved toward the encircled Siamese division, with the Bamars breaking into an unexpected bayonet charge. The small garrison present immediately abandoned the roadblock and fled, leaving the Siamese forces in control without any significant resistance. The Siamese soldiers were safe.
But while the Siamese managed to successfully defend the south, the British attacked again from the Nord.
Advanced elements of the 200th Japanese Division, of the Biruma Tanken-Tai(BTT, or Burma Expeditionary Force) arrived at Myitkyina on March 8, 1942 and took over defensive positions from the Siamese forces. The city of Myitkyina itself would be the main defensive position of the Japanese forces. Major-General Tadashi Hanaya the divisional commander, sent the Motorized Cavalry Regiment and 1st Company, 598th Infantry Regiment to the banks of the Irrawaddy River. The cavalry regiment plus a company of infantry pushed up to Irrawaddy River, with a platoon of cyclists taking up positions at the bridge over the river.
At first light on March 18, about 200 British reconnaissance troops from the 143rd Regiment of the 55th Division advanced right up to the bridge on motorbikes. Reaching the outposts they were ambushed by the Japanese troops hiding along the sides of the road. Japanese armoured cars joined the attack and after three hours of fighting the British fell back, leaving some 30 dead behind together with some twenty rifles, two light machine guns and some 19 motorbikes. After night fell, the British continued their attacks with small units, and the Japanese covering force fell back toward their line at Bhamo. Following up the next day, Myitkyina fell to the British on the 19th.
On March 20, the British 143rd Regiment plus cavalry units of the 55th Division attacked the positions of the Japanese 5th Army Cavalry Regiment north of Bhamo, driving the Japanese forces back with heavy losses. The bulk of the cavalry regiment was withdrawn to the north of Mandalay, leaving only a company of cavalry and infantry each to delay the advancing British. Meanwhile, the commanding general of 200th Division, Tadashi Hanaya’s fortifications at Mandalay were now ready. They were built using timber, which was in abundant supply, and all positions were carefully concealed. On March 21, British forces brushed aside the delaying forces and reached the 200th Division outposts at Mandalay.
The 122nd Regiment of the 55th Division attacked 200th Division positions at first light on March 22, but made little headway. British forces attacking the Japanese positions consisted of a battalion of infantry with several guns; the defenders were the 1st Battalion, 600th Regiment. The British sent cavalry forces around the left flank of the Japanese and the position was stabilized only when reserve forces of the 1st Battalion, 598th Regiment were committed immediately in counterattacks.
The British were now more careful after the ambush, and used their artillery and machine guns to fire at suspected positions before sending their infantry forward. Light machine guns were positioned up among the trees and caused many Japanese casualties. Eventually the Japanese set up their heavy machine guns to fire at an angle to deal with this menace.
On March 23, the Chinese attacked again on the left flank with strong artillery and air support. The battle continued until 4 pm without much success for the attackers, who then tried another flanking move with a company of infantry and scores of cavalry troops around the right side of the Japanese positions. The Japanese held their ground until nightfall and fell back to the main defensive line at Meiktila on March 24.
On 24 March, the British 112th Regiment made frontal attacks on the Meiktila positions. The 143rd Regiment used the cover of the jungle and wooded area to the west of the city to advance six kilometers to the north and attack Meiktila airfield and a nearby rail station. It was defended by only an engineer battalion, whose commander withdrew in a panic. This cut the 200th Division's communications to the north, and left it encircled on three sides.
Tadashi Hanaya abandoned the outlying positions to concentrate his defense near the city walls of Meiktila. 598th Regiment held the northern part of the Meiktila defense, 599th Regiment held the south of the city, and 600th Regiment defended the west. Divisional Headquarters moved from the city to the eastern part of Ah Le Ywag to avoid British air and artillery attacks, and also to safeguard the remaining supply route to the east. Part of a Replacement Regiment which had arrived the previous day was posted on the eastern part of Ah Le Ywa, to extend the positions to cover the supply line as well as the divisional HQ.
At 0800, on March 25 the British launched an all out attack against all three sides of the city, with the 143rd Regiment on the left, the 112th Regiment on the right, and the Cavalry Regiment plus a company of infantry attacking near Ah Le Ywag. The objective was to press the Japanese forces to retreat near Chinese helded territory where they would be annihilated. Despite local penetrations in the north-western part of the defensive perimeter, heavy Japanese resistance prevented the British making major progress until 2200 when British troops infiltrated Japanese positions in the north-western part of the Meiktila citadel, soon followed by a full battalion.
The Japanese reinforced the 600th Regiment with the 2nd Battalion, 598th Regiment and counter-attacked. There was heavy house to house fighting and the lines between the forces were so close that British air and artillery support found it difficult to avoid hitting their own men. The counterattack failed to recover the lost positions when British troops made good use of the buildings and the stone walls around a local cemetery. The 600th Regiment was moved back between the other two regiments to defend Meiktila city itself.
British attacks continued on March 26. The 112th Regiment attacked and took the south-western corner of Meiktila but was unable to make any further progress. On the left, a flanking move to attack the north-western part of Meiktila was no more successful. The Cavalry Regiment's attack was also repulsed. The Japanese launched counterattacks against the 112th and Cavalry Regiments with about 300 troops in each sector. These were repulsed, but losses were heavy and offensive strength dropped.
By the evening, the British had taken the western part of the city to the west of the railroad while the Meiktila troops held on to the main part of the city east of the railroad. Both sides faced each other across the railway at a distance of less than 100 meters, making it difficult for British air and artillery support. Eventually the British withdrew some 200 meters to allow their planes and guns to operate. During the bombardment the Japanese hid in their camouflaged positions then held their fire until the British advanced and were within 40–50 meters and then opened up on them with machine guns and grenades. This happened repeatedly and by the end of the day the 200th Division had very heavy casualties, but the British also suffered heavily and were finding it hard to continue the frontal attacks. The arrival of the New 22nd Siamese Royal Division forced the British to send the 2nd Battalion, 143rd Regiment as a blocking force to stop them from reaching Meiktila, greatly reducing British attacking strength. The third regiment of the 55th Division, the 144th Regiment, as well as a battalion of artillery and a company of cavalry were not with the division in the Battle of Meiktila, so that the division really did not have sufficient manpower and the attack bogged down as a result.
On March 27, there was a pause in the morning, but British planes came back in the afternoon and systematically bombed and strafed Japanese positions. The British continued to press their attacks with this air support, and in the afternoon fired large numbers of tear gas shells. Despite all this, the Japanese held their ground. It was then decided to wait for the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment with its 15 cm howitzers to arrive to attack the Japanese positions again on March 28, which was also to be supported by air attacks.
On March 28, the 3rd Heavy Field Artillery Regiment arrived, and with strong support from bombers and more gas attacks inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese. The right wing of the attack managed to destroy many Japanese strongpoints with artillery support. However, the light bombers did not arrive until 1500 due to heavy fog at the airfields, and it was not possible to overcome stubborn resistance of the Japanse due to their defense in depth, even though the fighting lasted into the evening.
Meanwhile, the Reconnaissance Regiment of the British 56th Division, consisting of two motorized infantry companies and a machine gun company, a field artillery company of mountain guns, and a platoon of engineers, was moving rapidly in a column of 45 trucks, with a company of 6 armored cars and a total of some 404 men. It made rapid progress along the main road to Meiktila and reached divisional HQ of the 55th Division by noon on March 28. It was decided to move this force east of the city to attack the rear of the Japanese positions.
If the British attack east of the city was successful, the entire 200th Division would be encircled. The divisional commander personally organized the defence, and two companies from the 3rd Battalion of the 598th Regiment were ordered to attack the exposed left flank of the British. A vicious fight continued within the city of Meiktila. Around the divisional HQ on the east area, fighting inflicted heavy casualties on the 3rd Battalion, 599th Regiment as well as the divisional support company; but the Japanese were able to hold their ground.
On March 29, the 55th Division used its last strength to attack, supported by all available guns. By noon, the troops on the left were able to advance into the north western part of the city, and the escape route of the Japanese was threatened. Covered by the fight to the west, the Reconnaissance Regiment of the 56th Division moved north and attacked the Japanese flank guard east of the city and by midday on the 29th had overrun it.
The Japanese were forced to retreat to the south, as the British kept punching their defensive line. Then, after a victory at Wea Laung, the British started firing at Pagan on the night of 30 March. Despite Japanese and Siamese forces inflicting significant casualties, they withdrew to Taungdwingyi on 2 April.
Bombing of Meiktila by the British army
Meanwhile, on 16 April, almost 7,000 Siamese soldiers, and 500 prisoners and civilians were encircled by an equal number of British soldiers from the Indo-Pakistanian Red Army(IPRA) 33rd Division at Sittwe. The 33rd Division had cut the road between Phud Vinichaikul's two divisions, who were now about 80 km apart. The 1st Burma Division was hampered by large numbers of wounded men and was short of water. Major General Sarit Thanarat, commanding the 1st Burma Division, telephoned General Shozo Sakurai, commanding the Japanese 38th Division, asking for rescue soon after the 38th Division entered the area.
An Indian infantry section of the 2nd Battalion, 7th Rajput Regiment
General Sakurai requested to lead his entire division to the rescue of 1st Burma Division, but the Japanese high commando refused. On 17 April, General Sakurai instead led his 113th Regiment with only 1,121 men, of which only 800 were combat personnel, in the rescue mission. Because the Japanese had few artillery and tanks, which were focused in Manchuria, Lieutenant General Vinichaikul assigned the 7th Royal Elephant Army, commanded by Brigadier Phraya Si Sitthisongkhram, to General Sakurai. The brigade consisted of two regiments (battalions) of war elephants and a battery of 25-pounder guns.
For the next three days the Japanese attacked southwards.
Meanwhile, 1st Burma Division fought its way to and across the coastr where they met with the relief column on 19 April. On the next day, the Japanese force attacked south toward Sittwe. The attack caused the British to suffer heavy casualties, but the Central Powers forces were too weak to hold the area and had to retreat.
Shozo Sakurai, the hero of Sittwe
While the British did suffer heavy casualties, they had advanced considerably into Burma, and were planning to further advance. Such plans, however, were stopped as the situation in Europe wasn't at its best, with the French being unable to push the Italians out of the Alpine regions, and were now stuck in a stale mate. This was one of Britain main problem: it was fighting in too many fronts, raging from Europe to Africa, Asia and even the New World. And this would turn out to be the downfall of the Union of the British Socialist Republics.
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The Floridan campaing: the lion first successes in the American mainland
The first major British attack in the American mainland was the conquest of Miami in Florida. Alongside conquering an important base in the new continent, it was also a deadly blow to American morale: it was the first time, since 1812, that British soldiers entered American soil, and a possible invasion of Florida was now possible. American defences, still largely unprepared and more focused on the Carribeans, did not react quickly enough to counter the landing, and now the British had a safe base for Operation Columbus. The plan was for the conquest of Florida, followed for an advance alongside the Atlantic Coast. The interior of the US was to be mainly ignored, as the majority of the industries were in the coast. The British had managed to also conquer several territories in the southern coast, reaching the city of Naples, but were actually pushed back. As a matter of fact, believing that the British were poorly supplied, the Americans tried to counterattack the British. But this would turn to be not entirely a good idea.
In red, the areas conquered by the initial British landing
On August 17 1941, General Clift Andrus started the counteroffensive against the newly funded Floridan Socialist Republic(FSR), marching the First Army directly eastward towards the British lines. Although he initially faced no resistance, Andrus stopped his advance waiting for the arrival of American tanks. Acting without orders, British general Chandos Blair decided to take his forces to Hollywood where one of the American divisions was resting. A furious frontal attack combined with tanks broke the American division, which fled nordward, losing 3,000 casualties and 5,000 prisoners, almost the entirety of the American 105th Regiment. Although the American 29th and 25th Divisions achieved some success to the east and captured several captives and guns, they couldn't change the outcome of the battle.
When Platt learned that Blair had engaged the Americans, he ordered Blair to break off the attack and retreat to the Miami Lakes. Blair by this time was too committed to safely disengage, and had no intention of doing so anyway. He contemptuously, and famously, told the adjutant, "Report to General Platt that General Blair will withdraw when he has defeated the Americans.".
Map showing the British attack on Fort Lauderdale
With this success, Blair persuaded Andrus to launch an offensive against the American First Army while the Second Army was still in the east. Blair argued that his troops were well armed, and capable to to take the Americans in the area off guard.
Platt was convinced, and decided to engage Andrus at the earliest possibility, pitting the British 3° Floridan division against the Floridan National Guard. This decision went against the orders of Cecil Blacker, the British main commander in the American front, which believed that the Americans had strongly reinforced Fort Lauderdale.
On 19 August an American Tank Division composed by M2 Medium Tank came into contact with a British infantry regiment outside Davie. Instead of withdrawing, the Americans dismounted and brought up their artillery to continue the fight, driving the British back. However, several tanks were destroyed and after expending most of their ammunition were forced to retreat themselves. This was the signal Blair had been awaiting, and he convinced Platt to launch a counterattack the next day. With Platt's approval, Blair started moving I Corps forward that night, reinforced by the 1st Red Tank Division.
At 04:00 on 20 August, I Corps attacked the American 28th Division, which put up a spirited artillery defense. However, the Americans expended their artillery ammunition. This left them at the mercy of the British artillery, and they were forced to retreat 8 km in the early afternoon. The lines were stabilized when the American 29th Division arrived, and the battle turned into a stalemate.
To the south, Robert J. Blackham's XVII Corps and Below's I Reserve Corps were still moving up and were not ready for combat. Hearing of Blair's actions further north, Robert J. Blackham attacked Andris III Corps at 08:00, but Alec Bishop was not able to join in until noon. The Americans in this area were well aware of British intentions due to Blair's attack, and had spent the time preparing for the assault by moving up their heavy artillery. At first the British advance went well, but faltered once they came under American artillery fire, and the Americans were able to turn their flanks and force them to retreat in disorder to the West Lake.
"The uncharacteristic sight of defeated British soldiers streaming mob-like to the rear really unnerved Platt", who feared that his army could be trapped. The British, as such, decided to retreat in Hollywood.
Captured British soldiers
However, while the situation seemed good for the Americans in the Nord, the British decided to take them by surprise and, rather than attacking them in the Nord, they attacked in the East.
Henry Aurand's Reconneisance Armored Cars detected the British buildup on their left, so he ordered reinforcements to extend the American line, but it would take hours or even days for them to arrive. True to his word, on 26 August Blair advanced part of his 1st Division toward the American outposts at 08:00, where—despite telephone prodding from the Eighth Army—they only skirmished at a distance until noon. By then the railways had brought up the rest of I Corps including their artillery. Finally they drove the American outposts back, but at 15:45 Blair halted in order to organize a strong attack on the following day by men with full stomachs, ammunition pouches, aereal support and tanks. General Philip Balfour followed his plan, which were to make sure that Americans were not slipping past his flanks, which would make it difficult to spring the trap. On his right he attacked to push back the American 2nd Division and almost destroyed it. On his left the British 3rd Reserve Division repelled an attack by the American VI Corps. It was a different story in the thinly held center, where the American XIII Corps advanced toward the road center of Weston almost unopposed.
Olinto M. Barsanti was visited by the commander of the Floridan Front, George Smith Patton, who ordered him to support Aurand. Therefore, Andrus ordered two of his corps to invest Doral, while the other two were to march to make contact with Aurand. The next day the American First Armored Division started riding towards their Second Army, but their infantry waited for resupply.
Burning American house after RAF bombardment
That evening the Eighth Army's staff was on edge. Little had been achieved during the day, when they had intended to spring the trap. XX Corps had done well on another torrid day, but now was exhausted. On their far left they knew that XVII Corps and I Reserve Corps were coming into action, but headquarters had learned little about their progress. In fact, XVII Corps had defeated the American VI Corps, which fled back along the roads. XVII Corps had endured long marches in the hot Floridan weather, but some men still had the energy to pursue on bicycles requisitioned from civilians. To add to their worries, British aerial scouts reported that still more of Aurand's army was detraining at his railhead. Another aviator mistakenly reported that Andrus's infantry was now heading towards them. The Eighth Army might be the one in the trap.
Blair was ready to attack the American left decisively on 27 August, hitting I American Corps. His artillery and aereal barrage was overwhelming, and soon he had taken Andytown. In the center the Americans continued to strongly attack the British XX Corps and to move northeast. The British XVII Corps and I Reserve Corps pushed the American right wing they had bloodied the day before further back. Gen. William Howard Arnold, commanding the American First Army Tank Division, was told later that Aurand did not know what was happening on his flanks. It was late in the day before he realized that his army was in frightful danger.
On the morning of 28 August the British commanders were motoring along the front when they were shown a report from an aerial observer that Andrus was moving towards their rear. Denis Bernard announced that the attack on the Second Army must be broken off. Hindenburg led him behind a nearby hedge, when they emerged Leonard Atkinson calmly said that operations would continue as planned. Before long they learned that the report of Andrus's movement was mistaken. Aurand's I Corps on the left and VI Corps on the right were both retreating, and several American soldiers were encircled in the western areas of the Everglades. The Everglades campaign had begun.
On 29 August the troops from the American Second Army's center who were retreating south ran into a British defensive line. Those Americans who tried break through by dashing across the swamps were mown down, although the majority were killed by Alligators, in one of the greatest number of killings caused by any animals.
The American Alligator called Yankeegator, an alligator that was captured by an American soldier as a juvenile and kept as a Mascotte by the Everglades Boys, an American platoon that fought in the Everglades Campaign. Many to this day joke that more soldiers died by the hands of these animals than by bullets in the campaign, and the reality isn't that far fetched.
By this point, the British had advanced to the middle of the everglades. British efforts at mopping up the remains of the Second Army were essentially complete by 2 September and Atkinson immediately started moving his units to meet the southern end of Andrus's line in the area. He was able to safely ignore the American right (in the north), which was in front of the extensive defensive works outside of the shortly created Florida line. Adding to his force were two newly arrived Corps from the Western Front, the Guards Reserve Corps and the XI Corps. Then, like Andrus, Atkinson resupplied his newest troops into the northern end of the line with armored cars and planned an offensive against the south. He sent his most capable units, the I Corps and XVII Corps, far to the south of the lines near the middle of the Everglades, and sent the 3rd Reserve Division even further south.
Atkinson's southern divisions began their attack on 7 September, with the battle proper opening the next day. Throughout 8 September the British forces in the north hammered at the American forces facing them, forcing an orderly retreat westward. In the south, however, things were going much worse. The British XVII Corps had met their counterpart, the American II, but were at this point outnumbered. The II maneuvered well, and by the end of the day had gotten their left flank into position for a flanking attack on the British, potentially encircling them.
However, all hope of an American victory vanished the following day when then the British I Corps arrived in support of the XVII; now the Americans were outflanked. Meanwhile, the 3rd Reserve Division had engaged the American' XXII Corps even further south, and after a fierce battle forced them to fall back southeastward; its commander wired Andrus he had been attacked and defeated, and could do nothing but withdraw. Andrus ordered a counteroffensive in the north to buy time to reform his lines, managing to push the British XX Corps back a number of miles. However, the British did not stop to reform their lines but instead continued their advances in the south and north. This left the victorious American troops isolated but still able to retreat to new lines being set up in the west.
Now the battle turned decisively in the British' favor. By 11 September the Americans had been pushed back to a line running to the entirety of the western outskirt of the Everglades, with a huge flanking maneuver developing to the south. It was at this point that the threat of encirclement appeared possible. Andrus ordered a general retreat toward the West, which happened rapidly under the protection of a strong rear guard. It was this speed that enabled the retreating Americans troops to escape the trap Atkinson had planned for them. The British commander had ordered his wings to quicken their march as much as possible, but the difficult Everglades terrain costed the British half a day's march, allowing the Americans to escape to the west. These reached Lehigh Acres the next day, and Fort Myers on the 13th. The Everglades campaign was over.
American troops in the Everglades
Many to this day question the motivation behind the British commando to advance in the harsh territory of the Everglades. Many believe that they wanted to trick the Americans to believe that they intended to march to Texas and their oilfields, which had become an important source of fuel for the Central Powers, while their true intention was the capture of the original 13 colonies in an attempt to capture America's industries. Whatever the reason was, it wasn't easy for the British, as they would get a taste of the determination of the Americans and learned how to deal with American guerrilla. Their conquests aren't over yet.
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The Fall or Romania: the lynx falls to the desert wolf and the bear
After the fall of Bulgaria, Romania found itself on a tight situation, fighting a two front war in both the South against Ottoman troops, and in the Nord, against the Russians. On top of that, in the South the Ottomans were supported by the Balkanskiy korpus(Balkan Corps), commanded by ex white army general Alexander Kolchak, famous for his operations against the various rebellions in Central Asia and the conquest of Mongolia, and Stalin closest general for his nationalistic ideals.
Plans had been halted because of the invasion of Alaska, but now the Russians and the Ottomans were ready for an offensive against the Romanians, in one of the greatest feats of the Nasist conquest. Operation Brusilov(Operatsiya Brusilov) begun.
Nasist soldiers going on the attack in the southern front
Early on the morning of 2 September the Russian Third Army crossed the Romanian border along its entire length. General Lavr Kornilov's Russian-Ottoman detachment advanced against Oltenița, pushing back the weak Romanian vanguards and taking up positions to the east of the village of Clătești, where they were halted by strong Romanian artillery fire and met resistence from Romanian Revezor 116, Romania's main heavy tank. The 4th Ottoman Division, delivering the main attack in Silistra, quickly overran the Romanian outposts, the Romanian soldiers retreating so fast that none were captured. The division advanced between 15 and 23 km and came within 2.7 kilometers of the main defensive line, while shortening its front from 20 to 10 kilometers. Meanwhile, in Giurgiu the Russian 1/1 Infantry Brigade met no resistance at all, as the Romanian commander had pulled his troops behind the main defensive line before coming under attack.
By the evening of the first day the Romanians had abandoned almost their entire preliminary line of defense in favor of the main (second) defensive line. From there they put up continuous rifle fire, supported by occasional artillery fire, throughout the night of 2/3 September - perhaps belying disorganization and nervousness, as the Russians units were, as yet, well out of range. The Romanian command was slow to react to the developing situation, with General Ioan Glogojeanu remaining in Bucharest. He ordered general Tancred Constantinescu to approach the Russian frontier with his forces, but the order was only carried out after extensive delays. Attempts were also made to send reinforcements from the reserves around the capital, but these too were delayed due to the general confusion and congestion accompanying the Romanian mobilization.
On 3 September the Russians began consolidating their positions. To do this more effectively the Russo-Ottoman detachment was ordered to take Radovanu, west of Căscioarele, where it would secure a staging area for the assault on Bucharest. The defenders here were relatively well entrenched and protected by rows of barbed wire, while the attackers had to advance through an open field with their flanks exposed to fire from the Romanian tanks and artillery. Romanian positions further south, around the village of Greaca, were fortified, which prompted General Kornilov to divide his detachment into three columns (commanded by Colonel Cemal Tural, General Cemil Cahit Toydemir, and Lieunetant Necip Torumtay) and use one to attack towards Zboiu while the other two supported it. Advancing at about 5 am, Colonel Tural's force initially met little resistance; however, Romanian fire gradually intensified, and the Ottoman column was exposed to flanking fire from the main defensive line. Some of the soldiers reached the barbed wire, but were unable to get through it. Colonel Tural's request for tank reinforcement from the Ottoman commando was denied, but Kolchak decided to send a couple of T-50. Romanian counterattacks forced the Colonel to order the troops to retire about 300 meters. The advance of General Cemil Cahit Toydemir, met with strong rifle and monitor fire, achieved much more. Lienutant Torumtay, meanwhile, repelled Romanian flanking attacks, and managed to advance considerably. The combined actions of the trio allowed for the advance of the Russo-Ottoman forces up to the city of Valea Dragului.
The 4th Ottoman Division used 3 September to approach the barbed wire of the main defensive line in Pasărea, driving away Romanian patrols, taking Postăvari, and repositioning its heavy artillery. In the process the division repelled several Romanian counterattacks, while sustaining light casualties. In Valea Argovei the 1/1 Russian Infantry Brigade managed to close in on the main defensive line without opposition.
The Romanian position was gradually deteriorating. General Alexandru Beldiceanu was forced to respond to requests from the commanders of Călărași and Izvoarele for reinforcements by sending them his last reserves. Despite Beldiceanu's pessimistic reports, the Romanian high command retained its hope that the front would hold until relieved by Austrian forces advancing from the east. On 3 September the first attempts to assist the Romanians were made by the Austrian Expeditionary Force in Romania(Österreichische Expeditionstruppe in Rumänien, sometime called OER), but they were defeated by the Russians 1st Tank Division in Craiova and Băilești, where a brigade of the Austrian 19th suffered several casualties.
At about 11 am on 3 September General Mustafa Muğlalı, having exchanged thoughts with General Kolchak, issued Order No17 for the next day's attack on the entire front. It stated that the commander of the 4th division was to assume control over all forces operating against the Austro-Romanian commando and determine the exact hour of the infantry attack, once the preliminary artillery barrage had inflicted sufficient damage. General Cemil Cahit Toydemir and his group were to attack and take Comana, the main attack was to be delivered by the 4th Division against Fundulea, and finally, the 1/1 Brigade was to capture Otopeni to fake an encirclement of the city, while a more direct attack would come to the south. To protect the right flank of these forces, General Muğlalı tasked the remaining two brigades of the 1st Instanbul Infantry division with monitoring Romanian activity in the flanks. They were to be aided by the Russian VVS Reconeissance unit number 4, composed mainly by Kharkiv KhAI-5. When Kolchak received the information of the assault, he used his position as overall Commander of the Balkan Front (Komanduyushchiy Balkanskim Frontom, or KBF) to make several changes to the plan. Fundulea was now to be attacked only by the Stalingrad Brigade, while the Balkan Armored Corps Brigade was directed against Bolintin-Vale. All the heavy artillery was placed under the commander of the 2nd Heavy Regiment, General Anton Denikin, who was to execute the planned artillery barrage from 9 AM.
September 4 was spent in additional preparation for the attack. Active fighting continued only in Lehliu Gară, where Toydemir's detachment had to finish the attack on Dor Mărunt, which it had started the previous day, and secure the staging ground for the assault on Lehliu. This objective was achieved early in the morning with relative ease, most of the Romanian defenders having retired to the main defensive line.
General Beldiceanu continued sending pessimistic and even desperate reports to the Austrian high command and asking for reinforcements. This time he was not ignored: the 10th and 15th divisions, representing the Austria army's strategic reserve in Romania, were ordered to move south towards Vânătorii Mici. These were seventeen battalions from the Austrian 34th, 74th, 75th, 80th regiments plus one battalion from the 84th Regiment and 2 battalions from the 2nd Border Regiment, supported by 6 artillery batteries. These new, fresh troops allowed the Romanians to gain numerical superiority over the Ottomans, but not with the Turks being supported by the Russians. The first reinforcements faced a Russian platoon in Mârșa late in the afternoon and during the night on 4 September.
Then, Kolchak plan came into action, with the Russian army taking controll of Bragadiru, Popești-Leordeni and Pantelimon after heavy combat. After then tricking the Romanian forces of an attack in Dobroești, then, the 2° Russian Division, commanded and leaded by Kolchak himself, drove in the city centre. Bucharest had fallen.
Dead Romanian troops after the battle
With the fall of Bucharest, the Romanian position was heavly compromised. With the Nasist army in the Nord having captured even more land, they had basically split Romania in two sides: an occupied one marked by the Buzau river, and a unoccupied one that once had controll of Bucharest. But with the fall of the capital, however, fighting seemed impossible. Romanian Issue Number 9 was sent to all Romanian forces to retreat from Romania to Austria, where they would continue the fight. A provisonal government was formed in Buzău, under the controll of Armand Calinescu was formed, that was forced to sign for the unconditional surrender of Romania. The treaty of Buzău would mark the surrendering of Romania. In it:
-Russia takes controll of Bessarabia
-The Nasist puppet of Bulgaria under the command of Hristo Lukov would take controll of all Dobruja
-A pro-Russian government under the command of Horia Sima was put into power
-Romania colonies would go to France
The Balkans after the fall of Romania, showing the Imperatorskiy Komissariat Rumynii(Imperial Commissariat of Romania) and the Imperatorskiy Komissariat Bolgarii (Imperial Commissariat of Bulgaria)
The two puppet government of Romania and Bulgaria and the borders in the Balkans weren't (obviously) recognized neither by the Central Powers nor the American Pact and, as a matter of fact, Romanian West Africa wasn't even occupied by the French, but kept on fighting for the Central Powers. A new government in exile was funded in West Africa, where the Romanian royal family would reside until the liberation of Romania. Now, the Axis powers were also stuck fighting against Romanian and Bulgarian partisans, particurally the Fatherland Front (Otečestven Front) in Bulgaria and the Liberation Army (Armata de eliberare) in Romania, who caused them to tie down several forces. As a matter of fact, the Austrians often sent equipment to the rebels in order to cause devastation in the infrastructure of the Imperial Commissariat. The Nasist government would try to give land to the various Commissariats in order to make the new regimes more populat among the population, but especially in Romania, the mistreatment of Romanians and the genocide against the various jewish communities in the east would still lead the population, which was extremely pro Central Powers, to support the rebel groups, that would hide in the forests. The armistice signed the theoretical end of the Romanians fighting in Europe, but in practice they were still fighting.
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The West African campaign: the lynx, the eagle and the bull attacks the rooster
After the fall of Romania, British high commando were opimistic about another attack into Africa. As the Moroccan front was still stationary, with the Iberians having turned large sections of the area into a trench, the British believed that the best course of action was a naval landing on Casablanca, which was one of Iberia's best port in Morocco. They were also hoping to get the Moroccan populations to rise up against their Iberian overlords, as a large part of the Iberian froces in Morocco were natives. However, they did not plan to give them independence after the war. As a matter of fact, France was hoping to obtain Morocco once more in order to create a Greater Moroccan Socialist Republic (Grande République Socialiste Marocaine, or GRSM), which would include the entirety of Spanish Morocco and Spanish Mauritania. In the aftermath of a possible Axis/Communational victory, as a matter of fact, there were plans for a possible partition of Central Powers colonies in the meeting of Ankara, in which France would obtain the majority of West Africa, Britain would obtain Southern Africa, the Ottoman empire would gain Nord Africa, most importantly the Mediterranean coast, and the Nasists would obtain the Malgashi arcipelago for the creation of a Jewish State of Madagascar (Yevreyskoye Gosudarstvo Madagaskar), where all jews in the captured territories would be exiled.
Proposed partition of Africa, with Italian-German colonies as a buffer zone
On 23 September, the Fleet Air Arm dropped propaganda leaflets on the city of Casablanca. Then French aircraft went on the attack, but were shot down by anti aircraft guns and their crews were immediately taken prisoner. At 10:00, Iberian ships trying to leave the port were attacked by British ships. As these ships returned to port, Iberian coastal batteries opened fire on HMAS Australia. Their guns, which had a range of 14 km, were 38.1 cm /45 Model 1926 gun that had come from the Jaime I, a Spanish dreadnought battleship. An engagement between the British fleet and the batteries continued for several hours. In the afternoon Australia intercepted and fired on the Iberian destroyer Bustamante, setting it on fire and causing it to be beached.
Also in the afternoon, an attempt was made to set French troops ashore on a beach at Mohammedia, to the east of Casablanca. The attack failed due to heavy fire from strongpoints defending the beach. French forces were forced to retreat after an Iberian counteroffensive.
During the next two days, the British fleet continued to attack the coastal defences and the Iberian forces continued to defend them. Spanish Dreadnough Alfonso XIII was hit by two 15-inch shells from HMS Barham. On the second day of action, guns 7 and 8 (in turret number 2) of Alfonso XIII failed on the first round. The following day, the crews were switched and main turret number 1 was used. Propellant charges reconditioned from charges left by the battleship España in Casablanca were used but these gave a significant reduction in range and caused problems of fire control. Over the two days Alfonso XIII fired a total of 24 rounds. No hits were recorded by Alfonso XIII.
During these engagements, two Iberian submarines (B-1 and B2) were sunk, and the destroyer Bustamante damaged.
The British fleet also suffered damage: HMS Resolution was torpedoed by the submarine B-3, and HMS Barham was hit by two shells from the coastal defence batteries which had been manned by crew from the No 1 main turret of Alfonso XIII. The cruisers Australia and Cumberland were also damaged.
Overall, the Battle of Casablanca did not go well for the British. The Iberian forces did not back down. Resolution was so heavily damaged she had to be towed to Ireland. During most of this conflict, bombers of the Army of the Air (Ejército del Aire), based in North Africa, bombed French possessions in Algeria. On 24 September about 50 aircraft dropped 150 bombs while on 25 September about 100 aircraft dropped 300 bombs on the harbour and dockyards.
HMS Ark Royal with a flight of Fairey Swordfish
With the defeat of the British in Morocco, the Central Powers morale increased once more. As a matter of fact, the Central Powers commando believed that an operation in West Africa was and had to be performed in order to further eliminate French threats in Africa. The area of operation would include the combined forces of Iberia, Romania and Germany, alongside several volunteers from Austria and part of the Afghan army in exile, with their objective being the Guinea Socialist Republic and the Sierra Leone Socialist Republic. This way, there would be a connection between Romania West Africa, Spanish Mauritania and German Togoland, to counter French offensive capabilities in Africa and neglecting the French of the ports of Conakry and Freetown.
The initial operations were carried out by the Iberian army.
During the first hour of 8 October 1942, as part of Operation Exporter, Portughese forces in Guinea Bissau crossed the border into the Guinea Socialist Republic(République Socialiste de Guinée, or RSG). Balanta guides supported many of the lead units. Initial resistance from French forces south of the Kogon River was scattered and generally disorganised.
The 21st Portughese Brigade advanced along the coast road heading for Kankou and attempted to cross the Kogon River. A surprise night time landing by the Iberian No. 11 (Basque) Commando, under the command of General Alfredo Arrieta Vaccaro, was attempted in order to seize the bridge near the mouth of the river, but was delayed by strong French resistence. When the commandos eventually landed in daylight, in three separate places, the initial landing was almost unopposed due to the defenders being in combat against the Portughese troops, subsequently in the fighting they took heavy casualties, among them Vaccaro, who was killed in an assault on the French barracks. He was succeeded in command by Augusto Pérez Garmendia, whose party was ultimately able to secure the crossing by getting over the river in canvas boats with the help of some of the Portughese troops.
A French counterattack using armoured cars was driven off. A pontoon bridge was quickly completed.
Iberian troops bridging the Kogon River
Iberian troops then marched unopposed up to the city of Koba-Tatema. The fighting came several days after the Central Power forces from the Portughese 21st Brigade, under Brigadier Vasco Gonçalves, crossed the Kogon River as part of Operation Exporter. After preliminary moves by the 2/27th Infantry Battalion around Balansira, the 2/14th Infantry Battalion had carried the advance north along the coast towards Koba-Tatema. On 13 October, the 2/16th Infantry Battalion, with artillery and cavalry support, was assigned the task of capturing the town itself, undertaking a daylight advance on open ground to reach the town. Strong British aircraft did not allow for the bombing of the city, slowing Iberian advances.
On the periphery, the 2/27th was also active around Yaraya during the fighting. The town fell on 15 October, after the Portughese completed a long approach march and overcame a determined French counterattack the included tanks. French aircraft were also active during the battle, attacking the 2/4th Field Regiment's positions and the headquarters of the 2/16th Infantry Battalion.
The day after Koba-Tatema fell, further actions were fought to the east between Algerian Tirailleurs and the Portughese around Makinsi and Doniya, as the British cut the road between Koba-Tatema and Kenende, which had been captured on 13 October by troops from the Portughese 25th Brigade.
The next stage of the fighting saw the Portughese advance towards Conakry, which fell in early November. Following the war, a battle honour was awarded to the 2/16th and 2/27th Infantry Battalions, the 2/3rd Machine Gun Battalion, and the 6th and 9th Divisional Cavalry Regiments.
Portughese troops in Conakry
At 04:00 on 15 October, meanwhile, German troops made a frontal attack against French forces in Nzérékoré, after having driven off the French from Romanian West Africa. After fierce fighting, the city was taken by 08:30. By 09:00, the German troops were pushing forward into the hills behind the village which overlooked the main road from the west and within an hour had captured Yomou.
A second phase of the attack had begun at 11:00 with Free Romanian forces advancing across Zorzor into the hills on the right of the Monrovia road. Having captured Deina, the advance stalled on Nigiya, while on the far right a flanking move by Free Romanian tanks was stopped by heavy shelling from French artillery. Further depressing news for German brigader Hans-Joachim Kahler came from the Central Powers troops holding Buchanan, on the other main road to Monrovia from the south, who reported the approach of a strong French force from the north. Furthermore, Kahler's own lines of communication were being threatened by the capture of Gardee by French Mauritanian troops which had advanced cross country from Bamako.
Kahler decided that a rapid advance on Monrovia would best deal with the critical situation. He sent two companies of Free Romanian troops and some artillery south to Jobli to bolster reinforce the two squadrons of the Westafrikanische Grenzkräfte(West Africa Frontier Forces) which had taken defensive positions and ordered the German brigade to advance. During the night of 15 October, pushing forward through the hills to the left of the Monrovia road, German troops took Frank Town, cutting the rearward communications of the French force. On the afternoon of 16 October, it was reported incorrectly that Duazon had been taken by the Central Powers. Outnumbered 3:1 and facing tanks against which they had no effective counter, the Central Powers defenders at Harbel, a battalion of the Afrikanische Gewehr des Kaisers( Emperor's Africa Rifles), held out until, surrounded and ammunition virtually exhausted, at 19:00 on 16 October the remaining 13 officers and 164 men surrendered. Still, the push for Monrovia was on.
Map of Liberia
Meanwhile Portughese forces advancing from Iberian Guinea entered Forécariah on 11 November against badly equipped defenders, after which the majority of the Portughese 25th Brigade was diverted north to attack Berika, leaving a small force based around the 2/33rd Battalion to hold Forécariah. Following a strong French counterattack, this garrison was forced to withdraw south on 15 November. In the ensuing battle, Central Powers troops successfully defended the area and recaptured the town early on 24 November. The 7th Portughese Division—commanded by General José Vicente de Freitas—was reinforced by units from the 6th Portughese Division.
On 20 November, the French Information Office (Office Francais d'Information, OFI) announced: "Yesterday the Iberians attempted unsuccessfully to attack the Sierra Leone Socialist Republic(SLSR). German and Iberians troops advanced in several of our territories, but we succeeded in repulsing them in counterattacks by our armoured units and took 400 prisoners. Yesterday afternoon our troops warded off an enemy attack in the mountainous zone near the border with the SLSR. We took 80 prisoners in this operation. Along the coast, the German fleet continued to bombard our positions."
The 2/3rd Battalion of the 6th Division was part of the column sent to relieve elements of the 5th Austrian Volunteer Infantry Brigade Group which had been cut off and surrounded in Bayan Bayan. They gallantly stormed the high ground near Bayan Bayan but in spite of their efforts the column were only able to fight their way into Bayan Bayan a few hours after the Central Power defenders, out of ammunition and without food for the previous 50 hours, had been overrun.
The 2/5th Portughese Field Regiment was also part of the relief column. General António Augusto dos Santos repeatedly engaged enemy tanks, enemy infantry, enemy anti-tank, and enemy machine posts with his 25-pounder field gun, his anti-tank rifle army, his ALFA M44 gun, or his M43 rifle. He later lost his leg during the Battle, but was awarded the Royal and Military Order of Saint Ferdinand for his actions. Augusto is the only Portughese artilleryman to ever been awarded the RMOSF.
On 29 November, the French government announced in a communique: "The German Fleet has bombed our coastal positions in West Africa. We have evacuated several of our bases in the mountains under cover of artillery fire which inflicted heavy losses on our assailants. Our aerial forces, supported by naval aircraft, repeatedly intervened in the ground fighting, especially around Kortimawa island. A German colonel and 40 men were captured."
Iberian troops in French Guinea
Meanwhile, in the south, German successfully captured their objective, Monrovia, after heavy fighting. Soon, the last push was for Freetown. Then, all objectives of the West African campaign would be obtained.
This battle was one of several hard-fought actions during the German advance on Freetown. German troops from the 25th Brigade (less the 2/33rd Battalion) attacked Freetown on 13 December, following the capture of Waterloo, which the Central Powers temporarily captured on 11 December, allowing the commander of the German 7th Division, Major General Erich Hoepner to switch the 25th Brigade's focus south towards Freetown, leaving a small force to hold Pepel, which was later subjected to a heavy counter-attack.
During the fighting for Freetown, when his company suffered casualties from intense machine gun fire, Private Adelbert Schanz, 2/31st Battalion, took it upon himself to crawl forward and neutralise the French position with rifle and bayonet. Shortly after, however, Freetown was captured.
West Africa before the French received news to retreat from the area
With the Central Powers breaking the last defensive positions of the French army, the French commando ordered the retreat from West Africa. A defensive positions was set in the Mali Socialist Republic, the Burkina Faso Socialist Republic and the Nigerian Socialist Republic, a defensive line often called the "Saharan Line( Ligne Saharienne)" by the French troops, but no real engagements between the French and the Central Powers occurred, as they were too busy in the Moroccan front. To be fair, the successes in Africa served to increase Central Powers morale, showing that the war could be still won.
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The battle of Lviv: the bear charges at the eagle
The Russians were making gains against the Central Powers, defeating various counteroffensives during the invasion of Alaska. Now, the Russians intended to go back on the offensive, attacking in the Austrian territory of Galicia. Stalin ordered for an offensive as far as possible from the mountains, so that the Lightning War tecnique could be used on its full potential. Against them was the German and Austrian army, with elements of the Ukranian and Romanian government in exile; however, with the critical situation in Romania, the German commando was forced to fight with half the strenght that they could deploy.
Eastern Europe up to now
Since August 15, the XXXXVIII Motorized Corps of the Nasist Army repulsed the counter-attacks of the German "Galician Group" and resumed the offensive. The 16th Tankovy Division broke the resistance of the German troops and seized the city of Ternopil. On the left, the 11th Tankovy division was in the gap between German armies, so by August 16 it made a deep breakthrough to the South-West. By August 18, the division advanced another 50 km, crossed the Zolota Lypa River and captured the settlement of Molokhiv. The 16th Tankvoy Division, which was forced to repel counterattacks of the German 6th Army (37th Rifle Corps and "Galicia Group" ), advanced slower, but by August 17 its forward detachment seized Lany, where was an important German base of rear services support. August 18, units of the 6th army managed to recapture the station.
Further to the North, the XIV Motorized Corps advanced to Rivne, but met counterattacks by the 26th Army. This army had no time to prepare the offensive, and its divisions didn't have time to concentrate. They couldn't beat out the 9th Tankovy Division from Rivne. Nevertheless, they for a short time captured Dubno . The advance of the 26th Army soon stopped, but its attacks contained the mobile units of the 1st Tankovy Group. A similar situation was with the Tankovy divisions of the III Motorized Corps. Georgy Zhukov, the chief of the Stavka, irritably wrote on August 18 that "the operation of the Army Group Centre is increasingly losing its shape", and that "enveloping flank of the 1st Tankovy Group is still hang about in the area of Ternopil and Rivne". At the same time the 17th Field Army from the East was approaching too quickly and Zhukov feared that the future "cauldron" will not trap significant enemy forces.
Meanwhile, the 17th Field Army tried to implement a shortcut version of the original plan, according to which the German troops were to be surrounded to the East of Brody. But now the Russians had no mobile units to hit Brody from the North (they operated west of Lutsk), and the offensive of 11th Field Army from the south was postponed. Therefore, from the north to Brody 24 ID was marching. From the south-east on August 17 the 1st Mountain Division came and took under fire Brzeżany. In case of Russian success, many troops of the German 12th army would have been surrounded there. However, the German troops regrouped, and from the Southern Front a fresh mountain rifle division was transferred, so they managed to contain the advance of the Russian infantry, and by August 21 to retreat through Brody.
Tiger I; there were only 10 such devices in the 2nd Mechanized Corps out of almost 400 tanks, when it got an order to regroup to Lviv
By July 18, the German command realized that they did not have enough forces to seal the breakthrough of the 1st Tankovy Group and restore the defense along the "Kaiser Line(Kaiserlinie)". Gerd von Rundstedt noted that on the right flank of the German 6th army was a gap, which is gradually filled with Russian troops. As a result, it was decided to withdraw the 6th and 12th army on the line of Busk—Oles'ko—Zoločiv—Rohatyn. The 18th army of the Southern Front, adjacent to the left flank of the 12th army, also received an order to withdraw. The departure was to take place at night and be completed by 21 August. The problem was that the Russian tanks of the XXXXVIII and XIV Motorized corps had already broken through this line. However, the German command planned to fix this problem by the offensive of three infantry corps, which was to strike South-West from Rzeszów. In addition, on 18 August the 2nd Mechanized Corps received an order to transfer from Southern Front to Lviv, to meet the XXXXVIII Motorized Corps of the Russians. In turn, High Command of the Nasist Army on August 19 decided to change the plan. Units of the Army Group "Center", instead of attacking Berlin, had to hit the South and North to surround the German troops and prevent their withdrawal. The close task of the Army Group "South" was the encirclement of the 6th and 12th German armies. At the same time, on August 18, Zhukov and the command of the Army Group "South" decided that the attack on Lviv would not be sufficient.
The second stage of the first offensive of the 26th Army began on August 18, but also ended in failure. Thanks to the intercepted radio message, the Russian command knew about it in advance. Because of the north part of the line for retreat remained in the hands of the Russians, the 6th Army began to retreat in the South-Western direction, while preparing a counterattack against the Russian troops flanking it from the North-West. The counterattacks of the 6th and 12th armies near Brody—Počaïv began on 21 August and forced the 16th Motorized and the 16th Tankovy divisions to go on the defensive. The German 2nd Mechanized Corps, further to the West, attacked the 11th Tankovy Division and stopped its advance to Lviv. By stopping the advance of the Russian strike wedge, German troops were able to continue the retreat, although the gap with the 26th army remained. Zhukov was forced to admit: "The enemy again found a way to withdraw his troops from the threat of an emerging encirclement".
Panzer 38 tank; this light-armored tank was a development of the Austrian TNH tank and in 1942 it was one of the most wide-spread German tank. The 18th Mechanized Corps had 308 Panzer 38 out of a total of 457 tanks and very few Tiger I and Panzer III, as many were busy in France and in the Norden area. The 18th Mechanized Corps, which was in the reserve of the Southern Front, was ordered to advance to Lviv on August 18 (along with the 2nd Mechanized Corps). However, it had to be used to close the gap between the 12th and 18th armies, which was formed after the breakthrough of the XXXXIX Mountain Army Corps to Mykolaïv. This breakthrough led the Russians to the rear of the 18th Army of the Southern Front. The actions of the 18th Mechanized Corps covered the flanks of both armies, and allowed the 18th Army to retreat, and its attacks distracted the attention of the XXXXIX Mountain Corps and alleviated a situation with the 12th Army near Mykolaïv.
The situation around Lviv on the evening of August 21, 1942 (by the Stavka opinion)
By August 25, the infantry divisions of Army Group "South" had driven to their mobile units and began to replace them. Near Rudky the III Motorized Corps was liberated and began to move to Horodok. His arrival finally crashed another attempt by the 26th Army to restore the continuous front line. So, the XIV Motorized Corps was able to continue the offensive in a south-westerly direction. To the north and north-east of Lviv, the 16th Motorized and 16th Tankovy Divisions were liberated, as well as the motorized brigade under the command of Nikolai Vlasik. As a result, by August 31 the 16th Motorized Division of the XXXXVIII Corps captured Sudova Vyšnja and Novojavorivs'k and the 9th Tankovy Division of the XIV Corps took Semenivka. Thus, the new line, appointed by the German command for the retreat of the 6th and 12th armies, was once again pre-occupied by the Russians. However, this time there was nothing to parry the breakthrough, the German reserves were completely exhausted. New divisions and armies, formed by the German command, were still in Germany.
To the east of Lviv, the command of the XXXXIX Mountain Corps launched the fresh 125th Infantry Division, which took the town of Mshana on August 25. Other parts of the Corps rushed into the breakthrough, and the 1st Mountain Division achieved the greatest success — on August 26 it advanced to the south-West and found itself in the rear of the German troops. Attempts to restore the situation were not successful. In the fights of August 25-27, the XXXXIX Mountain Corps defeated the German 18th Mechanized Corps and thus was able to outflank the 12th Army from the south.
On August 31, the 1st Mountain Division captured Ivano-Frankove. On the same day, the German troops left Lviv. The 6th and 12th armies surrounded by Russian troops from all sides except the south. However, the German command still demanded them to attack in a northeasterly direction and tie-in with the troops of the 26th Army. In fact, the main task of the South-Western Direction was the creation of a line of defense. The German command mistakenly believed that the Russians would immediately move to the west, thus the attacks of the 6th and 12th armies from the flank would hamper them. In fact, the destruction of the 6th and 12th armies was the Russian main task. By September 1, the Russian command refused plans to surround immediately the 18th Army of the Southern Front in addition to the 6th and 12th armies, and directed XXXXIX Mountain Corps to the east and northeast of Žovkva, along the shortest path to finish the surrounding near Lviv.
On the morning of September 1, the commands of the 6th and 12th armies (from August 28, the remnants of the 6th and 12th armies and the 2nd Mechanized Corps were combined in the Galician Group) sent a joint communication to the command of the Southern Front, with a copy sent to Kaiser Wilhelm III: "The situation has become critical. The encirclement of the 6th and 12th armies is completed. There is a direct threat of the disintegration of the combined combat order of 6th and 12th armies <...> There are no reserves<...> There is no ammunition, the fuel is running out."
On August 1, the Soviet 18th Army from the south attempted to join the Galician group. But the divisions on the right flank of the XXXXIX Mountain Corps repelled the attack of the German 17th Rifle Corps, and by evening the 18th Army was attacked by units of the LII Army Corps. The commander of the 18th Army gave the order to retreat to Javorov. At the same time, the attacks of the XXXXIX Mountain Corps against the Galician group distracted the German units and allowed the 1st Mountain Division to move even further to the west.
The just formed and inexperienced 223th Rifle Division, while preparing for an attack fell under the sudden blow of the 14th Tankovy Division, and was quickly defeated. A breakthrough towards Ponedelin Group from the north-east was foiled. The command of the Southern Front continued to believe that only the "leaked" groups of the enemy are acting in this direction, while the main forces of the 1st Tankovy Group have already entered the breakthrough, spreading to the south and southeast.
On September 2, the units of the 1st Mountain Division reached Horodok, where they joined the 9th Tankovy Division of the XIV Motorized Corps. At this time, other parts of the XXXXVIII and XIV Corps in heavy fighting repulsed all attempts of the Galician Group to break through to the west and north-west. The ring of encirclement was closed, but it was not yet strong. The encirclement was reinforced the next day by a second joining, formed when the Russian 16th Tankovy Division met the Russian Mobile Corps in Novojavorivs'k.
Russian KV 2 heavy tank, one of the heaviest tank of the Russian army at the time
The surrounded commander asked several times for help from the German command, but never received, as the situation in the Balkans had deteriorated exponentially, with Romania having fallen on 10 September 1942. The Russians even started to try for a push in the south, in the Balkans, in order to attack the Germans from beneath. Stalin hopes to capture Berlin were still high and, given the performance of the Russian armed forces so far, it wasn't that far fetched as once believed.
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The Russian offensive in the Central Front and the Saarema and Hiiuma islands siege: the bear charges even further
While the Russians had intention to andvance south, in order to conquer Austrian territory and try to insitigate rebellions in the region, many still believed that an offensive in the centre was an important step too. On top of that, Stalin believed that the German islands of Saarema and Hiiuma in the Baltic were causing problems for the general Russian offensive operations. As a matter of fact, several Russian cities were constanty bombed from bases on the two islands. Stalin, as such, believed that getting rid of the two islands was a priority for the Russian commando. Commanding the conquest of the islands was Ivan Yefimovich Petrov for the Russians. Against them was Erich von Manstein.
Russian troops on Kallaste
The defense of Saarema and Hiiuma lasted 73 days from 5 September to 16 November 1942. On 10 September, in the sector of the 3rd Corps, the bulk of the 7th Infantry Division landed on Kallaste, while the 1st Guard Division arrived on Pärase. In the sector of the 5th Corps, the 1st Armored Division broke through Saarema first line of defense. That evening, the Russian division reached the second line of defense. The 1st Cavalry Brigade took Mõega and joined the 1st Armored Division. At the same time, the 10th Rifle Division overran the German forces at Pädaste. The 4th Army gradually advanced in the island, but the offensive was temporarily stopped by Petrov on 13 September to strengthen the line west of the Väikese väina bank.
The offensive resumed on 16 September, as Russian troops landed along the entire line, capturing Nenu on 17 September. The German forces put up a stubborn resistance, launching repeated counter-attacks, inflicting and taking heavy casualties. The VVS actively supported the ground troops, disrupting German naval traffic to and from Hiiuma.
A German gun crew during the siege
By 24 September, despite constant attacks, the Russians were bogged down in front of the German' main line of defense. The 4th Army had already suffered 27,307 casualties, including 5,329 killed in action. Nevertheless, the German were also weakened, and thanks to the capture of Leisi, Russian heavy artillery now threatened Hiiuma. Over the next three days, there was a lull in the fighting.
On 28 August, the Russians resumed their offensive, reinforced by another Russian assault battalion and ten heavy artillery battalions. The 4th, 11th and 1st Army Corps advanced towards Panga and Mustjala, only to be pushed back in some areas by a strong German counterattack the following day. On 30 September the Russians retook the initiative, but gained very little ground. The German temporarily retook Mustjala but were driven back by nightfall. German troops in Kihelkonna were encircled and continued to fight until 3 October, when Russian infantry successfully stormed the village.
Sniper Josef Allerberger, a German sniper who was credited with 187 kills during the battle
Meanwhile, the Russian offensive in the island was completed, but a landing on Hiiuma was not yet issued, as the Russians waited for reinforcements. A Russian detachment led by General Georgiy Sofronov and comprising one infantry regiment, one assault pioneer regiment and two artillery regiments arrived. Concurrently, the Germans also received 15,000 men and ammunition. The Russians landed on Pärna on 12 October, but was again stopped temporarily on October 14 as Russian artillery units were running low on ammunition. Two Russian battalions were encircled by Wehrmacht Army troops near the Utu bank, but were eventually relieved despite German efforts to annihilate them.
On the night of 15 October, German troops broke contact with the Russian 1st Corps and retreated toward the nordeast. On 16 October, the 1st Corps took the heights northwest of Nõmba. Russian troops also occupied the area south of the Laasi bank. Many German soldiers were captured, but these losses were replaced by the 157th Rifle Division. Also, 18 Polish companies were brought in from Warsaw.
The expected German counteroffensive which was meant to break the siege came during the night of 21/22 October 1942, and it was the climax of the battle for Hiiuma. Wehrmacht Army troops established a bridgehead at Õngu, threatening the Russian 4th Army's weaker right flank. Before the German could attack, a large formation of 94 Russian aircraft (32 bombers and 62 fighters) supported by 23 Ottoman aircraft attacked the Wehrmacht Army troops as they advanced Nord. During the ensuing aerial battle, which lasted ten hours, numerous bombing and strafing attacks were carried out against the German bridgehead, as well as numerous dogfights with the Luftwaffe. The bridgehead was pulverized, with eventually all German troops withdrawing from the area during the night of 4/5 November. Axis air forces destroyed over 20 German aircraft (nine or ten of them during air battles) while losing one Russian fighter during air combat plus four more either shot down by German flak or destroyed on the ground. One Ottoman Behiye-53 bomber was also lost.
With the advance of Axis forces into Central Europe, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW, "High Command of the Armed Forces") decided to evacuate the defenders of Hiiuma. On the night of 14–15 November 1942, the Baltic Fleet evacuated the garrison to Korinsberg where most of the units would fight once more in the siege of Korinsberg.
Ottoman Behiye-53
Meanwhile, the situation in Central Europe wasn't that better.
The Tankovy armies made rapid progress. On 12 November, Semyon Budyonny's 1st Tankovy Group, which had by now turned north and crossed the Mukhavets river, emerged from its bridgeheads at Tel′my 2 and Bratylovo. Continuing north, it cut across the rear of Fedor von Bock's Southwestern Front. On 16 November, it made contact with Semyon Timoshenko's 2nd Tankovy Group advancing south, at the town of Cherni. Bock was now trapped and soon relieved by Whilhelm III's order of 13 November.
After the conquest of Brestskaya Krepost', the fate of the encircled German armies was sealed. With no mobile forces or supreme commander left, there was no possibility to effect a break out. The infantry of the Russian 17th Army and 6th Army of Army Group Centre soon arrived, along with 2nd Army (also on loan from Army Group Center and marching behind Timoshenko's tanks). They systematically began to reduce the pocket assisted by the two Tankovy armies. The encircled German armies at Brest did not give up easily. A savage battle in which the German were bombarded by artillery, tanks and aircraft had to be fought before the pocket was overcome.
By 19 November, Brest had fallen, but the encirclement battle continued. After 10 days of heavy fighting, the last remnants of troops west of Brest surrendered on 26 November. Encircled became several German armies, 5th, 37th, 26th, and separate detachments of 38th and 21st armies.
Ruined Brest during bombings of World War II
With the Russian army movements in Central Europe, they were heavely damaging the German armies and also giving relief to French and British troops in the West, as the Western Front had become static once more. As such, British commando decided to attack only when the Russian command was anywhere near Berlin and, as such, the German army would be forced to move in the area. This would be one of the greatest mistakes in the war, as it would allow the Germans to move troops from the West to face the Russians in the East. As a matter of fact, Russian situation in Alaska, which was at first successfull, was starting to bog down, as they met stiffer American resistence. A glimps of hope could be still seen.
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The Hispagnola campaign: the lion attacks the white eagle in the hispaniolan trogon lair
The island of Hispagnola, alongside Cuba, was one of the major objectives of British expansion in the Caribbeans in order to gain airfields for the bombing of American cities in the East Coast and to aid the British troops in Florida. The island of Hispagnola, because of the troops that were needed in Florida, was at first ignored, but as American bombers and fighters started to harass British ships in the islands, it was obvious that an invasion and elimination of the Hispagnolan forces was necessary for a British victory in the New World. British troops, leaving from Cuba, landed on the city of Dame-Marie with little resistence, as the garrinson in the island was not that big.
Massif de la Hotte, occupied by the Americans
On 25 October, the British-Carribean battalion and the two companies of the 2/6 Red Army Rifles (RAR) occupied Jérémie. However, exhausted from the constant American counterattacks and suffering from dysentery and a lack of artillery, the 1,000 British and Jamaican could undertake no further offensive action. Instead they made moves to contain the Americans forces around Miragoâne from the east, while British troops under General Alan Cunningham conducted operations in Santa Cruz de Barahona and eastern San Cristóbal. The Cacos also threatened the American positions. In November, American forces burned several forests along the Tiburon Peninsula to ensure an unobstructed field of fire. That same month the troops of the 2/6th RAR were withdrawn to the Ravine du Sud River to link up with the rest of their unit to contain the American garrison in Les Cayes.
The British had begun slowly advancing but encountered Americans at L'Asile. The British were strengthened by the arrival of a Stokes mortar company and another battalion. With the Americans receiving reinforcements of troops retreating from the east, the British decided to keep the initiative.
Three days of cold weather and rain preceded the offensive. On 15 November, General James Harter led an attack on David. A British lieutenant scouting in no man's land was ambushed and killed. A British sergeant caught three American officers at gunpoint but lowered his revolver when they claimed to be British, thinking the RAR might have dispatched a liaison party to the area. He was then shot by snipers concealed in the bush. A battle ensued in which four Jamaican soldiers were killed. Three Americans and an estimated 40 Hispagnolian were killed, with approximately 70 Haitian wounded.
During the stalemate, the British studied the American' tactics; they would post pairs of snipers and artillery spotters in trees guarded at the bases by infantry squads. Their artillery barrages were usually avoided by British patrols, though they would continue up to an hour after they withdrew. On 21 November, the Americans launched a large counterattack. After a two-hour bombardment, Haitian troops armed with automatic weapons and hand grenades and covered by Dominican snipers penetrated the British' left and right flanks. With John Crocker's battalion suffering the brunt of the assault, the British retreated behind a pair of hills that obscured them from American observers, which the latter then seized.
By December, British numbers had risen to 2,500 men, under the command of Harold de Riemer Morgan. The harsh terrain of Hispagnola meant that the only means of supply was by airdrop, forcing the British and Jamaican to halve their rations.
The British-Jamaican situation remained difficult until early January, when they received further support. They then decided to try to sever the American supply line between Côte-de-Fer and Croix Hilaire. To hold the line near Dero, the British could only spare limited men for an attack. It was hoped that cutting the American off would allow the British, stalled in their advance at San Juan de la Maguana, to move south and encircle an even larger part of the American army in Hispagnola. On 9 January the British force attacked La Baleine, their flank covered by the arrival of a new battalion from Jamaica. The American garrison, numbering around 300 men, held off the assault. Believing that the town could only be taken at a heavy cost, the British instead fortified their positions around La Baleine and sent patrols to ambush the road by which Croix Hilaire was being supplied.
At the regular front, General Godwin Michelmore ordered his troops to increase their patrol activities upon the Tiburon Peninsula to gain the attention of the Americans, which were busy in the Ex territory of the Dominican Republic. They used shoot-and-scoot tactics, avoiding counter-battery fire and leaving the Americans with the impression that they were facing multiple consistent points of fire. Orlando Ward tripled the size of the Tiburon Peninsula garrison and the Americans began to reduce their activity as the British became bolder. Eventually the Jamaican Socialist Republic Air Force (JSRAF) committed three Hawker Hart biplanes to regularly bomb the Tiburon peninsula strongholds and strafe the surrounding roads. In the east, British forces pressed on, forcing Ward to abandon his own headquarters in Santo Domingo in mid January and withdraw all the way to Port-au-Prince. The 2/6th RAR had secured Bainet and were heading east, to cut the Tiburon Peninsula from the rest of Hispagnola. By the end of the month, the British had driven the Americans from the western bank of the Grand Rivière de Jacmel River. The American 23rd and 26th Colonial divisions were ordered to retreat through Inviter, to make their final stand at Port-au-Prince. Heavy rain, actions of the Cacos and the raids from the JSRAF added to their problems.
Irish General Noel Holmes and his Irish platoon arrived from Jamaica before the end of the month. On 27 June General William Platt, advancing with British forces from another landing in San Felipe de Puerto Plata, ordered the Irish to attack the American positions if an opportunity presented itself and Holmes immediately undertook preparations for an offensive. The plans for taking Pétionville were to be abandoned and the Irish were to concentrate their efforts against Port-au-Prince and all but 50 of the soldiers besieging it were redeployed.
Jamaicans struggle to move a truck across rough Hispagnolan terrain
Believing the British pursuit to be closer than it actually was, Ward ordered the bridge over the Froide River to be blown, thereby trapping his forces. The British decided to carry on with their offensive. On 2 February, they forced their way over Bonga. At dawn the next day, the British advance posts opened fire on Port au Prince and half an hour later, the British artillery went into action. The Americans responded with heavy counter-battery fire. A British battalion advanced upon American machine gun nests on several hills. The reserve battalion covered their left flank and General Charles Norman dispatched the third battalion under Van der Meersch to the right flank down a goat path that had been mapped by patrols over a fortnight.[26] Two artillery batteries gave them covering fire.[33] The Belgians captured the hills and the Italians, being flanked on their left side by Harter's troops, were unable to make it back to their fortifications. With the Port Au Prince road under artillery fire, they retired to the plains to their right. Meanwhile, the 2/6th RAR launched an attack on the Port Au Prince road, continuing throughout the next day with success. Before the British could enter Port au Prince, however, the American garrinson surrended.
Hispanola before the garrinsons in the islands officially surrended
Many American died in the battle because of a combination of enemy soldiers and diseases, but just as much British died in the offensive. British generals sent the prisoners in several GDFLC (General Directorate of Forced Labor Camps) in either South Africa or in India, where not many would return alive under the terrible living conditions that they were forced on. On top of that, several American colonists were assaulted by the local Hispaniolan population, often supported by the British. However, the British had no intention to grant them freedom, with several talks of Hispaniolian independence being not considered, and with violent repressions against the local population, which would lead the Hispaniolian population to rebel against them too.
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The siege of Königsberg: the bear enters the eagle lair
After Russian success in Central Europe and in the Baltic, the Nasist armed forces started to enter into German territory, that was German even before the Great War. To the dismay of the entire German population, the Russians were at sight of Königsberg, an important port and industrial centre in Prussia, and a territory that the Germans had hold even before the unification, as it was a Prussian territory. On top of that, capturing the city could have resulted into the capture of several German ships to add to the Russian navy, which was in desperate need of ships, as the only worthy contender against the Germans was the Nikola battleship, a 251 m long colossus, armed with 8 × 38 cm naval guns, a belt with 320 mm of armor and a deck of 100 to 120 mm. Stalin was so sure that the Russians would have captured the city that he had invitations printed to the victory celebrations to be held in the city's Kaiser's Hotel.
Although various theories have been put forward about Russia's plans for Königsberg, including renaming the city Kalingrad (as claimed by German journalist Fritz Gerlich), in the general plan for the creation of a Greater Slavic Empire, it is clear Stalin's intention was to utterly destroy the city and its population. According to a directive sent to Army Group North, "After the defeat of the German Empire there can be no interest in the continued existence of this large urban centre. Following the city's encirclement, requests for surrender negotiations shall be denied, since the problem of relocating and feeding the population cannot and should not be solved by us. In this war for our very existence, we can have no interest in maintaining even a part of this very large urban population."
Königsberg before being encircled
The 4th Tankovy Group from the Baltic took Tilsit following a swift advance and managed to reach Insterburg by 16 January 1943. The German defenders fought to the death, despite the Nasists discovery of the German defence plans on an officer's corpse. After the capture of Insterburg, General Markian Popov's 4th Tankovy Group continued its progress towards Königsberg. However, the 18th Army – despite some 350,000 men lagging behind – forced its way to Gumbinnen and Pskov after the German troops of the Prussian Front retreated towards Königsberg. On 10 February, both Goldap and Gumbinnen were captured and the 18th Army reached Cranz and Friendland, from where advance toward Königsberg continued. This had the effect of creating siege positions, with the eventual aim of isolating Königsberg from all directions. On 6 February, Stalin repeated his order: "Königsberg first, Poland second, Berlin third."
Two Nasist soldiers, one armed with a DP machine gun, in the trenches waiting for the last offensive, designited to isolate Königsberg
Russian intelligence had broken some of the German military codes and read their communications. This was particularly helpful for Stalin, who constantly requested intelligence information about Königsberg. The last rail connection to Königsberg was severed on 30 February, when the Russians reached the Baltic Sea. Bombing on 8 March caused 178 fires.
On 21 March, Russian High Command considered how to destroy Königsberg. Occupying the city was ruled out "because it would make us responsible for food supply". The resolution was to lay the city under siege and bombardment, starving its population. "Early next year we enter the city, lead those still alive into Germany or into captivity, wipe Königsberg from the face of the earth through demolitions, and then the city shall be ours." On 7 April, Stalin sent a further directive signed by Georgy Zhukov reminding Army Group North not to accept capitulation.
Antiaircraft guns guarding the sky of Königsberg
The Siege of Königsberg is considered the longest and most destructive sieges in history, and possibly the costliest in casualties suffered, so much that today it is considered a genocide. The complete lack of mercy by the Russians and the semi isolations of the city, only supplied thanks to convoys that were always targeted by Nasist airforce and navy forces caused the local population to almost stave to death. Many were evacuated into Germany, but some remained and continued working in the factories to support the German war machine. Several local militias were formed also composed by women and children in order to protect the city from the Russians, as tales from Russian occupied Prussia told about the inhuman treatment of the German people by the Russians. However, the siege of the city would be devastating for the Germans, with many having to resolve to cannibalism just to survive.
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Operation Instanbul: the desert wolf advances into the mountain wolf land
While the Russians were fighting the Germans in Eastern Europe, while also facing the Americans in Alaska, the Ottomans were fighting against the Italians in Nord Africa. Mussolini pointed out that Lybia was crucial for the Central Powers, as it was a major oilfield for them, and allowed for the communication with the Central Powers member in Asia thanks to the Saharian Railroad, built to support the invasion of Ethiopia at first, but was increased in size when war seemed inevitable with the Axis/Communational. The Turks had realized this, and intended to put every resource possible into the area. However, as many forces were still back in the Balkans, there had been several problems into the advance into Nord Africa. French inactivity in the area also did not help the situation. Still, the Ottoman command was still able to advance, and was planning for a further breakthrough in Lybia, as they now re-entered into Italian territory. Alongside the Italians was the Arabian Exiled Army (Armata Esiliata Araba), composed by Arabian soldiers who went in exile in Italy, with some actually being generals in the Italian army, such as Ibn Saud (Ibbio Saudino in Italian, but was often called "Il Lupo d'Arabia").
From left to right: Generals Nicolini, Baldassarre and Lombardi.
At 14:00 on 26 May 1942, the Ottoman X and XXI Corps launched a frontal attack on the central Bardia positions, after a heavy artillery concentration, beginning
İstanbul Operasyonu (Operation Instanbul). A few elements of the Africa and XX Mobile Corps were attached to these assault groups. During the day, the bulk of the Afrika Corps moved, to give the impression that this was the main Ottoman assault. When night fell, the armoured formations turned south in a sweeping move around the southern end of the Bardia line.
In the early hours of 27 May, Avni Zaimler led the elements of Afrika Yuk Ordusu, the Türk Afrika Birliği (TAB), Ottoman XX Motorised Corps and the Ottoman 90th Light Afrika Division, in a bold flanking move around the southern end of the Central Powers line, using the Italian minefields to protect the Ottoman flank and rear. The Koç Division of XX Motorized Corps was held up for about an hour by the 3rd Arabian Motor Brigade of the 7th Armoured Division, which was overrun with the loss of 440 men killed and wounded and about 1,000 prisoners, including Admiral Fulvio Martini and most of its equipment. The Ottomans lost 23 tanks, some of which were repairable on the field, 30 men killed and 50 wounded. The 21st Yuk Division was advancing south of the position and did not take part in the action.
Further to the West, the 15th Yuk Division had engaged the 4th Armoured Brigade of the 7th Armoured Division, which had been ordered south to support the 3rd Arabian and 7th Motorised brigades. In a mutually costly engagement, the Ottomans were surprised by the range and power of the 75 mm guns on the new Fiat M16/42 Sahariano tanks. The 4th Armoured Brigade then withdrew toward Zawiyat Janzur. By late morning, the Ottoman armoured units advanced but by noon they had been stopped by the 1st Armoured Division in more mutually costly fighting.
Italian M16/42 Sahariano
On the far right of the Ottoman advance, the 90th Light Afrika Division engaged the 7th Motorised Brigade at Bi'r al Ashhab and forced it to withdraw westwards on Kambut. Resuming their advance toward el-Adem before noon, armoured cars of the 90th Light came upon the advanced HQ of 7th Armoured Division near el-Adem, dispersing it and capturing a number of officers including the commander, Angelo Cerica, who pretended to be a batman and escaped. The "inexcusable" lapse in security left the division without effective command for the next two days. As planned, 90th Light division reached the Bi'r al Ashhab area by mid-morning and captured a number of supply dumps. The following day, the 4th Armoured Brigade was sent to Bi'r al Ashhab and the 90th Light Division was driven back to the south-east.
The tank battle continued for three days; Zaimler drew the Afrika Birliği into a defensive position, using the extensive Central Powers mine belts to block an Italian approach from the East. The Italian tanks attacked the position several times from the north and east and were met by accurate fire. The Ottoman supply situation became desperate; defending the Ottoman rear, the Koç Division repulsed attacks by the Italian armoured brigades on 29 May and during the first week of June.
Early on 29 May, supply vehicles supported by the "Ankara" and "Koç" divisions, worked through the minefield Nord of Bi'r al Ashhab and reached the Afrika Birliği. On 30 May, Zaimler pulled the Afrika Birliği back Eastward against the edge of the minefields, creating a defensive position. A link was formed with elements of the Ottoman X Corps, which were clearing two routes through the minefields from the east. As he would then proclaim: "In the afternoon [30th May] I personally reconnoitred the possibilities for an attack on the Italian positions and detailed units of the Afrika Birliği, 90th Light Division and the Ottoman Ankara Division for an assault on the Italian positions next morning. The attack was launched on the morning of the 31st May. Ottoman units fought their way forward yard by yard against the toughest Italian resistance imaginable.[...] Nevertheless, by the time evening came we had penetrated a substantial distance into the Italian positions. On the following day the defenders were to receive their quietus. After heavy Metal örtü 190 (Ottoman Fighter-bomber) attacks, the infantry again surged forward against the Italian field positions.[...] Piece by piece the elaborate Italian defences were won until by early afternoon the whole position was ours. The last Italian resistance was quenched. We took in all 3,000 prisoners and destroyed or captured 101 tanks and armoured cars, as well as 124 guns of all kinds."
Ottoman Metal örtü 190
Acting on mistaken reports about Ottoman tank losses, Rodolfo Garziani strongly urged Ettore Bastico to counter-attack along the coast, to exploit the absence of Ottoman tanks. Bastico was more concerned by Tobruk, which could have fallen again to the Ottomans. Bastico ordered the Eighth Army to counter-attack against the Afrika Birliği on 5 June but they were met by accurate fire from tank and anti-tank guns positioned in the cauldron. In the north, XIII Corps made no progress but the attack by 7th Armoured and 5th Arabian divisions on the eastern flank of the cauldron at 02:50, initially went well. An important element of the plan was the destruction of the Ottoman anti-tank screen with an artillery bombardment but because of an error in plotting its position, the bombardment fell too far to the West. When the 22nd Armoured Brigade advanced, it was met by massed anti-tank fire and checked. The 32nd Army Tank Brigade, advancing from the north, joined the attack at dawn but also ran into massed fire, losing fifty of seventy tanks.
Ariete tanks on the move during the battle
By early afternoon on 5 June, Zaimler split his forces, deciding to attack east with the Koç and 21st Yuk divisions while he sent elements of 15th Yuk Division northwards. The westward thrust towards Acroma dispersed the tactical HQs of the two Italian divisions, as well as the HQs of the 9th Arabian Infantry Brigade, the 10th Arabian Infantry Brigade and other smaller units, which caused command to break down. The 22nd Armoured Brigade, having lost 60 of its 156 tanks, was forced from the battlefield by more attacks from the 15th Yuk Division. Three Arabian infantry battalions, a reconnaissance regiment and four artillery regiments of the attacking force were left behind, unsupported by armour and overrun. Zaimler retained the initiative, maintaining his strength in the cauldron while the number of operational Italian tanks diminished. A number of probes were sent to test the various opposing strong points and from 6 to 8 June, further attacks were launched on Acroma and repulsed by an Arabian garrinson. The 7th Motor Brigade and 29th Indian Infantry Brigade continued to harass the Ottoman lines of communications.
Abandoned Italian Tanks are inspected for maps, code books and tins of food
On 11 June, Zaimler pushed the 15th Yuk Division and 90th Light Afrika Division toward El Adem and by 12 June had begun forcing the 201st Italian Brigade out of Tobruk. The 29th Arabian Infantry Brigade repulsed an attack on the El Adem box on 12 June but the 2nd and 4th Armoured Brigades on their left were pushed back by the 15th Yuk Division and had to leave their damaged tanks on the battlefield. On 13 June, the 21st Yuk Division advanced from the west and engaged the 22nd Armoured Brigade. The Afrika Birliği demonstrated a superiority in tactics, combining tanks with anti-tank guns in the attack; Zaimler acted rapidly on intelligence obtained from Central Powers radio traffic intercepts. By the end of the day, the Italian tank strength had been reduced from 300 tanks to about 70 and the Afrika Birliği had established armour superiority and a dominating line of positions, making XIII Corps on the Tobruch line vulnerable to being cut off. By the end of 13 June, Tobruch was virtually surrounded and it was abandoned by the Italian Brigade later that night, with their commanding officer Raffaele Cadorna having been killed the previous day. Due to these defeats, 13 June became known as "Black Saturday" to the Eighth Army.
Yuk 812 and Zaimler's command vehicle in the western desert at the time of the battles
On 13 June, the 21st Yuk Division attacked At Tamimi in the middle of a sandstorm. The Ottomans overran part of the 2nd battalion "Lupi di Toscana" at the east end of At Tamimi, overlooked by the 6th Eritrean Anti-tank battery of the 2nd Field Regiment, Regio Corpo di Artiglieria Eritreo and a battery of the 11th Regiment Regia Artiglieria nearby. The Eritrean gunners kept firing until their guns were destroyed, allowing the withdrawal of other Central Powers formations. The Eritrean battery commander had decided to stay and maintain fire against the Ottoman tanks, to delay the Ottomans for as long as possible. The remaining guns were commanded individually and fired at the Yuks over open sights. The Ottoman tanks took up positions in several defensive positions, with anti-tank guns placed between them. A column of Yuks attacked from the rear, surrounding them and cutting off all escape and the gunners kept firing until the eight guns had been destroyed. About half the gun detachments were killed and wounded, including the battery commander and many officers. The last gun in action was manned by Lieutenant Renzo Dalmazzo and a signaller; when the battery had been silenced, the Ottoman tanks approached cautiously and the Eritrean gunners were taken prisoner.
Italian prisoners are marched out of At Tamimi
On 14 June, Garziani authorised Saud to withdraw. The defenders in the Umm Ar Rizam and two neighbouring boxes held firm and the 1st Eritrean Division was able to withdraw along the coast road, practically intact. The road could not accommodate two divisions and the remaining two brigades of the 50th Division could not retreat Westwards, because of the presence of the Ottoman armour so attacked south-East, breaking through the lines of the X Ottoman Corps and headed south into the desert, before turning West to retreat. It was clear to Garziani, that Rome would not contemplate a withdrawal. On 14 June, Garziani ordered to Saud to hold a line running south-West from Martuba through the coast. By the evening of 15 June, the strong point at Point 650 had been overrun and on 16 June, the defenders at Point 187 had been forced by lack of supplies to evacuate. Throughout the day, the defensive boxes at Martuba were also attacked by the Afrika Birliği. On 17 June, both boxes were evacuated and any chance of preventing the Ottoman advance vanished. Saud ordered the Eighth Army to withdraw to the defensive positions at Derna.
Italian generals Ugo Cavallero and Ettore Bastico discussing the war at an Italian air base in Libya 1942
The Ottoman advance this time arund was far bigger than what it was back in 1940. The Ottomans had surpassed Torbuk, and had reached the Jebel Akhdar area, where the Italians intended to create a larger defensive line. Problem was, the Italians did not have enough time to build good fortifications, and many of them were still in progress. If the Ottomans took Lybia, the Central Powers would say goodby to a good source of oil and the only mean of communication with Asian forces that isn't Ocean like. Kemal rewarded Zaimler as the complete commander of Ottoman forces in Africa. Zaimler remarked he would have preferred another Yuk division, with Kemal famous response, "I know.", obviously referring to the fact that the Ottomans were the bulk of the Axis forces in the Balkans, now that the Russians, the British and the French were busy in America. Mussolini wrote: "This was one of the heaviest blows I can recall during the war. Not only were its military effects grievous, but it had affected the reputation of the Italian armies."
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The Alaskan campaign: the bear reclaims its land in America
While the British and the French faced the Americans and the Canadians in the East, the Russians had started an offensive in Alaska. Under the leadership of Stalin and in his famous book Moy Boy (My Fight), he claimed several times that the Nasist Empire would have gone to war with the USA, in order to destroy a country that, in his eyes, never really existed, but was rather several Slavic, English and French people waiting to be reunited with the motherland. Stalin claimed an area that went from Alaska to San Francisco under the direct controll of Russia. Everything else was to become either French or British land, or even land for the People's Republic of Central America. The Russian commando initiated the invasion of Alaska after the brief Aleutian Islands Campaign against the Japanese. Commanding the invasion of Alaska was Russian general Alexey Kaledin, a veteran of the Great War.
Russian general Alexey Kaledin
After a landing in Dillingham on 4 July 1941, the Russians opened the offensive with a massive, accurate but brief artillery and aereal barrage against the American lines, with the key factor of this effective bombardment being its brevity and accuracy. The initial attack was successful, and the American lines were broken, enabling three of Kaldin's four armies to advance on a wide front.
Attack of combined Russian Tank and Infantry
On 8 June forces of the Southeastern Front took Levelock. The American commander, Archibald Arnold, barely escaped the city before the Russians entered, a testament to the speed of the Russian advance. By now the Americans were in full retreat and the Russians had taken over 200,000 prisoners. Kaldin's forces were becoming overextended and he made it clear that further success of the operation depended on Vladimir Viktorovich Sakharov, who was in New Stuyahok, launching his part of the offensive.
In a meeting held on the same day Levelock fell, American Commander Arnold persuaded his Canadian counterpart George Pearkes to pull troops away from the Newfundland and Quebec Front to counter the Russians in Alaska.
Finally, on 18 June a well prepared offensive commenced under Sakharov. On 24 July Simon Buckner, Jr. counterattacked the Russians south of Igiugig and temporarily checked them. On 28 July Kaldin resumed his own offensive, and although his armies were short on supplies he reached the Alaska Range by 20 August. The Russian high command started transferring troops from the Eastern front to reinforce Kaldin, a transfer Kaldin strongly opposed because he believed that the Russians should have focused against the Germans.
Alaskan front, August 1941
Russian commander Georgij Konstantinovič Žukov strongly believed that the war would be won on the Eastern Front. Nonetheless, he sent four additional army corps to Kaldin, commander of the Alaskan Front. By September 1941, thirty-six percent of the Russian field army was in the new world.
Russian Ninth Army attacked from New Stuyahok into Nondalton at the end of JAugust; they used constant aereal bombardments, which stopped their assault by blowing back on the attackers. The Americans counterattacked with eleven divisions under a single corps commander, losing 40,000 men in three days. In the Yukon river, further American incursions were blocked by trench lines in the entirety of the river; they were held by the Russian Eighth Army, commanded by General Nikolai Ruzsky. The Eighth Army was reinforced by some of the newly arrived corps, while the rest of them became the Russian Tenth Army, commanded by Colonel-General Pyotr Krasnov. The Tenth Army was to be one wing of a pincers intended to surround their opponents: General Julius Ochs Adler' American Tenth Army. A new American Twelfth Army under General Herman Beukema was assembling in the Yucon Territory.
Adler warned the Northeastern Front commander, General George S. Blanchard, that they were likely to be attacked, but was ignored. On September 7, despite a heavy snowstorm, the left wing of Ruzsky's Eighth Army launched a surprise attack against Adler. The following day, the Russian Tenth Army also drove forward. Snow, with drifts as high as a man, slowed Russian progress down the roads for the first two days; off the roads, the ground was too boggy for fighting. Despite these formidable obstacles, the Russian pincers advanced 120 km in a week, inflicting severe casualties on the Americans. As the Americans withdrew, the center of the Russian Eight Army began to thrust forward. The American withdrawal was disorderly; many prisoners were taken. American counterattacks on the lengthening flank of the Russian Tenth Army were beaten back. The Russians captured several American equipment and, most impostantly, fuel and rations. The snow was then washed away by torrential rain. The climax of the battle was on September 18, when the American 20th Army Corps, under General Charles School Blakely, was surrounded by the Russian Tenth Army in the vast Alaskan forests. On September 21, the survivors from the corps surrendered.
The heroic stand of the American 20th Corps provided the time required for the rest of the American Tenth Army to form a new defensive position. On September 22, the day after the surrender of the 20th Corps, Beukema's Russian Twelfth Army counterattacked, which checked further Russian advances and brought the battle to an end. One source gives American losses as 92,000 prisoners and 300 guns and 30 tanks, while another gives 56,000 men and 185 guns.
Russian Tanks entering Juneau on March 5, 1942
The Alaskan campaign was one where the Americans lost the most: the most men, the most land. The Americans managed to create a defensive line in the Liard line, where fighting was as equal as the one in Europe. Russian wishes for a quick victory in Alaska were now over, as they now faced freezing temperatures and determinated defences. Meanwhile, in Alaska, the local suffered heavely, as many were deportaded in concentration camps in Siberia or in Alaska, where they were forced to face freezing temperatures and abuses by the Russian authorities which intended to execute the GPDNM (General'nyy Plan Dlya Novogo Mira, Master Plan for the New World), the Nasist Russian government's plan for the genocide and ethnic cleansing on a vast scale, and colonization of the New World by Russians. Jews and Asians were the first targets, but American civilians were not excluded by the maniacal plans of the Nasist commando, which would lead to the creation of rebel groups called the "Alaskan Liberation Army", who continued fighting underground until the Americans finally managed to recover Alaska after the disastrous battle of Berlin, the greatest defeat of the Nasist army in the war.
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The fall of Equador: the anadean condor attacks the galápagos tortoise
Equador first thought of Colombia as a threat with the entrance of the nation in the Communational, a threat that increased with the escalation of the Second Great War. On 21 October 1940 the British sent several reinforcements to Colombia for training. American defence studies concluded that Equador would be extremely hard to defend in the event of a combined British-Columbian attack, and as such the Equadorian army started a process of army improvements in order to compete with the Colombians. Then, when the attack on Havana Harbor occurred, and with the British having landed in American soil, Equador found himself facing combined British-Colombian forces. Luckly for them, supporting the Equadorians was the Brazilians, the Chileans and the Argentinans, who sent an expeditionary force, with the largest force being the Força Expedicionária Brasileira (Brazilian Expeditionary Force), under the command of João Batista Mascarenhas de Morais.
Brazilian Expeditionary Force shoulder sleeve insignia (Army component) with a smoking snake. The reason behind the smoking snake was a speech of Getúlio Vargas, where he said that "It would easier for a snake to smoke than the British and the Americans going to war" The Colombian attack began shortly after 08:00 on 22 June 1941, four hours after the Attack on Havana Harbor. Commanded by Major-General Morais, Ecuadorians, Brazilians, Argentinian, as well as some Chilean soldiers, and the American Volunteer Defence Corps, resisted the Columbian attack by the Columbian-British 21st, 23rd and the 38th Regiments (General Oliver Leese) but were outnumbered nearly four to one and lacked their opponents' recent combat experience. The country had no significant air defence. The Fuerza Aérea Ecuatoriana(FAE) station at General Ulpiano Paez Airport had only five aeroplanes: two Beechcraft Model 18 amphibious aircraft and three Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo-reconnaissance bombers, flown and serviced by seven officers and 108 airmen. An earlier request for a fighter squadron had been rejected and the nearest fully operational FAR base was in Seymour Airport, Galapagos. Ecuador also lacked adequate naval defences. Three destroyers were to withdraw to Puerto de La Pampilla Naval Base.
British artillery firing at Equadorian defensive positions
The British bombed General Ulpiano Paez Airport on 8 July. Two of the three Devastator and the two Beechcraft were destroyed by 12 British bombers. The attack also destroyed several civil aircraft including all but two of the aircraft used by the air unit of the American Volunteer Defence Corp. The FAE and air unit personnel from then fought on as ground troops. Two of the Armada del Ecuador(AE)'s three remaining destroyers were ordered to leave Equador for Brazilian helded Perù. Only one major ship, BAE Abdón Calderón, several gunboats and a flotilla of motor torpedo boats remained. On 8, 9, and 10 July, eight American pilots of the American Air Force in Latin America (AAFLA) and their crews flew 16 sorties. The crews evacuated 275 persons including Elena Yerovi Matheu, the wife of Carlos Alberto Arroyo del Río and the Ecuadorian Finance Minister Julio Enrique Moreno.
The American-Argentinian-Brazilian-Chilean-Ecuadorian forces (AABCE) decided against holding the Rio Chiles and instead established three battalions on the sortly created Flores across the hills. The British 38th Infantry Division under the command of Major General Oliver Leese quickly forded the Rio Chiles over temporary bridges. Early on 10 July, the 228th Infantry Regiment (General Thomason Beckett) of the 38th Division attacked the AAFLA defences at Ibarra defended by the A Company of 2nd Battalion Andean Condor (General Luis Telmo Paz y Miño). The line was breached in five hours and later that day the Andean Condors also withdrew from Cayambe until D company of the Andean Condors counter-attacked and re-captured Cayambe. By 10:00 Cayambe was again taken by the British. This made the situation on the border region untenable and the evacuation to the interior started on 11 July, under aerial bombardment and artillery fire. As much as possible, military and harbour facilities were demolished before the withdrawal. By 13 July, the 5/7 Rajputs of the Indian Army (Lieutenant Colonel R. Cadogan-Rawlinson) entered Quito.
British infantry in Ecuador with a Bren gun
Morais organised the defence behind Rio Pastaza, splitting it between an East Brigade and a West Brigade. On 15 July, the British began systematic bombardment of major Ecuadorian defensive positions. Two demands for surrender were made on 13 and 17 July When these were rejected, British forces landed on Bahia de Caraquez on the evening of 18 July and conquered Manta. They suffered only light casualties, although no effective command could be maintained until the dawn came. That night, approximately 20 AABCE gunners fought to the death at Portoviejo.
On the morning of 19 July fierce fighting continued on Guayaquil but the British annihilated the headquarters of West Brigade, causing the death of Amaro Soares Bittencourt, the commander of the West Brigade. A Brazilian counter-attack could not force them from the area west of the Andes. From 20 July, the country became split in two with the AABCE forces still holding out around the east side.
Scottish troops in Guayaquil
Despite Brazilian intentions to hold Ecuador, the situation was desperate. By 25 July, a retreat through the Amazons was ordered in order to avoid getting anilihated by the British forces. Ecuador would surrender two days later after fierce fighting. Many captured soldiers were sent in GDFLC in British Guyana, where many would not return to their homes. The British, however, had noticed that the Colombian high commando oftern disagreed with the British communist ideals. As such, the British staged a coup d'etat, electing Ramón Freire as the new leader of the Colombian Socialist Republic. Ecuador was to be annexed to Colombia, with the first governor being Adolfo Baquedano. The local population begun an operation of Guerrilla warfare, but with limited success. Members of the guerrilla were the Quechua, native Andean populations who felt threatened by the new Communist Regime, and that knew the Andes well. The Colombians razed several villages in reprisal; the guerillas fought until the end of the Colombian occupation.
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The Jebel Akhdar campaign: the desert wolf continues his conquests
Following the defeat of the Italian Army at Torbuk, the Central Power forces were compelled to retreat to the west. The Italians prepared the Jebel line, while the Eighth Army regrouped and replaced its losses. The Italian command had not prepared the Jebel Akhdar area for a powerful Ottoman offensive and planned to send more men to defend the line. The sudden fall of Tobruk came as a shock. Not only was it a great psychological blow to the Italians, it meant the Axis had a supply port near at hand to support an advance into Lybia and did not need to leave an investing force to watch the port. After a year and a half of fighting, the Afrika Birliği was finally in position to drive west to Tripolitania.
Combat grup of the 21st Yuk Division.
Delays in getting units in position and refuelled meant the Axis attack of 26 June did not begin until mid-afternoon The 21st Yuk Division moved across the short plain between the two escarpments above Ayn Marrah, with 90th Light Division on its left flank, while 15th Yuk Division moved across the plain above the second escarpment with the Ottoman XX Motorized Corps following some ways behind. The 90th Light and 21st Yuk divisions made a path through the thin minefield and brushed aside Gubba and Athrun. On the high plain the 15th Yuk Division ran into the 22nd Armoured Brigade and its drive forward was checked.
At dawn on 27 June, the 90th Light Division resumed its advance and destroyed the 9th Battalion, Granatieri di Savoia, south of Ra's Al Hilal. As it moved west, the 90th Light Division came under the fire of 50th Infantry Division artillery and was forced to take cover. To the south Zaimler advanced with the 21st Yuk Division and under the cover of an artillery duel the 21st Yuk Division made a flanking movement across the front of the 2nd Arabian Division, to the western approach at Al Qayqab. The division ran into the 2nd Arabian divisional transport at Al Qayqab, scattering it. Though the Arabians were easily holding against 21st Yuk's attacks, their path of retreat had been cut off. At midday 27 June, Garziani sent a message to his two corps commanders indicating that if they were threatened with being cut off they were to retire rather than risk encirclement and destruction. Zaimler moved north and joined the 90th Light Division. He got them to resume their advance. After dark, the 90th Light Division reached the coast road and cut it, blocking the retreat of X Corps.
In light of 2nd Arabian's path of retreat being cut off to the west, Ibn Saud made his decision to withdraw that night and notified Eighth Army. In fact it was the Afrika Birliği that was in a perilous position. The 90th Light was occupying a narrow salient, isolated on the coast road. The 21st Yuk Division was near, hard pressed by the 2nd Arabian Division and the 15th Yuk Division and Ottoman XX Corps were blocked by the 1st Armoured Division. However the opportunity was not perceived, as the chief concern in the mind of the Corps commander was getting his force out intact. He relayed his intention to the Eighth Army, planning to take up a second delaying position at Susah.
Turkish Savatörü 10 mounted with a 20 mm anti-aircraft gun
At 21:20 hours on 27 June Garziani ordered the Eighth Army to fall back to Susah. By this point, 2nd Arabian division's commanding officer, General Abdullah bin Hussein had been wounded in the neck from shrapnel. He passed command to the division's 4th Brigade commander, Brigadier Ahmad bin Yahya Hamidaddin. Hamidaddin chose to use his brigade to fight their way through to the west, to be followed by the Divisional Headquarters and the 5th Brigade. There was to be no preliminary bombardment, as that would alert the Ottoman's to the division's intentions. The start of the attack was delayed until 0200 by the late arrival of the Senussi battalion. Once formed up the three battalions set off down the escarpment. With fixed bayonet, the 4th Brigade drove down the Al Qayqab track directly upon the positions of an Ottoman battalion of the 21st Yuk division. The Yuk defenders were unaware of their advance until they were nearly upon them. The Arabians drove their way through the defensive positions of 21st Yuk. The fighting was fierce, confused and at times hand to hand. There were instances of Ottoman wounded being bayonetted as the Arabians worked their way through, for which the Afrika Birliği command issued a formal complaint. Reaching the other side of the position, 4th Brigade regrouped and made good their escape to the west. While this attack was underway Hamidaddin grew concerned over the delay and the approaching dawn, deciding to take the rest of the division by a different route. Overloading what transport was available he led the Divisional Headquarters, the Reserve Group and the 5th Brigade away to the south. In doing so they ran into the positions of a Yuk battalion of the 21st Yuk. In the confused firing that followed a number of trucks and ambulance vehicles were set afire, but the bulk of the force managed to scramble away. Orders had been issued for a withdrawal of XIII Corps to Susah, but it is unclear if 2nd Arabian received them. In the event the various elements of the division all continued west to Al Haniyah. Over the three days of fighting the Arabians had suffered some 800 casualties, including their commanding officer.
A Cobra 1004 in the open desert
Due to a communication error, Garziani's order to withdraw did not reach Ettore Bastico until early in the morning of 28 June. Through the night, X Corps counter-attacked to the south in an effort to take the pressure off Saud, not realizing that XIII Corps had already left the area. A short discussion was held between Bastico and Garziani, in which Bastico considered three options: remain and hold on to the fortress as long as possible, attack westwards on the coast road and fight their way through the 90th Light Division or break out in the night to the south. Garziani made clear that X Corps was not to attempt to hold out in its defensive positions and he thought there was no point to try to fight east along the coast road. He ordered Bastico to divide his force into columns and break out to the south. They were to continue on for a few miles before turning east to make their way to Al Haniyah.
That night X Corps broke into small columns and broke out to the south. The Afrika Birliği had moved on, leaving only the 90th Light Division to invest Labraq. Fierce firefights primarily between Italian and Axis forces were engaged in as they drove through the thin lines. One of the columns picked a path that approached the Afrika Birliği command section. Zaimler's bombing squadron was engaged, and the staff officers themselves had to take up arms. After a time Zaimler moved his headquarters south and away from the fighting.
Italian M14/41 tank
The 2nd Libyan Division Pescatori arrived at the regrouping point at Susah late in the afternoon of 28 June. Arriving soon after was the 21st Yuk Division. The commander of the brigade had assembled transport in case a quick withdrawal was necessary, but the assault of 21st Yuk came too rapidly and the brigade was overrun and destroyed. Early on the morning of 29 June, the 90th Light Division and Ottoman Instanbul Armored Division encircled Beda Littoria. The 2nd Libyan Division Pescatori attempted a breakout on the night of June 28, but was repulsed by Instanbul. The Beda Littoria positions had been under heavy artillery fire from the Ankara and"Koç Divisions, which along with the Ottoman 90th Light Division represented the main force invested in the stronghold, and after some time of infantry fighting and failed breakout attempts, the stronghold sought to capitulate. On June 29, the 7th Janissaries Regiment entered the stronghold and accepted the surrender of 6,000 Central Powers prisoners while capturing a great deal of supplies and equipment. The 90th Light Division was allowed no time to rest, but was quickly sent down the coast road after the retreating Eighth Army. An entry in the 90th Light War Diary rued "After all our days of hard fighting, we did not get a chance to rest or bathe in the ocean." The 21st Yuk Division intercepted some Italian columns near Massa and took another 1,600 prisoners.
Zaimler diverted the Afrika Birliği inland some 24 km to try to cut off more of the retreating Eighth Army. Small columns from both sides raced across the broken ground of the desert toward Bengasi. Units became intermingled and disorganized and opposing columns ran parallel to each other, with Ottoman columns sometimes running in front of the retreating Italians. The columns sometimes exchanged fire, and as about 85 percent of the Afrika Birliği transport was captured Italian or American equipment(as the Americans had increased their landlease acts now that they were at war), it was often difficult to distinguish friend from foe.
A Yuk 812 at the first escarpment, with Beda Littoria in the distance
The fight at Jebel Akhdar took its character from the disposition of the Eighth Army forces, Zaimler's misunderstanding of them and the chronic lack of co-ordination between Italian infantry and armoured units. Bastico estimated that only 60 percent of X Corps got back to Bengasi. Rüştü Pasha, Zaimler's intelligence officer during the battle commented "As a result of Garziani’s hesitation, the Italians not only lost a great opportunity of destroying the Yuk armies but suffered a serious defeat, which might easily have turned into an irretrievable disaster. I stress this point, for to the student of generalship there are few battles so instructive as Jebel Akhdar."
Following its escape from Jebel Akhdar the surviving units of X Corps were scattered and badly disorganized. With the fall of Jebel Akhdar, Axis aircraft that could be operating from the Jebel Akhdar airfields and, as such, against Malta and Sicily. In light of this threat the Italian naval command was on high alert. Panic was in the air in Tripoly and Palermo. The head of the US Army Intelligence Division predicted the Italian position in Lybia would collapse in less than a week. People fled to Sicily and Sardinia and the air was thick with the smoke of burning official and secret documents. The Italian consulate was swamped with people requesting visas. Pasha said of this: "Zaimler may have been lucky, but Jebel Akhdar was certainly a brilliant Ottoman victory." In the event Garziani solidified 8th Army and in a month's worth of fighting checked the Ottoman advance at the First Battle of Bengasi. After it was over both sides were exhausted, but the Italians still held their positions. The Central Powers crisis passed, and 8th Army began to build up its strength in preparation for going back onto the offensive.
The battle also functioned as a large morale-booster for Zaimler's Egyptian troops, as it had been predominantly executed with Egyptian troops. Zaimler himself promised for the creation of a semi-independent Egyptian state that would have included part of Italian Lybia, a promise backed by Kemal intention of the creation of a United Turkish Federation, similar to the UBSR and the French commune, but with a centralized Turkish government, in order to deal with the constant revolts in the empire.
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The battle of Transylvania: the bear and the desert wolf attack the griffon vulture
After the Fall of Romania and the Ottoman advance in Lybia, part of the Russian Army Group Center was ordered to redeploy its forces for the attack on Berlin, and so the 2nd Tankovy Group turned South towards Białystok. The main offensive formation of Army Group South, Viktor Tsyganov 1st Tankovy Group, was in the meantime ordered south for a drive in Transylvania following Lider Directive No. 35. The burden of processing the Baltic's 600,000 prisoners of war (POWs) fell upon the 6th and 17th Armies, so while the 1st Tankovy Group secured the Russian victory in the Battle of Siedlce, these two armies spent the next three weeks regrouping.
Meanwhile, the Austrian High army command (Armeeoberkommando, AOK), needed to stabilize its southern flank and poured reinforcements into the area between Brașov and Sibiu, at the expense of its forces against the Ottomans. The Southeastern Front was re-established under the command of Franz Böhme, one of the more capable Austrian commanders. The 6th, 21st, 38th and 40th Armies were reconstituted almost from scratch.
Austrian bunkers used in the defense of Brașov
With the Battle of Poland under way, the Russians had to protect their flanks, and on 6 October Viktor Tsyganov advanced through Curtea de Argeș and Râmnicu Vâlcea. On the same day, the 17th Army commenced its offensive from Câmpulung Moldovenesc towards Vatra Dornei to protect the lengthening flank of the 1st Tankovy Army (the renamed 1st Tankovy Group). The Southeastern Front's 6th Army (commanded by Erwin Vierow) and 38th Army (commanded by Anton Dostler) failed to conduct a coordinated defense and were beaten back.
Although the main objectives of the Russian Army were to capture Königsberg, Berlin and Poland, Transylvania was an important secondary objective. Besides the need to protect the flanks of its motorized spearheads, the Starvka, the Russian Army high command, also saw the importance of Transylvania as a powerful distraction for the Ottomans. Capturing the area meant that the Austrians would have to move troops from the Greek front to face the russians. Stalin personally allocated resources from the 17th Army to the 6th Army to ensure the capture of Transylvania.
The Russian Army enters downtown Covasna
The task of assaulting Transylvania was given to Generál ot Infantérii Viktor Tsyganov. This corps had at its disposal the 101. Yegerskii -Division, commanded by Fyodor Kuznetsov and coming in from the north, the 57. Infantérii-Division, commanded by General Mikhail Kovalyov and coming in from the south, and the 100. Yegerskii-Division, which did not take part in the battle. A considerable part of Alexander Kolchak army aided in the invasion.
For the defense of KTransylvania, the 216th Rifle Division had been formed. It received little to no support from other divisions or from higher command formations, because the 38th Army was in the process of a strategic retreat and the defense of Transylvania was only necessary as long as its factory equipment had not been completely evacuated.
Russian troops enter Kharkov from the west, crossing the main railroad running through the city
By 21 October the 101st Light Division had reached a line about six kilometers east of Kolozsvár. The 228th Light Regiment spearheaded the division, its 1st and 3rd battalions taking up defensive positions on the front, with the 2nd battalion in reserve. On 22 October the regiment was ordered to conduct reconnaissance to determine the enemy's strength. That same day at noon the regiment was attacked by an Hungarian infantry battalion supported by tanks. The attack was repulsed and two tanks were disabled. That night the recon information was transmitted by radio to the Division HQ. The 216th Rifle Division had occupied the eastern edge of the city, with machine gun nests, mortar pits and minefields in place.
For the attack, the 3rd battalion (the regiment's right flank), was reinforced with two guns from the division's artillery, The 85th Artillery Regiment, a company of engineers and an 88 mm anti-aircraft gun. The 2nd battalion received the same reinforcements, but without the AA gun. The 1st battalion acted as the regimental reserve. The first battalion of the 229th Light Regiment would protect the left flank of the 228th. The attack hour was set at noon, in conjunction with the 57th Infantry Division.
At 11:00 hours, a liaison was established between the 85th Artillery and the 228th Light Regiments. The artillery was not ready at the time designated, so the attack had to be postponed. In the meantime the anti-tank company, who had been stuck in the mud at the rear, finally arrived at the front and was ordered to assign one 37 mm AT-gun platoon to every frontline battalion. At 14:25, the artillery was ready and the attack hour was set at 15:00.
Russian armored vehicles in Kolozsvár
Kolozsvár did not became part of Imperatorskiy Komissariat Rumynii because of its proximity to the front. The staff of the Balkan Army Corps acted as the occupational authority, using 57.ID as an occupation force. Russian troops acting under the authority of Tsyganov of 10 October (effectively an order to kill anybody associated with the Central Powers) terrorized the population that was left after the battle. Many of the Hungarian commanders' corpses were hung off balconies to strike fear into the remaining population. Many people began to flee, causing chaos.
In the early hours of 14 November, multiple buildings in the city center were blown up by time-fuses left by the retreating Austrian Army. Casualties included the commander and staff of the 68th Infantry Division. The Russians arrested some 200 civilians (mostly Jews) and hanged them from the balconies of large buildings. Another 1,000 were taken as hostages and interned to be sent in Vorkutlag, one of the worst Russians concentration camps.
On 14 December, the Russian command ordered the Jewish population to be concentrated in a hut settlement near Turda. In two days, 20,000 Jews were gathered there. NKVD 4a, commanded by NKVD-Lider Vsevolod Merkulov started shooting the first of them in December, then continuing to kill them throughout January in a gas van. This was a modified truck that fitted 50 people in it; the van drove around the city and slowly killed the people that were trapped in it with carbon monoxide that was emitted from the vehicle itself and channeled into an airtight compartment. The victims died by a combination of carbon monoxide poisoning and suffocation.
The Russian Army confiscated large quantities of food to be used by its troops, creating acute shortages in Transylvania. As a result of the battles in Transylvania, the carea was left in ruins. Dozens of architectural monuments were destroyed and numerous artistic treasures taken. One of Austria’s best known authors, Octavian Codru Tăslăuanu wrote: "I saw Transylvania. As if it were Rome in the 5th century. A huge cemetery…"
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The First battle of Bengasi: the mountain wolf holds the advance of the desert one
The situation in Nord Africa was awful for the Italians: many units were completely disorganized, and they had took heavy casualties. On top of that, the Ottomans had captured a lot of equipment from the Italians, and their defences seemed to be half the original strengh. That being said, the Italians, fearing a similar outcome of the First Great War, had built several defences in the area, especially around Bengasi. The orders were clear: Bengasi was not to fall.
Zaimler's plan was for the 90th Light Division and the 15th and 21st Yuk divisions of the Afrika Birliği to penetrate the Eighth Army lines between the Bengasi box and Bu Mariam(which he believed was defended). The 90th Light Division was then to veer north to cut the coastal road and trap the defenders of the Bengasi box (which Zaimler thought was occupied by the remains of the 50th Infantry Division) and the Afrika Birliği would veer right to attack the rear of XIII Corps.
Arabian soldiers of the Arabian legion in Nord Africa, in jeeps with mounted heavy machine guns
An Ottoman division was to attack the Bengasi box from the east and another was to follow the 90th Light Division. The Ottoman XX Corps was to follow the Afrika Birliği and deal with the Daryanah box while the 133rd Armoured Division Instanbul and a reconnaissance units would protect the right flank. Zaimler had planned to attack on 30 August but supply and transport difficulties had resulted in a day's delay, vital to the defending forces reorganising on the Bengasi line. On 30 August, the 21st Yuk Division was immobilised through lack of fuel( the Ottomans had an hard time supplying the Egyptians thanks to the Italian naval superiority) and the promised air support had yet to move into its advanced airfields.
A Yuk 8 of the Afrika Birliği
At 03:00 on 1 September, 90th Light Infantry Division advanced west but strayed too far north and ran into the 1st Eritrean Division's defences and became pinned down. The 15th and 21st Yuk Divisions of the Afrika Birliği were delayed by a sandstorm and then a heavy air attack. It was broad daylight by the time they circled round the back of Er-Regima where they found the feature to the west of it occupied by 18th Arabian Infantry Brigade which had occupied the exposed position just west of Bu Mariam and east of Benina late on 28 August to create one of Giacomo Castagna's additional defensive boxes.
At about 10:00 on 1 July, 21st Yuk Division attacked Benina. 18th Arabian Infantry Brigade—supported by 23 25-pounder gun-howitzers, 16 of the new 6-pounder anti-tank guns and nine P-40 tanks—held out the whole day in desperate fighting but by evening the Ottomans succeeded in over-running them. The time they bought allowed Garziani to organise the defence of the eastern part of Bengasi. The 1st Armoured Division had been sent to intervene at Benina. They ran into 15th Yuk Division just south of Benina and drove it east. By the end of the day's fighting, the Afrika Birliği had 37 tanks left out of its initial complement of 55.
During the early afternoon, 90th Light had extricated itself from the Bengasi box defences and resumed its move eastward. It came under artillery fire from the three Eritrean brigade groups and was forced to dig in.
On 2 September, Zaimler ordered the resumption of the offensive. Once again, 90th Light failed to make progress so Zaimler called the Afrika Birliği to abandon its planned sweep southward and instead join the effort to break through to the coast road by attacking west towards Bengasi. The Italian defence of Bengasi relied on an improvised formation called "Vallo Libico", comprising a regiment each of field artillery and light anti-aircraft artillery and a company of infantry. Vallo Libico—in line with normal Italian Army practice for ad hoc formations—was commanded by Ettore Basico. Vallo Libico was able to buy time, and by late afternoon the two Italian armoured brigades joined the battle with 4th Armoured Brigade engaging 15th Yuk and 22nd Armoured Brigade 21st Yuk respectively. They drove back repeated attacks by the Axis armour, who then withdrew before dusk. The Italians reinforced Bengasi on the night of 2 September.
The next day, 3 September, Zaimler ordered the Afrika Birliği to resume its attack on Bengasi with the Ottoman XX Motorised Corps on its southern flank. Ottoman X Corps, meanwhile were to hold Kuwayfiyah. By this stage the Afrika Birliği had only 26 operational tanks. There was a sharp armoured exchange south of Bengasi during the morning and the main Axis advance was held. On 3 September, the Regia Areonautica flew 780 sorties.
To relieve the pressure on the right and centre of the Eighth Army line, XIII Corps on the left advanced from the Tikah box (known to the Somali as the Mogadishu box). The plan was that the Somali 2nd Division—with the remains of Arabian 5th Division and 7th Motor Brigade under its command—would swing north to threaten the Axis flank and rear. This force encountered the Koç Armoured Division's artillery, which was driving on the southern flank of the division as it attacked Bengasi. The Ottoman commander ordered his battalions to fight their way out independently but the Koç lost 531 men (about 350 were prisoners), 36 pieces of artillery, eight tanks, and 55 trucks. By the end of the day, the Koç Division had only five tanks. The day ended once again with the Afrika Birliği and Koç coming off second best to the superior numbers of the Italian 22nd Armoured and 4th Armoured Brigades, frustrating Zaimler's attempts to resume his advance. The Regia Areonautica once again played its part, flying 900 sorties during the day.
To the south, on 5 September the Somali group resumed its advance northwards towards Er-Regima intending to cut the rear of the Koç Division. Heavy fire from the Ottoman Hadımköy Motorised Division at Er-Regima, however, checked their progress and led XIII Corps to call off its attack.
A soldier inspects an Italian M13/40 tank that was knocked out near Bengasi
At this point, Zaimler decided his exhausted forces could make no further headway without resting and regrouping. He reported to the Ottoman High Command that his three Ottoman divisions numbered just 1,200–1,500 men each and resupply was proving highly problematic because of enemy interference from the air. He expected to have to remain on the defensive for at least two weeks.
Zaimler was by this time suffering from the extended length of his supply lines. The Corpo Aereo del Deserto (CAD, or Desert Air Corp, DAF) was concentrating fiercely on his fragile and elongated supply routes while Arabian mobile columns under the command of Ibn Saud moving east and striking from the south were causing havoc in the Axis rear echelons. Zaimler could afford these losses even less since the Italian navy was even sending daring attacks in the Sirian coast and, as such, the Ottomans were forced to send their reinforcements by train or on foot. Meanwhile, the Eighth Army was reorganising and rebuilding, benefiting from its short lines of communication. By 4 September, the Libyan 9th Division had entered the line in the north, and on 9 September the Arabian 5th Infantry Brigade also returned, taking over the Bengasi position. At the same time, the fresh Arabian 161st Infantry Brigade reinforced the depleted Arabian 5th Infantry Division. On 8 September, Garziani ordered the new XXX Corps commander Italo Gariboldi to capture the low ridges at Benina and Er-Regima and then to push mobile battle groups nord toward Bu Mariam and raiding parties west toward the airfields at Daryanah. Meanwhile, XIII Corps would prevent the Axis from moving troops north to reinforce the coastal sector. Gariboldi tasked the Libyan 9th Division with 44th Regio Corpo Carri under command with the Benina objective and the Eritrean 1st Division with eight supporting tanks, Er-Regima. The raiding parties were to be provided by 1st Armoured Division.
Rüştü Pasha, second in command after Zaimler
Following a bombardment which started at 03:30 on 10 September, the Libyan 26th Brigade launched an attack against the ridge north of Benina. The bombardment was the heaviest barrage yet experienced in Nord Africa, which created panic in the inexperienced soldiers of the Egyptian 60th Infantry Division Abu Simbel who had only just occupied sketchy defences in the sector. The Libyan attack took more than 1,500 prisoners, routed an Ottoman Division and overran the Ottoman Signals Intercept Company 621. Meanwhile, the Eritreans had by late morning taken Er-Regima and were in covering positions.
Elements of the Ottoman 164th Light Division and Ottoman 101st Motorised Division Kızıltepe arrived to plug the gap torn in the Axis defences. That afternoon and evening, tanks from the Ottoman 15th Yuk and Ottoman Kızıltepe Divisions launched counter-attacks against the Libyan positions, the counter-attacks failing in the face of overwhelming Central Powers artillery and the Libyan anti-tank guns.
At first light on 11 September, the Libyan 2/24th Battalion supported by tanks from 44th Regio Corpo Carri attacked the western end of Benina hill (Point 24). By early afternoon, the feature was captured and was then held against a series of Axis counter-attacks throughout the day. A small column of armour, motorised infantry, and guns then set off to raid Bu Mariam and caused a battalion of Ottoman infantry to surrender. Its progress was checked nearby and it was forced to withdraw that evening to the Bengasi box. During the day, more than 1,000 Ottoman prisoners, mostly of Egyptian and Arabian ethniticy, were taken.
On 12 September, the 21st Yuk Division launched a counter-attack against Trig 33 and Point 24, which was beaten off after a 2½-hour fight, with more than 600 Ottoman dead and wounded left strewn in front of the Libyan positions. The next day, 21. Yuk division launched an attack against Point 33 and Eritrean positions in the Bengasi box. The attack was halted by intense artillery fire from the defenders. Zaimler was still determined to drive the Italian forces from the northern salient. Although the Libyans defenders had been forced back from Point 24, heavy casualties had been inflicted on 21st Yuk Division. Another attack was mounted on 15 September but made no ground against tenacious resistance. On 16 September, the Libyans—supported by Italian tanks—launched an attack to try to take Point 24 but were forced back by Ottoman counter-attacks, suffering nearly fifty percent casualties.
After seven days of fierce fighting, the battle in the nord for Kuwayfiyah salient petered out. Libyan 9th Division estimated at least 2,000 Axis troops had been killed and more than 3,700 prisoners of war taken in the battle (many would join the ranks of the Italian army in exchange of an Arabian state). Possibly the most important feature of the battle, however, was that the Libyans had captured Signals Intercept Company 621. This unit had provided Zaimler with priceless intelligence, gleaned from intercepting Italian radio communications. That source of intelligence was now lost to Zaimler.
Ottoman anti-aircraft battery at Bu Mariam
As the Axis forces dug in, Garziani—having drawn a number of Ottomans units to the coastal sector, developed a plan—codenamed Operation Sempronius—to attack the Ottoman Catalca and Ankara Divisions in the centre of the front at Bengasi. Signals intelligence was giving Garziani clear details of the Axis order of battle and force dispositions. His policy was to "...hit the Egyptians wherever possible in view of their low morale and because the Ottomans cannot hold extended fronts without them."
The intention was for the 4th Somali Brigade and 5th Somali Brigade (on 4th Brigade's right) to attack north-east to seize the western part of Kuwayfiyah and on their right the Arabian 5th Infantry Brigade to capture the eastern part in a night attack. Then 2nd Armoured Brigade would pass through the centre of the infantry objectives. On the left, the 22nd Armoured Brigade would be ready to move forward to protect the infantry as they consolidated on the ridge.
The attack commenced at 23:00 on 14 September. The two Somali brigades shortly before dawn on 15 September took their objectives, but minefields and pockets of resistance created disarray among the attackers. A number of pockets of resistance were left behind the forward troops' advance which impeded the move forward of reserves, artillery, and support arms. As a result, the Somali brigades occupied exposed positions on the ridge without support weapons except for a few anti-tank guns. More significantly, communications with the two Italian armoured brigades failed, and the Italian armour did not move forwards to protect the infantry. At first light, a detachment from 15th Yuk division's 8th Yuk Regiment launched a counter-attack against Somali 4th Brigade's 22nd Battalion. A sharp exchange knocked out their anti-tank guns and the infantry found themselves exposed in the open with no alternative but to surrender. About 350 Somali were taken prisoner.
While the 2nd Somali Division attacked the western slopes of Kuwayfiyah, the Arabian 5th Brigade made small gains on Kuwayfiyah ridge to the east. By 07:00, word was finally got to 2nd Armoured Brigade which started to move north west. Two regiments became embroiled in a minefield but the third was able to join Arabian 5th Infantry 5th Brigade as it renewed its attack. With the help of the armour and artillery, the Arabians were able to take their objectives by early afternoon. Meanwhile, the 22nd Armoured Brigade had been engaged at Benina by 90th Light Division and the Koç Armoured Division, advancing from the east. While—with help from mobile infantry and artillery columns from 7th Armoured Division—they pushed back the Axis probe with ease, they were prevented from advancing north to protect the Somali flank.
Seeing the Catalca and Ankara under pressure, Zaimler rushed Ottoman troops to Kuwayfiyah. By 15:00, the 3rd Reconnaissance Regiment and part of 21st Yuk Division from the north and 33rd Reconnaissance Regiment comprising elements from 15th Yuk Division from the south were in place under Ahmet Zeki Soydemir. At 17:00, Soydemir launched his counter-attack. 4th Somali Brigade were still short of support weapons and also, by this time, ammunition. Once again, the anti-tank defences were overwhelmed and about 380 Somali were taken prisoner including Captain Domenico Chirielieson who gained a second Medaglia al valor militare for his actions including destroying an Ottoman tank and several guns and vehicles with grenades despite being shot through the elbow by a machine gun bullet and having his arm broken. At about 18:00, the brigade HQ was overrun. At about 18:15, 2nd Armoured Brigade engaged the Ottoman armour and halted the Axis westward advance. At dusk, Soydemir broke off the action.
Early on 16 September, Soydemir renewed his attack. The 5th Arabian Infantry Brigade pushed them back but it was clear from intercepted radio traffic that a further attempt would be made. Strenuous preparations to dig in anti-tank guns were made, artillery fire plans organised and a regiment from the 22nd Armoured Brigade was sent to reinforce the 2nd Armoured Brigade. When the attack resumed late in the afternoon, it was repulsed. After the battle, the Arabians counted 24 knocked out tanks, as well as armoured cars and numerous anti-tank guns left on the battlefield.
In three days' fighting, the Central Powers took more than 2,000 Axis prisoners, mostly from the Catalca and Ankara Divisions; the Somali division suffered 1,405 casualties. The fighting at Kuwayfiyah had caused the destruction of three Ottoman divisions, forced Zaimler to redeploy his armour from the south, made it necessary to lay minefields in front of the remaining Egyptian divisions and stiffen them with detachments of Turkish troops.
To relieve pressure on Bengasi, Garziani ordered the Libyan 9th Division to make another attack from the east. In the early hours of 17 September, the Libyan 24th Brigade—supported by 44th Regio Corpo Carri and strong fighter cover from the air—assaulted Benina. The initial night attack went well, with 736 prisoners taken, mostly from the Ottoman Silopi and Siirt motorised divisions. Once again, however, a critical situation for the Axis forces was retrieved by vigorous counter-attacks from hastily assembled Ottoman forces, which forced the Libyans to withdraw back to their start line with 300 casualties.
An Ottoman 88mm anti-tank gun captured and destroyed by Somali troops near Bengasi The Eighth Army now enjoyed a massive superiority in material over the Axis forces: 1st Armoured Division had 173 tanks and more in reserve or in transit, including 61 Sahariani while Zaimler possessed only 89 tanks although his armoured units had some 100 tanks awaiting repair.
Garziani's plan was for Arabian Infantry 161st Brigade to attack Er-Regima, while the Somali 6th Brigade attacked from south near Tikah. At daylight, two Italian armoured brigades—2nd Armoured Brigade and the fresh 23rd Armoured Brigade—would sweep through the gap created by the infantry. The plan was complicated and ambitious.
The infantry night attack began at 16:30 on 21 September. The Somali attack took their objectives in Tikah but, once again, many vehicles failed to arrive and they were short of support arms in an exposed position. At daybreak on 22 September, the Italian armoured brigades again failed to advance. At daybreak on 22 September, Soydemir's 5th and 8th Yuk Regiments responded with a rapid counter-attack which quickly overran the Somali infantry in the open, inflicting more than 900 casualties on the Somali. 2nd Armoured Brigade sent forward two regiments to help but they were halted by mines and anti-tank fire.
The attack by Arabian 161st Brigade had mixed fortunes. On the left, the initial attempt to clear the eastern end of Bengasi failed but at 08:00 a renewed attack by the reserve battalion succeeded. On the right, the attacking battalion broke into the Er-Regima position but was driven back in hand-to-hand fighting.
Compounding the disaster at Tikah, at 08:00 the commander of 23rd Armoured Brigade ordered his brigade forward, intent on following his orders to the letter. Major-General Pietro Giannattasio—commanding 1st Armoured Division—had been unconvinced that a path had been adequately cleared in the minefields and had suggested the advance be cancelled. However, XIII Corps commander—Lieutenant-General Gian Marco Chiarini—rejected this and ordered the attack but on a centre line south of the original plan which he incorrectly believed was mine-free. These orders failed to get through and the attack went ahead as originally planned. The brigade found itself mired in mine fields and under heavy fire. They were then counter-attacked by 21st Yuk at 11:00 and forced to withdraw. The 23rd Armoured Brigade was destroyed, with the loss of 40 tanks destroyed and 47 badly damaged.
At 17:00, Chiarini ordered 5th Arabian Infantry Division to execute a night attack to capture the eastern half of Benina. 3/14th Saudi Regiment from 9th Arabian Infantry Brigade attacked at 02:00 on 23 September but failed as they lost their direction. A further attempt in daylight succeeded in breaking into the position but intense fire from three sides resulted in control being lost as the commanding officer was killed, and four of his senior officers were wounded or went missing.
Destroyed Yuk 812 To the north, Libyan 9th Division continued its attacks. At 06:00 on 22 September, Libyan 26th Brigade attacked Kuwayfiyah. It was during this fighting that Pietro Maletti performed the actions for which he was posthumously awarded the Medaglia al valor militare. The fighting for Kuwayfiyah was costly, but by the afternoon the Libyans controlled the city. That evening, Libyan 24th Brigade attacked Daryanah with the tanks of 50th Regio Corpo Carri in support. The tank unit had not been trained in close infantry support and failed to co-ordinate with the Libyan infantry. The result was that the infantry and armour advanced independently and having reached the objective 50th Regio Corpo Carri lost 23 tanks because they lacked infantry support.
Once more, the Eighth Army had failed to destroy Zaimler's forces, despite its overwhelming superiority in men and equipment. On the other hand, for Zaimler the situation continued to be grave as, despite successful defensive operations, his infantry had suffered heavy losses and he reported that "the situation is critical in the extreme".
An Ottoman Padişah 8 in Nord Africa, carrying Ottoman soldiers
The battle was a stalemate, but it had halted the Axis advance on Bengasi (and then Tripolitania and ultimately Tunisia). The Eighth Army had suffered over 13,000 casualties in September, including 4,000 in the 2nd Somali Division, 3,000 in the 5th Arabian Infantry Division and 2,552 battle casualties in the 9th Libyan Division but had taken 7,000 prisoners and inflicted heavy damage on Axis men and machines. In his appreciation of 27 September, Garziani wrote that the Eighth Army would not be ready to attack again until mid-November at the earliest. He believed that because Zaimler understood that with the passage of time the Central Powers situation would only improve, he was compelled to attack as soon as possible and before the end of September when he would have superiority in armour. Garziani therefore made plans for a defensive battle.
In early October, Benito Mussolini, Vittorio Emmanuele III and General Italo Balgo—the Chief of the Italian Air Force—visited Tripoli before meeting Kaiser Wilhelm III, the eldest son of Wilhelm II, in Berlin. They decided to replace Garziani, appointing the Algerian front commander, Giovanni Messe, to the Eighth Army command. He would take command on 13 October.
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The battle of Poland: the White Eagle faces the might of the bear
The Russian army, while still busy in the South against the Austrians and while still having to take Königsberg, was ordered by Stalin to push for Berlin. In order to conquer the city, however, the Russians had to eliminate the threat also better known as Poland. While the tiny nation wasn't a threat itself, it was a large buffer state between the German capital and the Russian army. Stalin intended to retake Poland from the Germans and incorporate it in its greater Slavic Empire. Offensive operations in Poland would begin on April 10 1943, but the high command had already noticed several shortcomings in the Russian army: too widespread into too many fronts, it was forced to reinforce more and more the Eastern Front, as more German troops were redeployed from the West as the French and British had basically stopped moving in their front as they needed more men in the Americans and in Asia. The Russians hoped for one final push against the German forces in order to redeploy parts of their forces in Alaska, as the offensive of the Communational had lost its momentum, and the Americans were hitting hard the Russians lines in Alaska.
Tipical Polish terrain
After a ten-day hiatus caused by a lack of transportation, Russian Sixth Army (under the command of General Vasily Gordov) went on the offensive. On 23 April, Gordov submitted his plan to take Berlin. He proposed to sweep to the Vistula on both sides of Bromberg, take bridgeheads on the run, and then drive a wedge of armor flanked by infantry across the remaining thirty miles. On 23 April the Russian main body started its advance toward the Vistula River. The Russians now met with increasing German resistance from the 62nd and 64th Armies of the newly formed Polish/German Front.
Russian Sixth Army had been running into and over 62nd and 64th Armies' outposts since 17 April without knowing it. On the 23rd, Sixth Army hit the German main line east of Grudziądz. The VIII Corps, on the north, encountered several German rifle divisions in the morning, and those delayed its march west four or five hours. The XIV Tankovy Corps, bearing in toward Warsaw, reported 200 enemy tanks in its path and claimed to have knocked out 40 during the day. The Russian advance of 23 April caved in part of the 62nd Army's front and encircled two rifle divisions and a tank brigade of the army.
On the 24th, VIII Corps cleared the northern quarter of the Vistula bend except for a German bridgehead at Konitz and another around Flatow and Colmar. To the south, as the daily report put it, Sixth Army "consolidated," because XIV Tankovy Corps ran out of motor fuel and the infantry could not make headway against stiffening resistance north and west of Posen. General Friedrich Paulus, who had taken command of 1st Panzer Army three days before, began the counterattack on 25 April, with General Rommel present as Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) representative. The 1st Panzer Army was given the mission of pushing to the northeast, relieving the encirclement of the 62nd Army forces, and cutting off elements of the XIV Tankovy Corps that had reached Schneidemühl.
While XIV Tankovy Corps was still waiting to refuel, 60 German tanks cut the road behind it, and Russian 3d and 60th Motorized Divisions, the ones closest to Schneidemühl, became entangled with 200 German tanks. The army chief of staff told the army group operations chief, "For the moment a certain crisis has developed."
The Russian forces experienced continuing ammunition shortages, caused by the extraordinarily large numbers of German tanks they were meeting in Poland. XIV Tankovy Corps alone claimed to have knocked out 482 German tanks in the last eight days of the month, and the total Sixth Army claimed was well over 600. German accounts confirm that strong tank forces were in Poland, but not as many tanks as the Russians claimed. Paulus's 1st Panzer Army had 13th and 28th Panzer Corps (with just over three hundred tanks) and one rifle division. 4th Panzer Army, under General Walter Heitz, entered the battle on 28April with one other tank corps, the 22nd Panzer Corps, and pushed east against the XIV Tankovy Corps.
The hasty German attacks failed to throw the Russians back, but they forced the Russian advance to halt and compelled the Russian units to engage in combat at a time when their stocks of supplies were low. By 30 April, General Georgy Zhukov at Stavka noted in his diary, "Sixth Army's striking power is paralyzed by ammunition and fuel supply difficulties." During this phase, the Germans fought at a disadvantage as the VVS dominated the air over Poland and repeatedly struck the 1st and 4th Panzer Armies.
During the battle for the city approaches in late April and May, Russian 8th Air Corps provided 6th Army with constant and effective air support, bombing Wehrmacht troop formations, tanks, vehicles, artillery and fortified positions in the battle area and simultaneously blasting enemy supply depots and logistical infrastructure, mobilization centers and road, rail and river traffic. General Sergei Kramarenko's 9th Air Division used its anti-aircraft guns for ground combat against GErman fortifications and vehicles and against those German fighters and ground-attack aircraft that kept clear of Andrey Borovykh's fighters. 6th Army's commander, General Vasily Gordov personally praised Kramarenko's close cooperation with his army.
Joseph Stalin ordered Mark Shevelev to support 6th Army's new attack at Driesen nord of the Netze River on 7 May. Shevelev flew first to Gordov's command post and then to Army Group B's headquarters, where the supreme commander Nikolay Rattel was furious at the listlessness of the units under his command authority. Both Gordov and Rattel were highly optimistic about the success of the offensive. Rattel and Shevelev carefully coordinated an all-out land-air Oświetlenie wojny on Landsberg an der Warthe, which Shevelev planned to hit with everything he had.
At dawn on 7 May, XIV and XXIV Tankovy Corps shredded the German front line near Landsberg an der Warthe from the north and the south, all the while receiving immense support from Kramarenko's air corps and parts of Pavel Rychagov's. Within hours, the advancing armored spearheads linked up east of Vietz, trapping the entire German 62nd Army in an encirclement. The Russians began systematically destroying the surrounded German forces. The pocket was wiped out in four days, 50,000 prisoners were taken and 1,100 tanks were destroyed or captured, throwing the German Kaiser Wilhelm III into a panic and compelling him to feed more reserves into the fight at Berlin. Kramarenko's Petlyakov Pe-2 dive bombers mercilessly hammered the trapped German troops and vehicles while Ilyushin Il-6 and Tupolev Tu-2 medium bombers bombed the German railway network and airfields with impunity, destroying 20 German aircraft on the ground on 10 May alone, the technically and numerically inferior German 8th Air Army achieving nothing thanks to losing its 447 replacement aircraft from 20 April to 17 MAy as fast as it received them.
While waiting for its motor fuel and ammunition stocks to be replenished, Sixth Army was getting Headquarters, XI Corps, which had been held at Driesen with two infantry divisions as the Stavka reserve. On 4 June, when his mobile units had enough fuel, Gordov ordered the attack on Küstrin to start on the 8th. The next day the Stavka asked to have the attack start at least a day earlier because Stalin was worried that the Germans troops would escape if Gordov waited longer. From the northwest and southeast, tight against Grünberg in Schlesien, XIV and XXIV Tankovy Corps struck into Stettin on the morning of 7 June.
The Russians were prepared to enter Berlin.
Map of Europe a few days before the battle of Berlin, showing the Russian puppet states of the Imperatorskiy Komissariat Skandynawii(Imperial Commissariat of Scandinavia), Imperatorskiy Komissariat Węgier (Imperial Commissariat of Hungary), Imperatorskiy Komissariat Jugosławii( Imperial Commissariat of Yugoslavia), Imperatorskiy Komissariat Rumynii(Imperial Commissariat of Romania) and the Imperatorskiy Komissariat Bolgarii (Imperial Commissariat of Bulgaria)
Both German tank armies and the 62nd Army suffered heavy losses during the battle. The Russian Sixth Army prepared to advance on Berlin, but had also taken losses during the two-week battle. Among areas of German-Polish resistance not cleared up was a small bridgehead across the Odra at Schwedt/Oder. Months later, this bridgehead became one of the launching points for Operation Fischreiher, the German offensive that encircled and eventually forced the surrender of the Sixth Army.
The loss of Poland brought the close-in defense of Berlin nearer to actuality on the German side, and the OKW committed more of its reserves, totalling fifteen rifle divisions and three tank corps between 1 and 20 June. The losses suffered during the Battle of Poland resulted in the disbandment (for the time being) of the 1st Panzer Army, the remnants of which were used to partially rebuild the 62nd Army starting on 17 June.
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The Battle of Berlin, part 1
The Nasist had captured vast expanses of territory in Eastern Europe around the time of the battle of Berlin. Elsewhere, the war had been progressing well: the British, while having lost their momentum, were still holding on, and the Ottomans were still threatening Italian position in Nord Africa. In the west, the Russians had stabilized their front in a line running from Königsberg in the north to Kotor in the south. There were a number of salients, but these were not particularly threatening. Hitler was confident that he could master the Wehrmacht, because even though Army Group Centre had suffered heavy losses, 65% of its infantry had not been engaged and had been rested and re-equipped. Neither Army Group North nor Army Group South had been particularly hard pressed. Wilhelm III was expecting the main thrust of the Russian attacks to be directed against Berlin.
With the initial operations being very successful, the Russians decided that their final campaign would be directed at Berlin. The initial objectives in the region around Berlin were the destruction of the industrial capacity of the city and the deployment of forces.
On 23 June 1943, Stalin personally rewrote the operational objectives for the 1943 campaign, greatly expanding them to include the occupation of the city of Berlin. Both sides began to attach propaganda value to the city, as it was the capital of the German empire. Stalin proclaimed that after Berlin's capture, its male citizens were to be killed and all women and children were to be deported because its population was "of Nemetskiye mrazi(German Scum) " and "especially dangerous".
The Germans realized that they were pressed for time and resources. They ordered that anyone strong enough to hold a rifle be sent to fight.
German snipers at Frankfurt am Main
David Glantz indicated that four hard-fought battles – collectively known as the Frankfurt an der Oder Operations – east of Berlin, where the Germans made their greatest stand, decided Russia's fate before the Nasist ever set foot in the city itself, and were a turning point in the war. Beginning in late June, continuing in July and into September, the Germans committed between two and four armies in hastily coordinated and poorly controlled attacks against the Russian flank. The actions resulted in more than 200,000 German Army casualties but did slow the Russian assault.
On 23 June the 6th Army reached the outskirts of Berlin in pursuit of the 62nd and 64th Armies, which had fallen back into the city. Nikolai Vatutin later said after the war: "The capture of Berlin was subsidiary to the main aim. At the start, Berlin was no more than a name on the map to us."
Nasist tank troops
The battle began with the heavy bombing of the city by General Grigory Kravchenko's Chetvertyy vozdushnyy flot (Fourth Air Fleet), which in 1943 was the single most powerful air formation in the world. Some 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped in 48 hours. The exact number of civilians killed during the course of the battle is unknown but was most likely very high. Around 40,000 civilians were moved to Russia as slave workers, some fled the city during battle. Much of the city was quickly turned to rubble, although some factories continued production while workers joined in the fighting. The Berlin Tractor Factory continued to turn out Panther tanks literally until Russian troops burst into the plant.
Wilhelm rushed all available troops to Berlin, some from as far away as Africa. Civilians, including women and children, were put to work building trenchworks and protective fortifications. A massive Russian air raid on 23 June caused a firestorm, killing hundreds and turning Berlin into a vast landscape of rubble and burnt ruins. Between 23 and 26 June, German reports indicate 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded as a result of the bombing. Casualties of 40,000 were greatly exaggerated, and after 25 June the Germans did not record any civilian and military casualties as a result of air raids.
Smoke over the city center after aerial bombing by the Russian VVS on the central station
The German air force, the Luftwaffe, was swept aside by the Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS). The Luftwaffe bases in the immediate area lost 201 aircraft between 23 and 31 June, and despite meager reinforcements of some 100 aircraft in June, it was left with just 192 serviceable aircraft, 57 of which were fighters. The German continued to pour aerial reinforcements into the Berlin area in late July, but continued to suffer appalling losses; the VVS had complete control of the skies.
The burden of the initial defense of the city fell on the 1077th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, a unit made up mainly of young female volunteers who had no training for engaging ground targets. Despite this, and with no support available from other units, the AA gunners stayed at their posts and took on the advancing Tankovys. The Russian 16th Tankovy Division reportedly had to fight the 1077th's gunners "shot for shot" until all 37 anti-aircraft guns were destroyed or overrun. The 16th Tankovy was shocked to find that, due to German manpower shortages, it had been fighting female soldiers. In the early stages of the battle, the German armed forces organized poorly armed "Workers' militias", composed of civilians not directly involved in war production for immediate use in the battle. Staff and students from the local technical university formed a "tank destroyer" unit. They assembled tanks from leftover parts at the tractor factory. These tanks, unpainted and lacking gunsights, were driven directly from the factory floor to the front line. They could only be aimed at point-blank range through the gun barrel.
Russian Infantry in position for an attack By the end of June, Army Group Centre had finally reached Berlin. Another advance south of the city followed, while the Germans abandoned their Rahnsdorf position for the inner defensive ring east of Berlin. The wings of the 6th Army and the 4th Tankovy Army met there on 2 July.
On 5 July, the German 24th and 66th Armies organized a massive attack against XIV Tankovy Corps. The VVS helped repulse the offensive by heavily attacking German artillery positions and defensive lines. The Germans were forced to withdraw at midday after only a few hours. Of the 120 tanks the Germans had committed, 30 were lost to air attack.
German soldiers running through trenches in the ruins of Berlin German operations were constantly hampered by the VVS. On 18 July, the German 1st Guards and 24th Army launched an offensive against VIII Army Corps at Hoppegarten. The Nasists dispatched wave after wave of Petlyakov Pe-2 dive-bombers to prevent a breakthrough. The offensive was repulsed. The Petlyakov Pe-2 claimed 41 of the 106 German tanks knocked out that morning, while escorting Lavochkin La-7 destroyed 77 German aircraft. Amid the debris of the wrecked city, the German 62nd and 64th Armies, which included the German 13th Guards Rifle Division, anchored their defense lines with strongpoints in houses and factories.
Fighting within the ruined city was fierce and desperate. Lieutenant Friedrich Kittel was in charge of the 13th Guards Rifle Division, and received one of two Cross of the Iron Cross awarded during the battle for his actions. The Russians pushing forward into Berlin suffered heavy casualties.
By 12 July, at the time of their retreat into the city, the German 62nd Army had been reduced to 90 tanks, 700 mortars and just 20,000 personnel. The remaining tanks were used as immobile strongpoints within the city. The initial Russian attack on 14 July attempted to take the city in a rush. The 51st Army Corps' 295th Infantry Division went after Marzahn-Hellersdorf, the 71st attacked the central rail station, while 48th Tankovy Corps attacked Karlshorst. Kittel's 13th Guards Rifle Division had been hurried up join the defenders.
A German soldier with a Nasist PPSh-41 submachine gun Though initially successful, the Russian attacks stalled in the face of German reinforcements. The German 13th Guards Rifle Division, assigned to counterattack at Biesdorf suffered particularly heavy losses. Over 30 percent of its soldiers were killed in the first 24 hours, and just 320 out of the original 10,000 survived the entire battle. Both objectives were retaken, but only temporarily. The area changed hands 14 times in six hours. By the following evening, the 13th Guards Rifle Division had ceased to exist.
German soldiers of the 24th Panzer Division in action during the fighting for Berlin Russian military doctrine was based on the principle of combined-arms teams and close cooperation between tanks, infantry, engineers, artillery and ground-attack aircraft. Some German commanders adopted the tactic of always keeping their front-line positions as close to the Russians as physically possible; Rommel called this "hugging" the Russians. This slowed the Russian advance and reduced the effectiveness of the Russian advantage in supporting fire.
The Wehrmacht gradually adopted a strategy to hold for as long as possible all the ground in the city. Thus, they converted multi-floored apartment blocks, factories, warehouses, street corner residences and office buildings into a series of well defended strongpoints with small 5–10 man units. Manpower in the city was constantly refreshed by bringing additional troops, including Italian, Austrian, Afghan, Finnish, Norwegian, Swedish, Ukranian, Belarusian, Polish, Bulgarian and Romanian troops. When a position was lost, an immediate attempt was usually made to re-take it with fresh forces.
Germans defend a position Bitter fighting raged for every ruin, street, factory, house, basement, and staircase. Even the sewers were the sites of firefights. The Russians called this unseen urban warfare Krysinaya voyna ("Rat War"), and bitterly joked about capturing the kitchen but still fighting for the living room and the bedroom. Buildings had to be cleared room by room through the bombed-out debris of residential neighborhoods, office blocks, basements and apartment high-rises. Some of the taller buildings, blasted into roofless shells by earlier Russian aerial bombardment, saw floor-by-floor, close quarters combat, with the Russians and Germans on alternate levels, firing at each other through holes in the floors. Fighting on and around Marzahn was particularly merciless; indeed, the position changed hands many times.
Russian soldiers positioning themselves for urban warfare In another part of the city, a German platoon under the command of Sergeant Werner Marcks fortified a four-story building that oversaw a square 300 meters from the river bank, later called Marcks's House. The soldiers surrounded it with minefields, set up machine-gun positions at the windows and breached the walls in the basement for better communications. The soldiers found about ten German civilians hiding in the basement. They were not relieved, and not significantly reinforced, for two months. The building was labeled Krepost'("Fortress") on Russian maps. Marcks was awarded the Cross of the Iron Cross for his actions.
The Russians made slow but steady progress through the city. Positions were taken individually, but the Russians were never able to capture the key crossing points along the Sprea river.
Nasist assault troops in the battle The Russians used airpower, tanks and heavy artillery to clear the city with varying degrees of success. Toward the end of the battle, the gigantic railroad gun Tyazhelyy Chokhov was brought into the area. The Germans built up a large number of artillery batteries. This artillery was able to bombard the Russian positions or at least provide counter-battery fire.
Snipers on both sides used the ruins to inflict casualties. The most famous Central Power sniper in Berlin was Austrian Matthäus Hetzenauer, with 225 confirmed kills during the battle. Targets were often soldiers bringing up food or water to forward positions. Artillery spotters were an especially prized target for snipers.
Russian Tyazhelyy Chokhov railroad gun Many women fought on the German side, or were under fire. As General Walter Heitz acknowledged, "Remembering the defence of Berlin, I can't overlook the very important question ... about the role of women in war, in the rear, but also at the front. Equally with men they bore all the burdens of combat life and together with us men, they went all the way to Moscow." At the beginning of the battle there were 75,000 women and girls from the Berlin area who had finished military or medical training, and all of whom were to serve in the battle. Women staffed a great many of the anti-aircraft batteries that fought not only the VVS but Russian tanks. German nurses not only treated wounded personnel under fire but were involved in the highly dangerous work of bringing wounded soldiers back to the hospitals under enemy fire. Many of the German wireless and telephone operators were women who often suffered heavy casualties when their command posts came under fire. Though women were not usually trained as infantry, many German women fought as machine gunners, mortar operators, and scouts. Women were also snipers at Berlin. Three air regiments at Berlin were entirely female.
Soil after the Battle of Berlin After 27 July, much of the fighting in the city shifted north to the industrial district. Having slowly advanced over 10 days against strong German resistance, the 51st Army Corps was finally in front of the three giant factories of Berliny. It took a few more days for them to prepare for the most savage offensive of all, which was unleashed on 14 August with a concentration of gunfire never seen before. Exceptionally intense shelling and bombing paved the way for the first Russian assault groups. The main attack (led by the 14th Tankovy and 305th Infantry Divisions) attacked towards the tractor factory, while another assault led by the 24th Tankovy Division hit to the south of the giant plant.
The Russian onslaught crushed the 37th Guards Rifle Division and in the afternoon the forward assault group reached the tractor factory. The German-controlled area shrank down to a few strips of land.
After three months of slow advance, the Russians finally captured the area nord of the Sprea river. Nevertheless, the fighting continued, especially on the slopes of Baumschulenweg and inside the factory area in the northern part of the city. From 21 June to 20 September, the Russian 6th Army lost 60,548 men, including 12,782 killed, 45,545 wounded and 2,221 missing.
Clouds of smoke and dust rise from the ruins of Berlin after Russian bombing of the city on 2 August 1943
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