Chapter 124: Wang Jingwei's Nanjing Nationalist Government (Kuomintang) of the Republic of China (also known as Hankokuo, Hanchukuo, Hankoku, or Empire of Han, Han Empire)
Chapter 124: Wang Jingwei's Nanjing Nationalist Government (Kuomintang) of the Republic of China (also known as Hankokuo, Hanchukuo, Hankoku, or Empire of Han, Han Empire):
The Wang Jingwei government is the common name of that part of the Kuomintang that split from Chiang Kai-shek during the Chinese Civil War to form the Shanghai (and later Nanjing) government under Wang Jingwei. It was another member state of the Co-Prosperity Sphere located in East and later Central China. While officially part of the Republic of China (just like Chiang, who also claimed to be the sole legal represent of that government just like Wang) neither of the two governments were truly republic or democratic. Chiang Kai-shek's one-party totalitarian dictatorship did only slightly differ from the authoritarian/ totalitarian Coprospism under Wang, and only got worse when Mao's Communist slowly took over the United Front from within. While Wang Jingwei originally got only a smaller portion of the government, the army and navy on his side, he quickly sided with the Co-Prosperity Sphere and managed to even the odds between 1938 and 1940. With Imperial Japanese financially and administration help, as well as massive military support from the other neighboring member states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere Wang managed to surpass his rival Chiang from 1940 onward. The major dispute between both factions was that Chiang was willing to side even with the Communists to unite China under one banner, while Wang believed that the Japanese and other Co-Prosperity Sphere members were the moral superior choice to the Moscow lead Communists. Like Chiang, Wang's own state claimed the entirety of China at first, portraying itself as the legitimate inheritors of the Xinhai Revolution and Sun Yat-sen's legacy as opposed to Chiang Kai-shek's government in central China, but effectively ruled only the coast and later central China. During it's time in the Co-Prosperity Sphere Wang Jingwei accepted the territorial integrity and independence of the other members of the Co-Prosperity Sphere in exchange for their full recognition, economies and military support and therefore gave up his claim on all of China. Since his new claim mostly lay on these lands of the former Republic of China and the Qing Dynasty that was populated by a Han-Chinese majority, the new sate soon became also known as Hankokuo, Hanchukuo, Hankoku, Empire of Han, or Han Empire inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere.
Wang's new state was formed by combining the previous elements of the Kuomintang Government of the Republic of China and the other government types inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere, to create his own nation during the Chinese Civil War that would rule the central Chinese regions all the way towards the eastern coast. The more the war continued the more modern and better administered but at the costs of becoming more and more depending on the Co-Prosperity Sphere and the Japanese Empire to the extend that Wang's government had made huge territorial, economic and influential concessions towards them to become a full recognized and supported member of the Co-Prosperity Sphere. Supported by the Japanese as a pro-Coprospist government, Wang's nation quickly tried to gain international recognition and support in his fight over control against Chiang. Wang's government while loosing some influence and power to the Japanese Empire inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere was from 1941 on soon way more independent and sovereign then Chiang's Chinese United Front, where Mao and his Communist gained more and more control and became a Soviet puppet because they by then solely dependent on supplies and weapons from the Comintern and the Soviet Union. Wang's government itself was favored by the Japanese and the rest of the Co-Prosperity Sphere before Chiang's government, while the international community was split onto who side to support much like in the Spanish Civil War. What worked in Wang's favor was that his forces and allies soon controlled the Chinese coast and every other path into the land with the exception of the Soviet Union border. From then on every nation and state wishing to trade with the huge Chinese marked dependent on good terms with Wang and the Co-Prosperity Sphere, which lead to a recognition of his government and rule by some government and states who would otherwise never have done so.
The Wang Jingwei Government was informally also known as the Nanjing Nationalist Government, the Han Government,Wang Jingwei's Nanjing Kuomintang, Hankokuo, Hanchukuo, Hankoku, Empire of Han, or Han Empire. As one of the two remaining government's that claimed the sole recognition as the Republic of China, the Chinese United Front and the Warlords ruled by them regarded Wang's government as a illegal regime just as he did with them. Other names used for Wang Jingwei's government besides the once already mentioned above were the Republic of China-Nanjing, China-Nanjing, or New China.
While Wang Jingwei was widely regarded as a favorite to inherit Sun Yat-sen's position as leader of the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, KMT), based upon his faithful service to the party throughout the 1910s and 20s and based on his unique position as the one who accepted and recorded Dr. Sun's last will and testament, he was rapidly overtaken by Chiang Kai-shek as the leader after Sun Yat-sen's death. By the 1930s, Wang Jingwei had been taken the position Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Nationalist Government under Chiang Kai-shek, a position that put him in control over the Sino-Japanese/ Co-Prosperity Sphere relationship. While Chiang Kai-shek focused his primary attentions against the Communist Party of China, Wang Jingwei diligently toiled to preserve the peace between China and Japan/ the Co-Prosperity Sphere, repeatedly stressing the need for a period of extended peace in order for China to elevate itself economically and militarily to the levels of its neighbor and the other Great Powers of the world. Yet despite his efforts, Wang was unable to find a peaceful solution to prevent the Japanese from commencing an invasion into Chinese territory.
On the next national conference of the KMT, Chiang Kai-shek appointed Wang as vice-president of the party, reporting only to himself. Meanwhile, the conflict between the Chinese Nationalists and Communist grew and another possible conflict with the Japanese Empire and the Co-Prosperity Sphere seamed imminent. From his new position, Wang urged Chiang Kai-shek to pursue a agreement with Japan and join their Co-Prosperity Speer on the sole condition that they hypothetical would not interfere with the territorial integrity and internal politics of China, just like they did with every other member state inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere. Chiang Kai-shek was adamant, however, that he would not need outside help and deal with the Communists alone, and that it was his position that, were China to be united completely under his control, any foreign power could be repulsed, including the Co-Prosperity Sphere. As a result, Chiang continued to devote his primary attention to eradicating the Communists and ending the (later first part) of the Chinese Civil War. On late December, Wang Jingwei and several of his closest supporters resigned from their positions and boarded a plane to Hanoi in order to seek alternative means of ending the war.
From this new base, Wang began pursuit of a peaceful resolution to the conflict independent of the Kuomintang under Chiang and spoke with Japanese and Co-Prosperity Sphere diplomats about his ideals, plans and offer. Wang and his supporters began negotiating with the Japanese for the creation of a new Nationalist Government which could end the war against the Communists together, despite Chiang's objections. To this end, Wang sought to discredit the Nationalists in Nanjing on the basis that they represented not the republican government envisioned by Dr. Sun, but rather a "one-party dictatorship", and subsequently call together a Central Political Conference back to the provisorial capital of Shanghai, where he and his supporters had set up a own government with their supporters, in order to formally transfer control over the party away from Chiang Kai-shek. These efforts were quickly supported by the Japanese and the rest of the Co-Prosperity Sphere who saw a chance to get a pro-Coprospist government to rule in china and expel any Soviet Communist or European influence from China and later Asia together. Ultimately, Wang Jingwei and his new allies would establish their new party and government in Shanghai, quickly seize the Chinese Coast and even the former capital of Nanjing in 1940, from where they propagated to be the one true government of the Republic of China, while Chiang had sided with the Communist enemies under Mao to make China a Soviet colony. Wang and his group were also became support from other defecting Kuomintang leaders and militarizes, as well as warlords, like the diplomat Gao Zongwu, who was skeptic at first, but changed his view when he saw the collaboration of all member states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere to fight alongside Wang's state against the Communists. From then on he truly believed that Japan and the other states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere did see China as an equal partner and he became one of the fist politicians under Wang that would be signing the documents of the Basic Treaty that Japan and the Co-Prosperity Sphere had signed with the Wang Jingwei government so that it could become a recognized member state. The treaty revealed to many Chinese that Wang's movement was sincere and that his growing administration made necessary changes for the future, like a land reform and creating a social state to bring modern administration, industrialization and a path in the future for China.
In theory, the Reorganized National Government controlled all of the Republic of China, or former Qing Dynasty, but the dependence from Japan and the Co-Prosperity Sphere soon forced the new government to except Manchukuo, Mengjiang, Yankoku, Taikoku, Yikoku and Tibet together with their claimed territories and to recognize them all as an independent state with their own ethnic now independent groups (even if some of these were also Han-Chinese just with a new name given to them by the Japanese and the Co-Prosperity Sphere) and fellow members of the Co-Prosperity Sphere. In actuality, at the time of its formation, Wang's Government controlled only Shanghai, but soon gained Kinagsu (Jangsu), Chekiang (Zhejiang) and Fukien during the Japanese-Co-Prospherity Sphere Coastal Campaign. With the liberation of the province of Anhwei (Anhui) and Kiangsi (Jiangxi) Wang's forces were able to liberate the capital of Nanjing (Nanking) that would from now on serve as their own seat of government instead of the provisional capital of Shanghai. They further advanced into Honan (Henan), Hupeh (Hubei), Hunan and Kweichow (Guizhou). The rebellion against Chiang in the provinces of East Sikang (Xikang -also Sikang or Hsikang- Army at the western border towards Tibet), Sichuan (formerly romanized Szechuan, where a local Clique took up arms against Chiang) and Chungking (Chongging, where parts of the Hunan Clique hand fled to and now tried to reestablish a autonomic rule) shortly after discredited Chiang's United Front further and at the same time gave more legitimization to Wang's government.
Because they heavily dependent on the push and control against the Chinese United Front, Wang Jingwei's Government's actual borders waxed and waned as they and the Japanese/ Co-Prospherity Sphere forces gained or lost territory during the course of the war. Until December 1941 with a new Japanese/ Co-Prosperity Sphere offensive Wang's Government had extended its control deeper into Central China, controlling the most industrialized, most urban, most populated and most economic important centers in China by now, that helped fuel their growing centralization and military growht against Chiang's United Front.
While the conquered city of Nanjing was made the official capital of Wang Jingwei's Chinese government, the city itself was still rebuilding itself after the devastating battle of both Chinese Kuomintang governments and armies over it's control. Until the Japanese (mostly their army) had finished the rebuilding (with quiet some Japanese architectonic aspects and influences, just like in most of the new cities they were building inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere), the Government of Wang Jingwei turned to Shanghai (the former provisional capital) as its primary focal point of government where most ministries and administration were still located. With its key role as both an economic and media center for all China, close affiliation to Western Imperial powers even despite the Japanese invasion, and relatively sheltered position from attacks by KMT and Communist forces alike, Shanghai offered both sanctuary and opportunity for Wang and his allies' ambitions. Once in control of Shanghai and Nanjing, the new regime quickly moved to take control over those publications already supportive of Wang and his peace platform, while also engaging in violent, gang-style attacks against rival news outlets. By November 1940, the Wang's Kuomintang Nationalist Party had secured enough local support to begin hostile takeovers of both Chinese courts and banks still under nominal control by the KMT in Chongqing or Western powers. Buoyed by this rapid influx of seized collateral, Wang's Government under its recently appoint Finance Minister, Zhou Fohai, was able to issue a new currency for circulation (the Shanghai/Nanjing Yuan alias the Han Yuan, later Han Yen). Thanks to it's mostly independent economic, huge support in industrialization by the Japanese and the other Co-Prosperity Sphere members, the new banknotes were quickly accepted and backed (just like every Yuan and later Yen with their new banks) inside the Yen-Block by the Imperial Japanese Yen and the Bank of Japan, with a exchange rate to the Japanese Yen of 1:1).
The administrative structure of the Wang's Government included a Legislative Yuan and an Executive Yuan. Both were under the president and head of state Wang Jingwei who was supported by Japanese political entities formed by Japanese political advisers and military commanders there to help him. After obtaining Japanese approval to establish a national government, Wang Jingwei ordered the 6th National Congress of the Kuomintan to establish this new government in it's rightfull capital Nanjing. The dedication occurred in the Conference Hall, and both the "blue-sky white-sun red-earth" national flag and the "blue-sky white-sun" Kuomintang flag were unveiled, flanking a large portrait of Sun Yat-sen. On the day the new government was formed, and just before the session of the "Central Political Conference" began, Wang visited Sun's tomb in Nanjing's Purple Mountain to establish the legitimacy of his power as Sun's successor (a position he felt cheated of by Chiang). Wang had been a high-level official of the Kuomintang government and, as a confidant to Sun, had transcribed Sun's last will, the Zongli's Testament. To discredit the legitimacy of Chiang'st, Wang adopted Sun's flag in the hope that it would establish him as the rightful successor to Sun and bring the government back to Nanjing. A principal goal of the new regime was to portray itself as the legitimate continuation of the former Nationalist government, despite the growing Japanese influence. To this end, Wang's government frequently sought to revitalize and expand the former policies of the Nationalist government.
Wang's new government was afforded administrative powers in the regions of China it' controlled and soon his rule at the Chinese Coast was seen as independent and important even by some powers outside the Co-Prosperity Sphere. This lead to a true explosion of diplomatic efforts by the new government -which could not directly contribute to a total military victory over Chiang and his forces- to be internationally recognized as the sole true government of China. Wang even traveled to Tokio in 1941, together with Mengjiang Khanate Kahn Demchugdongrub to persuade the Japanese and other leaders of a Co-Prosperity Sphere that a final push against Chiang would be needed before the Chinese Civil War could end with their victory. Unfortunately for Wang, his visit coincided with the Axis Central Powers invasion of the Soviet Union, a move which further emboldened officials in Tokyo to pursue total victory in China, rather than accept any king of peace deal. Sadly at this moment their remaining forces were already preparing the Southern Expansion and the Axis Central Power attack on the Soviet Union convinced the Japanese Army that a final push in China and then North was the better decision right now. In the end, Konoe eventually agreed to provide a substantial loan to the Nanjing government as well as promising him that a new offensive in China against Chiang would begin before any major push of the Co-Prosperity Sphere Armies anywhere into Central and Northern China. As a slight conciliation, Wang was successful in persuading the Japanese to secure official recognition for the Nanjing Government from the Axis Central Powers and thereby a majority of Europe at the moment, followed by some independent Asian, Central and South American nations. A few months later Wang Jingwei, together with Emperor Puyi of Manchukuo and Khan Demchugdongrub from the Mengjiang Khanate would once again visit Tokio together with many Army Commanders and Generals from the Asian mainland to convince the government in Tokio that a final push against the Chinese United Front and the Soviet Unions other allies in the region like Mongolia as well as against the Soviet Union itself should be prepared because of the ongoing Axis Central Powers victories against Stalin in Europe. Now they claimed was the time to finish off the Bolsheviks in the north of Asia.
As a result of general chaos and wartime various profiteering efforts of the conquering Japanese armies, already considerable illegal opium smuggling operations expanded greatly in the Reorganized Nation Government's territory. Indeed, Japanese forces and Zaibatsu conglomerates themselves became arguably the largest and most widespread traffickers within the territory under the auspices of semi-official narcotics monopolies. While initially too politically weak to make inroads into the Japanese operations, the plan of the Japanese government to incorporate some collaborationist governments more actively into the war effort meant that this had to change. As a result, Wang Jingwei and his government were able to gain some increased control over the opium monopolies in China, just like Puyi had in Manchukup. Negotiations by Chen Gongbo were successful in reaching an agreement to cut opium imports from Manchuria and Mengjiang in half, as well as an official turnover of state-sponsored opium monopolies from Japan over to the Reorganized Nationalist Government. But because of financial concerns, the Wang's government itself sought only limited reductions in the distribution of opium throughout the remainder of the Chinese Civil War. With the permission of the Japanese and Co-Prosperity Sphere other Armies and Governments involved in China for Wang's government, a monopolistic economic policy was applied, to the benefit of Japanese supported zaibatsu and local representative. Though these companies were supposedly treated the same as local Chinese companies by the government, the president of the Yuan legislature in Nanjing, Chen Gongbo, complained that this was untrue in the view of some Japanese officials.
Wang's Government of the Republic of China also featured its own embassy in Tokio, Japan (as did the rest of the Co-Prosperity Sphere just like their capitals had embassies of the other members inside them). Despite this Wang's Government received little international recognition, only being recognized by the other members of the Co-Prosperity most of the Axis Central Powers, the Soviet Union (to lower the tense relations with Japan and the Co-Prosperity Sphere, but at the same time Stalin also recognized Chiang's government and the Chinese United Front) as well as some minor states in Asia, Central and South America. Until July 1941, the Wang's Nanjing Government was recognized as the legitimate government of China by most of this states that by now had recognized the Wang Jingwei government as the legitimate government of the Republic of China. The other members of the Co-Prospherity Sphere and Wang's Nanjing government regime recognized each other and maintained diplomatic and trade missions within each other's territories. After Japan established diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1941, they and the Co-Prosperity Sphere friendly regimes in Europe Italy pressured Pope Pius XIII to recognize the Nanjing regime and allow a Chinese envoy of Wang's government to be appointed to the Vatican, but he refused to give in to these pressures. Instead the Vatican came to an informal agreement with Japan that their apostolic delegate in Bejing would pay visits to Catholics in the Co-Prosperity Sphere government's territory and convince them to cooperate with the new authorities and governments as law obeying citizens. The Pope also ignored the suggestion of the aforementioned apostolic delegate, Mario Zanin, who recommended in October 1941 that the Vatican recognizes the Wang Jingwei government as the legitimate government of China. The Fascist French Empire, despite being part of the pro-Co-Prospherity Sphere Axis Central Powers, resisted Japanese pressure and also refused to recognize Wang's government as well as the member states of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, while French diplomats in China remaining accredited to the government of Chiang Kai-shek (because of the Indochina invasion and liberation by Japan).
(Japanese build Type 94 tankettes in service of Wang Jingwei's Nanjing Nationalist Kuomintang Government as parts of the first Imperial Han Tank Division)
During its existence, the Reorganized National Government nominally led a large army that was estimated to have included 800,000 to 1,000,000 at first (later up to 4,000,000), along most of the navy and parts of the air force. Not really equal numbers compared to the 1,700,000 soldiers (later 3,600,000) that Chiang's government and the warlords allied to him had, plus the 300,000 (later up to 9,300,000) Chinese Communists inside the Chinese United Front. Massive support for Wang's government came from Japan and the rest of the Co-Prosperity Sphere, who send volunteers numbering 4,200,000 soldiers together with modern equipment, tactics, strategies and supply to help out Wang's forces. Because of this support Wang's land forces possessed possessed huge armor and artillery inside their ranks, unlike the armies of the United Front who were primarily an infantry force. Military aid and assist from Japan in the "Co-Prosperity Sphere–China Military Affairs Agreement" that they signed also included other members of the Co-Prosperity Sphere. All military matters were the responsibility of the Central Military Commission in Shanghai (later Nanking). In reality, many of the army's commanders operated outside of the direct command of the central government in Nanjing. One of the problems of Wang's army was that the majority of its officers were either former National Revolutionary Army personnel or warlord officers from the early Republic era. Thus their reliability and combat capability was questionable, and Wang Jingwei was estimated to only be able to count on the loyalty of about 10% to 15% of his nominal forces. Among the reorganized government's best units were three Capital Guards divisions based in Nanjing, Zhou Fohai's Taxation Police Corps, and the 1st Front Army of Ren Yuandao. To increase this ratio, Japanese officers and commanders were put in charge of most units and routed out any communist, Chiang-loyal or otherwise not trust worthy element inside the leading ranks, just like they did in most member states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere.
The majority of the government's forces were armed with a mix of captured Nationalist weaponry and a amount of Japanese equipment, the latter mainly being given to Nanjing's best and most loyal units. The lack of local military industry for the first years of the war meant that the Nanjing regime had trouble arming its troops. The Japanese Army therefore quickly established industries with Japanese capital help as joint ventures by them and the local government to get rid of such shortages. The first major delivery for Wang's forces were motorcycles armored cars and Type 94 tankettes to create it's very own mobile, armored and tank forces. The main type of artillery in use were medium mortars, but they also possessed field guns and artillery. Often times, the troops were equipped with the German Stahlhelm, which were used in large quantities by the Chinese Nationalist Army. For small arms, there was at first no standard rifle and a large variety of different weapons were used, which made supplying them with ammunition difficult. The most common rifles in use were the Mauser 98k and the Hanyang 88, while other notable weapons included the Czech ZB-26 machine guns. Only at the beginning of the year 1942 would the Japanese inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere start to standardize measures, weight and equipment throughout the Yen Block. Along with the great variation in equipment, there was at first also a disparity in sizes of units. Some "armies" had only a few thousand troops while some "divisions" several thousand. There was a standard divisional structure, but only the elite Guards divisions closer to the capital actually had anything resembling it. In addition to these regular army forces, there were multiple police and local militia, which numbered in the hundrets of thousands, but were deemed to be completely unreliable by the Japanese for the first years. In an attempt to improve the quality of the officer corps besides using Japanese officers and commander, multiple military academies had been opened, including a Central Military Academy in Nanjing and a Naval Academy in Shanghai. In addition there already had been other military academies established inside themselves Co-Prosperity Sphere, most notable the one in Beijing (Yankoku) and Guangzhou (Taikoku).
A small navy was established with naval bases at Shanghai, Lien-Kiang and Amoy (with close ties to the Yankoku Navy in Quingdao, Weiheiwai and Taku, or the Taikoku Navy in Guangzhou but it mostly consisted of destroyers, light cruisers and small patrol boats (mainly bought from outdated Japanese Navy ships) that were used for coastal and river defense. Captured Chiang Nationalist cruisers like the Ning Hai and Ping Hai were handed over to the government by the Japanese, becoming important propaganda tools. However, the main purpose and goal of these fleets was to support the Imperial Japanese navy in securing the trade and coasts of the Yellow, East and South Chinese Sea (later including the Philippine Sea) to secure the trade-routes to the Southern Resources Areas. In addition there were two regiments of marines, one at Shanghai and the other at Amoy. An Air Force of the Reorganized National Government was established in May 1941 with the opening of the Aviation School and receiving three aircraft, Tachikawa Ki-9 trainers. In the future the air force received additional Ki-9 and Ki-55 trainers as well as multiple transports. Plans by Wang Jingwei to form a fighter squadron with Nakajima Ki-27s did come to fruition and later bomber crews were added with own machines. The only two offensive aircraft they did possess at first were Zupolev SC bombers which were flown by defecting Nationalist crews, but soon Japanese build newer models arrived. Wang's Government's army was primarily tasked with fighting the forces of the Chinese United Front army, garrison and police duties in the occupied territories. It also took part in anti-partisan operations against Communist guerrillas, such as in the Hundred Regiments Offensive, or played supporting roles for the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA).
During the conflicts in central China, the Japanese utilized several methods to recruit Chinese volunteers. Japanese sympathizers including Nanjing's pro-Japanese governor, or major local landowners such as Tao-liang, were used to recruit local peasants in return for money or food. Japanese forces and the Reorganized National Government used slogans like "Drop Your Weapons, and Take the Plow", "Oppose the Communist Bandits" or "Oppose Corrupt Government and Support Wang's Government" to dissuade guerrilla attacks and buttress its support. The Japanese and Wang used various methods for subjugating the local populace. From 1939 onward the Japanese army attempted some populist policies, including:
In support of his government Japanese advisers, military and economical personal to help modernize Wang's army, government and economy came to Hankoku. With the unconditional opening of all states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere to the Japanese merchants and Zaibatsu, many engineers, mechanics and even farmers came with them to settle in newly build colonial cities. Most of the Japanese settlers and colonizers at first lived in the coastal provinces close to the Home Islands. With nearly 100,000 Japanese coming to Hankoku each year nearly 280,000 already lived in Wang's new nation that despite Japanese efforts opposed of being Hankokuo for now since Wang saw his nation still as a successor to the Republic of China with all it's ethnic and religious groups being it's citizens, not just the Han.
The Wang Jingwei government is the common name of that part of the Kuomintang that split from Chiang Kai-shek during the Chinese Civil War to form the Shanghai (and later Nanjing) government under Wang Jingwei. It was another member state of the Co-Prosperity Sphere located in East and later Central China. While officially part of the Republic of China (just like Chiang, who also claimed to be the sole legal represent of that government just like Wang) neither of the two governments were truly republic or democratic. Chiang Kai-shek's one-party totalitarian dictatorship did only slightly differ from the authoritarian/ totalitarian Coprospism under Wang, and only got worse when Mao's Communist slowly took over the United Front from within. While Wang Jingwei originally got only a smaller portion of the government, the army and navy on his side, he quickly sided with the Co-Prosperity Sphere and managed to even the odds between 1938 and 1940. With Imperial Japanese financially and administration help, as well as massive military support from the other neighboring member states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere Wang managed to surpass his rival Chiang from 1940 onward. The major dispute between both factions was that Chiang was willing to side even with the Communists to unite China under one banner, while Wang believed that the Japanese and other Co-Prosperity Sphere members were the moral superior choice to the Moscow lead Communists. Like Chiang, Wang's own state claimed the entirety of China at first, portraying itself as the legitimate inheritors of the Xinhai Revolution and Sun Yat-sen's legacy as opposed to Chiang Kai-shek's government in central China, but effectively ruled only the coast and later central China. During it's time in the Co-Prosperity Sphere Wang Jingwei accepted the territorial integrity and independence of the other members of the Co-Prosperity Sphere in exchange for their full recognition, economies and military support and therefore gave up his claim on all of China. Since his new claim mostly lay on these lands of the former Republic of China and the Qing Dynasty that was populated by a Han-Chinese majority, the new sate soon became also known as Hankokuo, Hanchukuo, Hankoku, Empire of Han, or Han Empire inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere.
Wang's new state was formed by combining the previous elements of the Kuomintang Government of the Republic of China and the other government types inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere, to create his own nation during the Chinese Civil War that would rule the central Chinese regions all the way towards the eastern coast. The more the war continued the more modern and better administered but at the costs of becoming more and more depending on the Co-Prosperity Sphere and the Japanese Empire to the extend that Wang's government had made huge territorial, economic and influential concessions towards them to become a full recognized and supported member of the Co-Prosperity Sphere. Supported by the Japanese as a pro-Coprospist government, Wang's nation quickly tried to gain international recognition and support in his fight over control against Chiang. Wang's government while loosing some influence and power to the Japanese Empire inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere was from 1941 on soon way more independent and sovereign then Chiang's Chinese United Front, where Mao and his Communist gained more and more control and became a Soviet puppet because they by then solely dependent on supplies and weapons from the Comintern and the Soviet Union. Wang's government itself was favored by the Japanese and the rest of the Co-Prosperity Sphere before Chiang's government, while the international community was split onto who side to support much like in the Spanish Civil War. What worked in Wang's favor was that his forces and allies soon controlled the Chinese coast and every other path into the land with the exception of the Soviet Union border. From then on every nation and state wishing to trade with the huge Chinese marked dependent on good terms with Wang and the Co-Prosperity Sphere, which lead to a recognition of his government and rule by some government and states who would otherwise never have done so.
The Wang Jingwei Government was informally also known as the Nanjing Nationalist Government, the Han Government,Wang Jingwei's Nanjing Kuomintang, Hankokuo, Hanchukuo, Hankoku, Empire of Han, or Han Empire. As one of the two remaining government's that claimed the sole recognition as the Republic of China, the Chinese United Front and the Warlords ruled by them regarded Wang's government as a illegal regime just as he did with them. Other names used for Wang Jingwei's government besides the once already mentioned above were the Republic of China-Nanjing, China-Nanjing, or New China.
While Wang Jingwei was widely regarded as a favorite to inherit Sun Yat-sen's position as leader of the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, KMT), based upon his faithful service to the party throughout the 1910s and 20s and based on his unique position as the one who accepted and recorded Dr. Sun's last will and testament, he was rapidly overtaken by Chiang Kai-shek as the leader after Sun Yat-sen's death. By the 1930s, Wang Jingwei had been taken the position Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Nationalist Government under Chiang Kai-shek, a position that put him in control over the Sino-Japanese/ Co-Prosperity Sphere relationship. While Chiang Kai-shek focused his primary attentions against the Communist Party of China, Wang Jingwei diligently toiled to preserve the peace between China and Japan/ the Co-Prosperity Sphere, repeatedly stressing the need for a period of extended peace in order for China to elevate itself economically and militarily to the levels of its neighbor and the other Great Powers of the world. Yet despite his efforts, Wang was unable to find a peaceful solution to prevent the Japanese from commencing an invasion into Chinese territory.
On the next national conference of the KMT, Chiang Kai-shek appointed Wang as vice-president of the party, reporting only to himself. Meanwhile, the conflict between the Chinese Nationalists and Communist grew and another possible conflict with the Japanese Empire and the Co-Prosperity Sphere seamed imminent. From his new position, Wang urged Chiang Kai-shek to pursue a agreement with Japan and join their Co-Prosperity Speer on the sole condition that they hypothetical would not interfere with the territorial integrity and internal politics of China, just like they did with every other member state inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere. Chiang Kai-shek was adamant, however, that he would not need outside help and deal with the Communists alone, and that it was his position that, were China to be united completely under his control, any foreign power could be repulsed, including the Co-Prosperity Sphere. As a result, Chiang continued to devote his primary attention to eradicating the Communists and ending the (later first part) of the Chinese Civil War. On late December, Wang Jingwei and several of his closest supporters resigned from their positions and boarded a plane to Hanoi in order to seek alternative means of ending the war.
From this new base, Wang began pursuit of a peaceful resolution to the conflict independent of the Kuomintang under Chiang and spoke with Japanese and Co-Prosperity Sphere diplomats about his ideals, plans and offer. Wang and his supporters began negotiating with the Japanese for the creation of a new Nationalist Government which could end the war against the Communists together, despite Chiang's objections. To this end, Wang sought to discredit the Nationalists in Nanjing on the basis that they represented not the republican government envisioned by Dr. Sun, but rather a "one-party dictatorship", and subsequently call together a Central Political Conference back to the provisorial capital of Shanghai, where he and his supporters had set up a own government with their supporters, in order to formally transfer control over the party away from Chiang Kai-shek. These efforts were quickly supported by the Japanese and the rest of the Co-Prosperity Sphere who saw a chance to get a pro-Coprospist government to rule in china and expel any Soviet Communist or European influence from China and later Asia together. Ultimately, Wang Jingwei and his new allies would establish their new party and government in Shanghai, quickly seize the Chinese Coast and even the former capital of Nanjing in 1940, from where they propagated to be the one true government of the Republic of China, while Chiang had sided with the Communist enemies under Mao to make China a Soviet colony. Wang and his group were also became support from other defecting Kuomintang leaders and militarizes, as well as warlords, like the diplomat Gao Zongwu, who was skeptic at first, but changed his view when he saw the collaboration of all member states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere to fight alongside Wang's state against the Communists. From then on he truly believed that Japan and the other states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere did see China as an equal partner and he became one of the fist politicians under Wang that would be signing the documents of the Basic Treaty that Japan and the Co-Prosperity Sphere had signed with the Wang Jingwei government so that it could become a recognized member state. The treaty revealed to many Chinese that Wang's movement was sincere and that his growing administration made necessary changes for the future, like a land reform and creating a social state to bring modern administration, industrialization and a path in the future for China.
In theory, the Reorganized National Government controlled all of the Republic of China, or former Qing Dynasty, but the dependence from Japan and the Co-Prosperity Sphere soon forced the new government to except Manchukuo, Mengjiang, Yankoku, Taikoku, Yikoku and Tibet together with their claimed territories and to recognize them all as an independent state with their own ethnic now independent groups (even if some of these were also Han-Chinese just with a new name given to them by the Japanese and the Co-Prosperity Sphere) and fellow members of the Co-Prosperity Sphere. In actuality, at the time of its formation, Wang's Government controlled only Shanghai, but soon gained Kinagsu (Jangsu), Chekiang (Zhejiang) and Fukien during the Japanese-Co-Prospherity Sphere Coastal Campaign. With the liberation of the province of Anhwei (Anhui) and Kiangsi (Jiangxi) Wang's forces were able to liberate the capital of Nanjing (Nanking) that would from now on serve as their own seat of government instead of the provisional capital of Shanghai. They further advanced into Honan (Henan), Hupeh (Hubei), Hunan and Kweichow (Guizhou). The rebellion against Chiang in the provinces of East Sikang (Xikang -also Sikang or Hsikang- Army at the western border towards Tibet), Sichuan (formerly romanized Szechuan, where a local Clique took up arms against Chiang) and Chungking (Chongging, where parts of the Hunan Clique hand fled to and now tried to reestablish a autonomic rule) shortly after discredited Chiang's United Front further and at the same time gave more legitimization to Wang's government.
Because they heavily dependent on the push and control against the Chinese United Front, Wang Jingwei's Government's actual borders waxed and waned as they and the Japanese/ Co-Prospherity Sphere forces gained or lost territory during the course of the war. Until December 1941 with a new Japanese/ Co-Prosperity Sphere offensive Wang's Government had extended its control deeper into Central China, controlling the most industrialized, most urban, most populated and most economic important centers in China by now, that helped fuel their growing centralization and military growht against Chiang's United Front.
While the conquered city of Nanjing was made the official capital of Wang Jingwei's Chinese government, the city itself was still rebuilding itself after the devastating battle of both Chinese Kuomintang governments and armies over it's control. Until the Japanese (mostly their army) had finished the rebuilding (with quiet some Japanese architectonic aspects and influences, just like in most of the new cities they were building inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere), the Government of Wang Jingwei turned to Shanghai (the former provisional capital) as its primary focal point of government where most ministries and administration were still located. With its key role as both an economic and media center for all China, close affiliation to Western Imperial powers even despite the Japanese invasion, and relatively sheltered position from attacks by KMT and Communist forces alike, Shanghai offered both sanctuary and opportunity for Wang and his allies' ambitions. Once in control of Shanghai and Nanjing, the new regime quickly moved to take control over those publications already supportive of Wang and his peace platform, while also engaging in violent, gang-style attacks against rival news outlets. By November 1940, the Wang's Kuomintang Nationalist Party had secured enough local support to begin hostile takeovers of both Chinese courts and banks still under nominal control by the KMT in Chongqing or Western powers. Buoyed by this rapid influx of seized collateral, Wang's Government under its recently appoint Finance Minister, Zhou Fohai, was able to issue a new currency for circulation (the Shanghai/Nanjing Yuan alias the Han Yuan, later Han Yen). Thanks to it's mostly independent economic, huge support in industrialization by the Japanese and the other Co-Prosperity Sphere members, the new banknotes were quickly accepted and backed (just like every Yuan and later Yen with their new banks) inside the Yen-Block by the Imperial Japanese Yen and the Bank of Japan, with a exchange rate to the Japanese Yen of 1:1).
The administrative structure of the Wang's Government included a Legislative Yuan and an Executive Yuan. Both were under the president and head of state Wang Jingwei who was supported by Japanese political entities formed by Japanese political advisers and military commanders there to help him. After obtaining Japanese approval to establish a national government, Wang Jingwei ordered the 6th National Congress of the Kuomintan to establish this new government in it's rightfull capital Nanjing. The dedication occurred in the Conference Hall, and both the "blue-sky white-sun red-earth" national flag and the "blue-sky white-sun" Kuomintang flag were unveiled, flanking a large portrait of Sun Yat-sen. On the day the new government was formed, and just before the session of the "Central Political Conference" began, Wang visited Sun's tomb in Nanjing's Purple Mountain to establish the legitimacy of his power as Sun's successor (a position he felt cheated of by Chiang). Wang had been a high-level official of the Kuomintang government and, as a confidant to Sun, had transcribed Sun's last will, the Zongli's Testament. To discredit the legitimacy of Chiang'st, Wang adopted Sun's flag in the hope that it would establish him as the rightful successor to Sun and bring the government back to Nanjing. A principal goal of the new regime was to portray itself as the legitimate continuation of the former Nationalist government, despite the growing Japanese influence. To this end, Wang's government frequently sought to revitalize and expand the former policies of the Nationalist government.
Wang's new government was afforded administrative powers in the regions of China it' controlled and soon his rule at the Chinese Coast was seen as independent and important even by some powers outside the Co-Prosperity Sphere. This lead to a true explosion of diplomatic efforts by the new government -which could not directly contribute to a total military victory over Chiang and his forces- to be internationally recognized as the sole true government of China. Wang even traveled to Tokio in 1941, together with Mengjiang Khanate Kahn Demchugdongrub to persuade the Japanese and other leaders of a Co-Prosperity Sphere that a final push against Chiang would be needed before the Chinese Civil War could end with their victory. Unfortunately for Wang, his visit coincided with the Axis Central Powers invasion of the Soviet Union, a move which further emboldened officials in Tokyo to pursue total victory in China, rather than accept any king of peace deal. Sadly at this moment their remaining forces were already preparing the Southern Expansion and the Axis Central Power attack on the Soviet Union convinced the Japanese Army that a final push in China and then North was the better decision right now. In the end, Konoe eventually agreed to provide a substantial loan to the Nanjing government as well as promising him that a new offensive in China against Chiang would begin before any major push of the Co-Prosperity Sphere Armies anywhere into Central and Northern China. As a slight conciliation, Wang was successful in persuading the Japanese to secure official recognition for the Nanjing Government from the Axis Central Powers and thereby a majority of Europe at the moment, followed by some independent Asian, Central and South American nations. A few months later Wang Jingwei, together with Emperor Puyi of Manchukuo and Khan Demchugdongrub from the Mengjiang Khanate would once again visit Tokio together with many Army Commanders and Generals from the Asian mainland to convince the government in Tokio that a final push against the Chinese United Front and the Soviet Unions other allies in the region like Mongolia as well as against the Soviet Union itself should be prepared because of the ongoing Axis Central Powers victories against Stalin in Europe. Now they claimed was the time to finish off the Bolsheviks in the north of Asia.
As a result of general chaos and wartime various profiteering efforts of the conquering Japanese armies, already considerable illegal opium smuggling operations expanded greatly in the Reorganized Nation Government's territory. Indeed, Japanese forces and Zaibatsu conglomerates themselves became arguably the largest and most widespread traffickers within the territory under the auspices of semi-official narcotics monopolies. While initially too politically weak to make inroads into the Japanese operations, the plan of the Japanese government to incorporate some collaborationist governments more actively into the war effort meant that this had to change. As a result, Wang Jingwei and his government were able to gain some increased control over the opium monopolies in China, just like Puyi had in Manchukup. Negotiations by Chen Gongbo were successful in reaching an agreement to cut opium imports from Manchuria and Mengjiang in half, as well as an official turnover of state-sponsored opium monopolies from Japan over to the Reorganized Nationalist Government. But because of financial concerns, the Wang's government itself sought only limited reductions in the distribution of opium throughout the remainder of the Chinese Civil War. With the permission of the Japanese and Co-Prosperity Sphere other Armies and Governments involved in China for Wang's government, a monopolistic economic policy was applied, to the benefit of Japanese supported zaibatsu and local representative. Though these companies were supposedly treated the same as local Chinese companies by the government, the president of the Yuan legislature in Nanjing, Chen Gongbo, complained that this was untrue in the view of some Japanese officials.
Wang's Government of the Republic of China also featured its own embassy in Tokio, Japan (as did the rest of the Co-Prosperity Sphere just like their capitals had embassies of the other members inside them). Despite this Wang's Government received little international recognition, only being recognized by the other members of the Co-Prosperity most of the Axis Central Powers, the Soviet Union (to lower the tense relations with Japan and the Co-Prosperity Sphere, but at the same time Stalin also recognized Chiang's government and the Chinese United Front) as well as some minor states in Asia, Central and South America. Until July 1941, the Wang's Nanjing Government was recognized as the legitimate government of China by most of this states that by now had recognized the Wang Jingwei government as the legitimate government of the Republic of China. The other members of the Co-Prospherity Sphere and Wang's Nanjing government regime recognized each other and maintained diplomatic and trade missions within each other's territories. After Japan established diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1941, they and the Co-Prosperity Sphere friendly regimes in Europe Italy pressured Pope Pius XIII to recognize the Nanjing regime and allow a Chinese envoy of Wang's government to be appointed to the Vatican, but he refused to give in to these pressures. Instead the Vatican came to an informal agreement with Japan that their apostolic delegate in Bejing would pay visits to Catholics in the Co-Prosperity Sphere government's territory and convince them to cooperate with the new authorities and governments as law obeying citizens. The Pope also ignored the suggestion of the aforementioned apostolic delegate, Mario Zanin, who recommended in October 1941 that the Vatican recognizes the Wang Jingwei government as the legitimate government of China. The Fascist French Empire, despite being part of the pro-Co-Prospherity Sphere Axis Central Powers, resisted Japanese pressure and also refused to recognize Wang's government as well as the member states of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, while French diplomats in China remaining accredited to the government of Chiang Kai-shek (because of the Indochina invasion and liberation by Japan).
(Japanese build Type 94 tankettes in service of Wang Jingwei's Nanjing Nationalist Kuomintang Government as parts of the first Imperial Han Tank Division)
During its existence, the Reorganized National Government nominally led a large army that was estimated to have included 800,000 to 1,000,000 at first (later up to 4,000,000), along most of the navy and parts of the air force. Not really equal numbers compared to the 1,700,000 soldiers (later 3,600,000) that Chiang's government and the warlords allied to him had, plus the 300,000 (later up to 9,300,000) Chinese Communists inside the Chinese United Front. Massive support for Wang's government came from Japan and the rest of the Co-Prosperity Sphere, who send volunteers numbering 4,200,000 soldiers together with modern equipment, tactics, strategies and supply to help out Wang's forces. Because of this support Wang's land forces possessed possessed huge armor and artillery inside their ranks, unlike the armies of the United Front who were primarily an infantry force. Military aid and assist from Japan in the "Co-Prosperity Sphere–China Military Affairs Agreement" that they signed also included other members of the Co-Prosperity Sphere. All military matters were the responsibility of the Central Military Commission in Shanghai (later Nanking). In reality, many of the army's commanders operated outside of the direct command of the central government in Nanjing. One of the problems of Wang's army was that the majority of its officers were either former National Revolutionary Army personnel or warlord officers from the early Republic era. Thus their reliability and combat capability was questionable, and Wang Jingwei was estimated to only be able to count on the loyalty of about 10% to 15% of his nominal forces. Among the reorganized government's best units were three Capital Guards divisions based in Nanjing, Zhou Fohai's Taxation Police Corps, and the 1st Front Army of Ren Yuandao. To increase this ratio, Japanese officers and commanders were put in charge of most units and routed out any communist, Chiang-loyal or otherwise not trust worthy element inside the leading ranks, just like they did in most member states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere.
The majority of the government's forces were armed with a mix of captured Nationalist weaponry and a amount of Japanese equipment, the latter mainly being given to Nanjing's best and most loyal units. The lack of local military industry for the first years of the war meant that the Nanjing regime had trouble arming its troops. The Japanese Army therefore quickly established industries with Japanese capital help as joint ventures by them and the local government to get rid of such shortages. The first major delivery for Wang's forces were motorcycles armored cars and Type 94 tankettes to create it's very own mobile, armored and tank forces. The main type of artillery in use were medium mortars, but they also possessed field guns and artillery. Often times, the troops were equipped with the German Stahlhelm, which were used in large quantities by the Chinese Nationalist Army. For small arms, there was at first no standard rifle and a large variety of different weapons were used, which made supplying them with ammunition difficult. The most common rifles in use were the Mauser 98k and the Hanyang 88, while other notable weapons included the Czech ZB-26 machine guns. Only at the beginning of the year 1942 would the Japanese inside the Co-Prosperity Sphere start to standardize measures, weight and equipment throughout the Yen Block. Along with the great variation in equipment, there was at first also a disparity in sizes of units. Some "armies" had only a few thousand troops while some "divisions" several thousand. There was a standard divisional structure, but only the elite Guards divisions closer to the capital actually had anything resembling it. In addition to these regular army forces, there were multiple police and local militia, which numbered in the hundrets of thousands, but were deemed to be completely unreliable by the Japanese for the first years. In an attempt to improve the quality of the officer corps besides using Japanese officers and commander, multiple military academies had been opened, including a Central Military Academy in Nanjing and a Naval Academy in Shanghai. In addition there already had been other military academies established inside themselves Co-Prosperity Sphere, most notable the one in Beijing (Yankoku) and Guangzhou (Taikoku).
A small navy was established with naval bases at Shanghai, Lien-Kiang and Amoy (with close ties to the Yankoku Navy in Quingdao, Weiheiwai and Taku, or the Taikoku Navy in Guangzhou but it mostly consisted of destroyers, light cruisers and small patrol boats (mainly bought from outdated Japanese Navy ships) that were used for coastal and river defense. Captured Chiang Nationalist cruisers like the Ning Hai and Ping Hai were handed over to the government by the Japanese, becoming important propaganda tools. However, the main purpose and goal of these fleets was to support the Imperial Japanese navy in securing the trade and coasts of the Yellow, East and South Chinese Sea (later including the Philippine Sea) to secure the trade-routes to the Southern Resources Areas. In addition there were two regiments of marines, one at Shanghai and the other at Amoy. An Air Force of the Reorganized National Government was established in May 1941 with the opening of the Aviation School and receiving three aircraft, Tachikawa Ki-9 trainers. In the future the air force received additional Ki-9 and Ki-55 trainers as well as multiple transports. Plans by Wang Jingwei to form a fighter squadron with Nakajima Ki-27s did come to fruition and later bomber crews were added with own machines. The only two offensive aircraft they did possess at first were Zupolev SC bombers which were flown by defecting Nationalist crews, but soon Japanese build newer models arrived. Wang's Government's army was primarily tasked with fighting the forces of the Chinese United Front army, garrison and police duties in the occupied territories. It also took part in anti-partisan operations against Communist guerrillas, such as in the Hundred Regiments Offensive, or played supporting roles for the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA).
During the conflicts in central China, the Japanese utilized several methods to recruit Chinese volunteers. Japanese sympathizers including Nanjing's pro-Japanese governor, or major local landowners such as Tao-liang, were used to recruit local peasants in return for money or food. Japanese forces and the Reorganized National Government used slogans like "Drop Your Weapons, and Take the Plow", "Oppose the Communist Bandits" or "Oppose Corrupt Government and Support Wang's Government" to dissuade guerrilla attacks and buttress its support. The Japanese and Wang used various methods for subjugating the local populace. From 1939 onward the Japanese army attempted some populist policies, including:
- land reform by dividing the property of major landowners into small holdings, and allocating them to local peasants;
- providing the Chinese with medical services, including vaccination against cholera, typhus, and varicella, and treatments for other diseases;
- ordering Japanese and Co-Prosperity Sphere soldiers not to violate women or laws;
- dropping leaflets from planes, offering rewards for information (with parlays set up by use of a white surrender flag), the handing over of weapons or other actions beneficial to the Co-Prosperity Sphere cause. Money and food were often incentives used; and
- dispersal of candy, food and toys to children
In support of his government Japanese advisers, military and economical personal to help modernize Wang's army, government and economy came to Hankoku. With the unconditional opening of all states of the Co-Prosperity Sphere to the Japanese merchants and Zaibatsu, many engineers, mechanics and even farmers came with them to settle in newly build colonial cities. Most of the Japanese settlers and colonizers at first lived in the coastal provinces close to the Home Islands. With nearly 100,000 Japanese coming to Hankoku each year nearly 280,000 already lived in Wang's new nation that despite Japanese efforts opposed of being Hankokuo for now since Wang saw his nation still as a successor to the Republic of China with all it's ethnic and religious groups being it's citizens, not just the Han.
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