Eisenhower in the Pacific: Part 1 The Shoestring Warriors of Luzon

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Eisenhower in the Pacific
Shoe String Warriors of Luzon 1935-1941
“There is one line, and one only, at which the defending force will enjoy a tremendous advantage over any attack by land. The line is the beach.... The enemy must be repulsed at the beach.”
Dwight Eisenhower in a strategic appraisal to President Quezon, December 1940

Prologue

In December 1941 the American and Filipino soldiers and airmen led by General Dwight D Eisenhower fought an inspired and hard fought battle against the Japanese invasion of Luzon. Most historians now credit the fine performance of the US Army Far East in what would ultimately be a hopeless stand to the fine work of Eisenhower in creating and developing the Filipino forces that fought so well alongside the American forces and inflicted an embarrassing and serious check on the Japanese during the early days of war in the Pacific.

Although some historians think that General Douglas Macarthur, who briefly served as Field Marshall of the Philippine Army and who had much grander plans for the Philippine Army would have done better, his tragic death in an auto accident while visiting New York City soon after his wedding on May 1, 1937 to his wife Jean makes that a 'might have been'. This historian believes that his genius, if any, will remain unproven and his ideas of making the Philippines into the “Switzerland of the Pacific” and the ambitious plan to create a 300,000 army for the Republic of the Philippines unrealistic. Considering the financial constraints of the Philippine government (which was hard pressed to maintain a $12 million a year defense budget during the years leading up to 1941) could never have created such a thing.

 

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Chapter 1 The Birth of the Philippine Commonwealth Army 1935-37

After completion of his tour as Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General Douglas Macarthur was offered the position of senior military advisor and commander of the Army of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, which would form the basis of the national army when independence occurred, a mere 10 years away. Much to the disgust of many of his peers, MacArthur took the rank of Field Marshal of an army that did not yet exist. On December 3, 1935 he is formerly invested with that rank in a special ceremony in Manila.

The MacArthur Plan
Under the Philippine National Defense Act of 1935, the Commonwealth Army was to have a Regular Army of 10,000, a reserve army of 400,000 men organized into 30 divisions, an Inshore Patrol with 35 motor torpedo boats and an Army Air Force of 100 bombers. Of more durable importance was the passage of conscription for men between the ages of 21 and 50, the creation of military academy, and an annual allocation of 16 million pesos a year (roughly $8 million US).

http://www.chanrobles.com/commonwealthacts/commonwealthactno1.html#.WJ0anPL67XQ

However, by late 1936 it is clear to the assistant military advisors, Lieutenant Colonels Dwight Eisenhower and James Ord, that the money available is not enough for this ambitious plan, training camps are still barely started, and the arms, equipment, and other needs for this force will vastly be out of the reach of the budget and capability of the Commonwealth to provide or support long term. On top of this cooperation with the Philippine Department of the US Army has been grudging and indeed MacArthur is already having differences with President Quezon and the American High Commissioner Frank Murphy, as well as petty fights with the Army and State Department over precedence and the number of guns in a salute for him (it was eventually settled at 13). Both of the officers are becoming less and less impressed with MacArthur, who seems more concerned about his standard of living than making efforts to get progress made. Just as important, MacArthur has already angered General Malin Craig, the current Army Chief of Staff, there are calls for MacArthur to be recalled and some historians feel that he only remained in his post because FDR did not want him to return home during the election year and cause political trouble.

The first conscripts arrive in January 1937, a total of 20,000 men, and are organized into battalions and regiments. Problems soon show themselves. There is little ammunition, rifles are in short supply (indeed many lack them entirely), many junior officers are unable to speak to their men in the same language (as most officers only know Tagalog, while there are between 120-175 languages and dialects in the islands, and many of the enlisted men do not speak Tagalog or English). By April the Army is also running out of money, and most of the men spend their training time building their own camps. By July the money for the year will be spent, the conscripts will have to be sent home as marginally trained reservists, the air corps and inshore patrol will not have moved from the planning stage, and Eisenhower and Ord realize that double the money allocated for next year is needed to actually do what is in the plan for that year. Something that is highly unlikely.

Eisenhower meanwhile is taking flying lessons from Jerry Lee of the US Army (who is considered the founding father of the Philippine Air Force), something he will continue until Eisenhower gets his license in 1939. He is also working on his own ideas for a different organization of the Commonwealth Army and US Army Philippines but considers them unlikely to be considered.

In March 1937, MacArthur sails for the United States, and in what was his last valuable act to the Philippine Commonwealth, manages to persuade FDR in a one hour meeting to rebuild support of Quezon, who has managed to alienate FDR by asking for Philippine independence in 1938. MacArthur does his best to acquire arms and equipment for the Commonwealth Army and then visits New York City with his fiance, and they marry on April 30, 1937. Sadly two days later, while en route to board the ship that would take them home (and whose voyage would serve as a honeymoon) the married couple are in a taxicab that is involved in a serious car accident. A delivery truck suffers brake failure and plows into the left side of the cab, killing the General instantly and leaving his bride seriously injured.

 

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A New Direction May 1937 – July 1937
MacArthur's death is a complete shock to Quezon, who is en route to France from Mexico and still 4 days from port when the message arrives. FDR too is shocked, as is Secretary of War Woodring and General Craig. However as both men have had plenty of head aches from MacArthur (as have both Quezon and Roosevelt) in Washington opportunity is seen. The Commonwealth needs an army and the Philippine Department will need a new commander soon as General Holbrook is expected to retire when is term of duty as department head ends in February 1938. What is needed is someone who can advise and prepare the Commonwealth Army for its role upon independence, as well as prepare it to support the Philippine Department in its wartime mission.

For now that mission is to hold as long as possible to keep the Japanese busy for as long as can be reasonably expected as the priority for now remains the Panama/Hawaii/Alaska line due to financial constraints and limits of available forces. Someone who can work with a prickly Quezon is also needed. General Hughes is slated for that assignment, but Craig now decides he has someone better in mind. Quezon is due to return to the United States on May 22, so with the permission of FDR and Woodring, General Craig sends a telegram to Quezon. Looking through the last fitness reports from MacArthur he decides to immediately promote Eisenhower to Colonel (permanent rank) and gives him a brevet rank of Brigadier General both as a nod to his responsibilities but also as while as impressing upon Quezon the importance the US Government views the Commonwealth Army and the Philippines in general. Craig also suggests that Quezon consider General James Parsons who has experience commanding a brigade of the Philippine Division as recently as 1933, and who was well liked by his troops who also happens to have experience commanding coast artillery, the tank school, and is a proponent of integration and a strong supporter of non White troops in general.

For Parsons it will mean an immediate jump in responsibilities but as he was already slated to assume command of the III Corps at Fort Sam Houston next year, one Craig feels he can more than handle. Once Holbrook retires, Craig tells Quezon that Parsons will also have command of the Philippine Department which will improve coordination between the US and Commonwealth armies.

Quezon wires back that he agrees to interview the general, and on May 30, after a couple of meetings Quezon decides he has his man. Parsons is not offered a Field Marshal's baton, nor an elaborate hotel suite and insists that all he needs is his army salary. In a stroke the political and command difficulties are resolved.

For Eisenhower, who just got a permanent and a brevet promotion, and no longer has the difficult task of pleasing MacArthur or putting up with his difficult personality, the sudden change in circumstances is almost heaven sent. He and his close friend Ord have been working on a revised plan for the Commonwealth Army and on July 10 their plan is sent to Craig, Quezon and Parsons for approval and suggestions.

The new military advisor to the Commonwealth of the Philippines and President Quezon travel together in July, while Quezon continues his official visit, and both men get along well. Quezon sends word to his supporters to amend the Commonwealth National Defense Act to take into account what both men privately call “The Eisenhower Plan”.

 

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The Eisenhower Plan
By June 1937 it has become clear that the MacArthur plan is unworkable due to financial reasons, not to mention lack of sufficient cadre, training facilities, weapons and a host of other less critical but still important factors. Eisenhower and Ord determine that the Philippine Army is not going to become large enough to provide the deterrent to Japan that MacArthur hoped. But it is possible to build an army able to deal with banditry, revolts by separatists in the southern islands and provide extra manpower that would help the US Army hold out in the Philippines long enough to weaken Japan sufficiently so that War Plan Orange can liberate the islands once the war starts. It is also possible to build a national army big enough to force the Japanese to divert very large forces to deal with partisan war, something that history shows the Filipinos are good at and one that the geography and terrain of the nation is very suitable for.

The basis of the national army will be two parts.

The Philippine Constabulary, a cross between soldiers and policemen, maintain order and deal with low level insurgencies and banditry and have been highly effective. There are already 4 regiments of them in service, around 8,000 men. Many of their NCOs and officers were detached to train the class of 1937 conscripts. Eisenhower plans to expand this force to eventually 24 small regiments of 2,000 men each, organized into 12 brigades, with half in Luzon and the rest in the other islands. This force would in peacetime consist of 24 battalions (600 men each), but upon mobilization would expand to 48,000 men able to function as military police and light infantry. To support this force there will be 6 brigades (each of 2 regiments of 1,500 men each) of construction engineers, who during peacetime would build and maintain Philippine Army camps (as well as do road construction, much needed in the islands) and in wartime they would provide plenty of manpower to build defensive works and repair them. They would also function as light infantry in a pinch. The construction engineers would have 12 battalions active during peacetime, with a mobilization strength of 18,000 men. Between the military police brigades and construction engineer brigades a total of 66,000 men will be needed, and by conscripting 11,000 men a year between 1939 and 1945 this target can be achieved by independence. In peacetime this force of 36 battalions (24,000 men including support personnel and units) should be more than capable of keeping order and ensuring that the authority of the national government is not threatened while in wartime this force is not only capable of forcing an invader to invest a sizable force to successfully invade, but would also provide a large light infantry and construction force to support the Philippine Scouts and US Army.

For 1938, the construction brigades will be called up for 4 months between January – April to build camps and support facilities for the expansion planned for next year, while conscription will be limited to the number needed to replace any conscripts found unsuitable for service. The engineers also will provide a useful place to send conscripts who are unsuitable for constabulary work. The class of 1937 conscripts will remain in the construction troops with future classes assigned to constabulary regiments or to fill out the engineers. Engineers are allowed to volunteer or can be selected for transfer to constabulary units.

The real fighting strength consists of the 11,000 men in the Philippine Scouts, which are currently as of 1937 organized into 2 infantry regiments, 1 cavalry regiment, 2 field artillery regiments, 2 coast defense regiments, and 1 engineer regiment, plus various support units in the Philippine Division and Harbor Force. This force will consist of volunteers and will expand to 4 infantry regiments, 1 cavalry regiment, 4 field artillery regiments, 4 coast defense regiments (2 of which will be anti aircraft) and 2 engineer regiments. As this force is paid at American pay scales (higher than the Constabulary troops), and volunteers are frequently turned away due to financial limitations, all that is needed to expand this force is more money. Once this force is brought up to strength a reserve infantry division will be formed consisting of 2 regular and 2 reserve infantry regiments, plus a regiment of artillery and engineers. The original 4 infantry regiments will be assigned to one of 4 regional commands (South and Central Philippines, plus the Luzon and Manila Bay Commands) with remaining engineers and artillery as a mobile reserve and the coast defense units assigned to defend the Manila Bay forts as well as new positions planned for Lingayan Gulf. Upon independence the Philippine Scouts will join the Constabulary as the Phillippine National Army, with the former Scouts being the backup to the garrison type forces of the old Constabulary.

To support this and to provide at least minimal protection of Philippine sovereignty, an air force and coast guard are needed.

The Inshore Patrol will be renamed the Philippine Coast Guard, with a similar mission in peacetime as the American version. It will ultimately consist of 2,500 regulars, who will have 4 stations (Lingayen, Bataan, Cebu and Mindanao) and 1 major facility (Cavite when it is transferred to Filipino control). It will have 24 armed motor launches (or PT boats when or if they become available), 12 armed patrol craft (converted fishing boats, yachts and tugs), 4 former US Navy gunboats, 4 minesweepers and 4 transport ships to support the ground forces if they need to deal with a problem on one of the many isands. This force will begin forming in 1939, with the armed patrol craft as the initial vessels along with the transports.

The Air Force is slated to eventually have 2,500 men organized into 3 Groups. The 1st Group will consist of training aircraft, ideally dual purpose aircraft that can perform light attack missions. The 2nd Group will consist of transport and liaison aircraft (which along with the trainers can also be used for observation missions), and the 3rd Group will have 2 fighter squadrons, 1 patrol squadron and 1 attack squadron. This is seen as sufficiently large enough to support the ground forces while being within budgetary constraints in the long run. It is scheduled to begin forming in 1938 and orders are being placed for primary and advanced trainers and a training field at Batangas is under construction. The training group will also have twin engine aircraft (that will be stationed at Clark).

 

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The last years of peacetime 1937 -1938
General Parsons takes command (at his brevet four star rank in the US and Philippine Army) and with the help of Eisenhower and Ord, as well as High Commissioner McNutt help Quezon get a new Defense Act passed. This act changes conscription to a 1 year active duty period and 4 years of active reserve, followed by another 4 years of inactive reserve. Those in the inactive reserve are assigned to the newly created (on paper) Philippine Militia, which will provide internal security troops to assist in guarding population centers and installations. For now it remains entirely a paper force but it is hoped by the time 1943 comes arms and organization can be provided. Those who volunteer for service will have 4 years active duty followed by 4 years of active reserve, or may reenlist. The draft call for 1938 forward is modified to take into account the Eisenhower Plan.

In January 1938, the engineer brigades are put to work building training camps, a new air base for the Philippine Army Air Force, as well as an entire brigade put to work improving roads in Bataan. Parsons also makes Eisenhower his Department Chief of Staff when Holbrook retires, while making Ord chief of staff for his other function as commander of the Philippine Army. Eisenhower begins breaking the US Army out of its comfortable colonial life style and a number of officers and senior enlisted men who are lazy or drunks find themselves heading home or forced to shape up.

Frustrated by the unwillingness of the US Army to part with Springfields at all, or Enfields at a reasonable price, Colonel Ord persuades Parsons to allow him to pursue other options. As the Constabulary military police and engineers, as well as the Coast Guard and Air Force are second line combat forces, they can get by with civilian rifles, trench guns and what submachineguns can be found. An order for 25,000 weapons is placed with Winchester (12,000 Winchester Model 1897 trench guns, 12,000 Model 70 Winchester bolt action rifles with 22 inch barrels chambered for the 30 06 Springfield round, and 1,000 Thompson submachineguns). This along with the 45,000 Enfields already on order, should allow by the time delivery is completed in 1941 for the Philippine military to have sufficient small arms for its troops.

In 1938 and 1939, Parsons also sends a small number of American and Filipino junior officers to China to act as observers with the Chinese Nationalist Army as well as a handful that are sent to observe with the Japanese Army (through private arrangements made by Quezon on his visit there in 1938).

To assist with communications, Parsons also orders the establishment of schools with the teaching of English to all Filipino officers and enlisted men who reach corporal are required to take literacy classes. There are shortages in available teachers, but efforts are made to improve on this. Reserve officers who have training as teachers find themselves doing their civilian job in the Army.
By the end of 1939 the Eisenhower Plan is well underway and is having far more success than the initial 1937 year. The Philippine Army Air Force has been started as has the Philippines Coast Guard with the help of the US Navy and US Army, and many of the peace time attitudes of the US Army in the Philippines are finally being shaken off.

However Eisenhower, who has been in the Philippines since 1935 and whose wife has had serious health problems, is ready to go home. In December 1939 he returns to the US to take command of a brigade of the Third Infantry Division in Fort Lewis, Washington and with it gains permanent rank as a Brigadier General US Army. By early 1941 he is Chief of Staff of the US Third Army, working for Walter Krueger and would distinguish himself in the Louisiana Maneuvers that same year. That performance leads Marshall to decide that Krueger and Eisenhower are the men to send to Philippines in September 1941 when General Parsons is finally retired due to health reasons.

Training the Philippine Army 1939

 

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The Far East Air Force 1937 – 1939

US Army Air Corps
The Army has only 28 P26 fighters, 17 B10 bombers, 10 0-46 observation aircraft, 5 0-19 observation aircraft, and 3 Steerman trainers organized into the 4th Composite Group. To fly these aircraft, of which only half are operational due to parts shortages, are 26 pilots (of 58 authorized). Only Clark Field is actually a functional air base, although there are 12 additional fields in the islands which serve mainly as emergency landing strips.

The Philippines are dumping ground for aircraft determined to be in excess of needs for Hawaii and Panama, and for that matter an assignment there is not considered a route to promotion in the Air Corps.

Clark Air Field 1938

The Birth of the Philippine Air Force
To avoid interfering with flight operations at Clark (such as they are), Eisenhower has the Philippine Army 6th Construction engineer brigade construct a hard packed dirt airstrip and apron as well as hangers and other buildings for this new home for air training for the soon to be created Philippine Air Force at Lipa, Batangas (modern day Fernando air base). Eisenhower decides that that the initial location is too unpleasant and too close to Batangas City, and he also has a road built from the small port at Batangas city to the new base. This revised selection also gets the future air force away from mosquitoes. The base gets a new name when an aviation cadet Porfiro Zablan is killed in a training accident.

The first recruits who will be mechanics eventually begin training at Santo Thomas University before moving to Clark Field for advanced training while officer candidates for technical and pilot training are trained at the newly started military academy at Baguio. The first aircraft do not arrive until January 1939 and newly trained Filipino air corps personnel, with assistance from the 4th Composite Group, begin assembling them at Zablan Field. The initial aircraft consist of 48 PT 17 Steerman biplane trainers (equipped with bomb racks for 200 pounds of bombs and one fixed forward machine gun and one flexible mount for the observer in its light attack mission). Only half of the aircraft are initially assembled, with the rest remaining in crates as a source of spares and parts. The next arrivals are 24 AT6 Texan advanced trainers, also equipped for combat with a forward and rear machine gun, as well able to carry 500 pounds of bombs. The final arrivals are 24 Beech 18 twin engine trainers which will also serve as liason and light transport aircraft. Although a significant number of these are lost in training accidents, it still provides the Philippine Army Air Force with 2 primary training squadrons, 1 advanced training squadron and 1 multi-engine training (and navigation training) squadron which can also serve as 3 light attack and 1 patrol squadron in wartime.

Beechcraft Model 18

By 1939 over 100 aviation cadets are in training at various levels of skill, and 10 American pilots from the 4th Composite Group (led by now Captain Jerry Lee). Also completing his training is Colonel Dwight Eisenhower.

 

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1940 A Gallant Stand or Fight them at the Beaches: Debate over War Plan Orange 3
Reports reach Parsons over the effectiveness of Japanese tanks against the Chinese Army as well as the reports of the effectiveness of the German panzers in Poland. He and Eisenhower had several deep discussions over the previous year, and Eisenhower is convinced, with tank support, and the formation of 3 infantry divisions with the trucks to move them, that a mobile force could attack the Japanese when they inevitably land at Lingayen Gulf (the assumed Japanese landing site for over 37 years) then there is a chance that the Japanese might be pushed back into the sea and valuable time purchased for the Philippines and the US Navy to fight its way to the rescue. The other choice, retreat to Bataan and hold out for six months will definitely delay the Japanese, but also will almost certainly not delay them long enough for rescue.

It is a risky strategy but if it fails, the mobile force should be able to retire to Bataan, where as a safety measure, the Philippine Army will be digging in and preparing the defense. If nothing else it will buy time to move everything useful to the final bastion defense and it will increase the Japanese casualties.

Parsons sends his recommendations to General Marshall in March 1940, where they are examined closely but Marshall simply has nothing to send him until September 1940, when the Selective Service Act is passed, the National Guard is federalized and massive defense spending is approved.

Parsons has actually asked for relatively small amount of reinforcement. The 65th Infantry Regiment (with its high number of Spanish speaking Puerto Ricans), a tank brigade, another cavalry regiment or the funds and equipment to raise one, permission to form two divisions out of the Philippine Scouts and US infantry (plus the reinforcing infantry regiment requested) to be designated the 12th and 23rd Infantry Divisions. He also requests sufficient artillery, vehicles and other equipment to form the planned Philippine Army 1st Division earlier than planned as well as some corps artillery and heavy equipment for his engineers. Parsons also wants some modern fighters and bombers, at least a group of each and Marshall begins talking to Hap Arnold about what can be provided and who can be sent to command it. The most urgent thing that Parsons asks for is a signals regiment, or at least a battalion as he is critically short on such support.

The main issue is that Marshall has only what can be spared after Lend Lease, US Army expansion, Hawaii, Panama and Alaska, leaving the Philippines far down the list in terms of what can be found to send them. For the rest of 1940 this will not be much, but he does order the 65th Infantry sent in September, authorizes the formation of the two divisions, and sends General Grunnert to assume command of the US I Corps, which will consist initially of only a headquarter but eventually, if Marshall can scrape some up, will have additional support and combat support units. While small arms can be found for the Philippine 1st Infantry Division, and extra machine guns and even the trucks, the problem of artillery units remains one of shortage. Marshall does persuade Roosevelt to part with some discretionary funds however, matching dollar for dollar what the Commonwealth spends, and thus doubles the available budget for the Philippine Army. He also manages to increase funds for the Philippine Department by 20% and finds a National Guard Signals Battalion to send. Additional reinforcements will have to wait until 1941 however.

General Marshall and Secretary of War Stimson (who takes office in 1940) are able to persuade to Navy to release any spare artillery in the Philippine Islands to the US Army, which is in dire need of artillery for the expanded Filipino coast artillery branch. Mines for use in Lingayen Gulf are also found from Navy and Army stocks and ordered sent urgently. However in spite of their best efforts Stimson and Marshall are not able to persuade Roosevelt to order the Philippine Army into federal service as he is concerned that this will further antagonize Japan and he is trying to buy time.

However Parsons and new High Commissioner Sayre manages to persuade Quezon that a formal request from him might do the trick, particularly when in Japanese move into French Indochina in September 1940 and also signs the Tripartite Pact. In November 1940 Roosevelt is forced to accept Quezon's request, particularly in light of the fact he has already federalized the US National Guard.



The Philippine Department US Army January 1941
Headquarters US Army Philippines (Parsons)
Mobile Force
US I Corps (Major General Grunnart)

26th Cavalry Regiment (Philippine Scouts)
12th Infantry Division - 31st US Infantry regiment, 43rd Philippines Scouts (PS) infantry regiment, 57th PS infantry regiment, 86th Field Artillery regiment (PS), plus support (10,000 men)
23rd Infantry Division - 65th US Infantry regiment, 45th PS infantry regiment, 47th PS infantry regiment, 88th field artillery regiment (PS) plus support (10,000 men)

attached
Philippine Army (PA) 1st MP regiment
PA 1st Engineer brigade

Lingayen Gulf defense area (Ord)
2nd PA Engineer brigade
11th PA Division (provisional) w 1st PA Coast Defense regiment (lacks artillery)(1,600 men) 2nd PA MP regiment (1,200 men)
21st PA Division (provisional) w 2nd PA Coast Defense regiment (lacks artillery)(1,600 men) 3rd PA MP regiment (1,200 men)


Bataan defense area
4th PA MP regiment (1,200 men)
3rd PA Engineer brigade, 5th PA engineer brigade


Airfield construction central Luzon

4th PA engineer brigade, 6th PA engineer brigade

Manila
6th, 11th, 12th PA MP regiments
1st PA Infantry Division (forming)

Harbor Defense Command (Subic and Manila Bays)
59th US coast artillery regiment, 60th US coast artillery regiment (antiaircraft)
91st PS coast artillery regiment, 92nd PS coast artillery regiment
Marine Corps detachment Subic Bay (a small battalion in size)
5th PA MP regiment

outside of Luzon
7th and 8th PA engineer brigades
7th, 8th, 9th, 10th PA MP regiments

 

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Philippine Department Air Force 1940
The first Filipino pilots to complete their twin engine training are ready for aircraft and they form the first transport squadron of the Philippine Air Army Force when they receive 12 DC3 transport aircraft. The US Army also transfers all 15 of its observation aircraft in the Philippines (as it lacks the pilots to fly them in any event). Parsons puts the Filipinos to work conducting a thorough aerial mapping survey of the island as a review of defense plans determines that there is a severe issue with many of the maps of the islands being outdated or minimal in terms of information to begin with. The first priority is Bataan, the Central Luzon Plain, as well as likely Japanese landing sites. The 2nd Composite Group, Philippine Army Air Force, is formed with one observation squadron and one transport squadron.

Construction engineers have built a basic airfield at Del Monte in Mindanao, Baguio, Del Carmen, Cabanatuan, Rosales, Pilar, Mariveles, and Bataan (larger field near Pilar) as well as Matan -Cebu. Discussions about improving Nichols Field are also made as well as building a hard surface concrete runway for Clark (the new home of the Filipino air transport squadron). All are completed by the end of 1940 and are able hold up to a squadron of aircraft although their principal role is training and for giving the transports someplace to land.

The 4th Composite Group, US Army Air Corps, is primarily serving as a training unit for the Philippine Air Force at this point, and as it has no modern aircraft, its pilots are working as flight instructors and squadron leaders for the PAAF. Parsons finds that his senior two aviators, Colonel Harrison Richards (Department Air officer) and Colonel Lawrence Churchill (commander 4th Composite Group) are incapable of working constructively together. Deciding he needs Churchill more (as he is working well with the engineers) he sends Richards to develop a potential air ferry route via Australia as well as missions to discuss coordination with the Dutch and British, thus moving him out of the way. Churchill is given a brevet promotion to Brigadier General, PAAF, and placed in overall command of that organization as well as that of his own 4th Composite Group and all three groups are officially designated Philippine Department Air Force in August 1940.

Parsons requests modern aircraft and at least a fighter group, although he would like a light bomber group, an air defense center, and at Ord's urging, he also requests radar. He also requests at least 2 more coast defense artillery regiments (antiaircraft) or sufficient training staff and weapons to form 2 for the Philippine Army.

Meanwhile the PAAF buys another 12 Beechcraft for use as light transport aircraft, which will allow the PAAF to form a third squadron for its 2nd Composite Group. For 1941 requests are made for 48 fighter aircraft, 24 light bombers and 12 float planes to form the 3rd Composite Group. As there are shortages of just about every type of aircraft due to Lend Lease and US military expansion, the request goes to Hap Arnold who is already considering a plan of his own.

 

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Naval Forces in the Philippines 1937 – 1940

The Asiatic Fleet
The US Navy Asiatic Fleet between 1937 – 1940 continues it's mission of showing the flag, acting as a trip wire force and continuing to maintain an American presence in China. It suffers it's first combat loss with the sinking of the USS Panay in 1937 (and the first deaths it would suffer from the Japanese attack). Until the end of 1939 Admiral Yarnell, a man with considerable diplomatic skills as well as a fine commander, is in command, and he and General Parsons get along very well, in contrast to the relationship Yarnell (or lack of one) he had with previous Philippine Department Commanders or with MacArthur.

Yarnell is supportive of the idea of the Philippine Coast Guard and he directs the commander of the 16th Naval District to provide training to Filipino junior officers and persuades Washington to allow Filipino mess attendants in the US Navy, who have damage control training just like all US sailors, to transfer without prejudice to the Philippines Coast Guard.

Asiatic Fleet composition and deployment November 1940
http://www.fleetorganization.com/1940asiatic.html

USS Houston, flagship of the Asiatic Fleet

The Creation of the Philippine Coast Guard
The official beginning of the Commonwealth naval force is January 1, 1939. A large number of Filipino fishermen, coastal sailors and shipyard workers all apply, and the initial force of 500 men is easily recruited. Training is at Subic Bay and Cavite, and aboard the USS Bittern (an elderly minesweeper). Late in the year, a 55 foot and a 65 foot torpedo boat arrive from Britain built by Thorneycroft, and engines needed for the construction of 4 more also arrive (all of which are under construction and should be ready for action in 1940). The Commonwealth government also acquires 6 fishing boats with diesel engines, 2 old tugboats, 4 motor yachts (varying from 30-50 feet) and 4 interisland steamers (all under 1,000 tons) for use by the naval force, and equips them with machine guns and in the case of the larger steamers, a pair of 3 inch guns.

In 1940, the motor torpedo boats are formed into a squadron and along with an armed tug and 2 fishing boats are sent to a naval station that has been constructed at Aliminos on the shores of Lingayen Gulf. The station is only a few dozen men including the crews, but a small stock of naval mines is acquired and the tug and the fishing boats are equipped as minelayers. The small force is periodically serviced by trips to Cavite. A small sea plane ramp is added in 1940, and permanent detachment of a MP company from the Philippine Army is also assigned as well as a battery of coast defense troops equipped with pre World War I era 8 inch guns released from US Navy stocks in the US.

Filipino motor torpedo boats 1940

The remainder of the little fleet is at Cavite and Subic Bay training as of the end of 1940 and personnel have expanded to 1,500 men total.

In 1940, Admiral Hart takes command of the Asiatic Fleet and is persuaded to continue the cooperation that the US Navy has provided so far. He is not able to provide any ships at present, but as a plan is already underway to move the gunboats and other vessels out of China, he begins considering a plan to transfer them to the Filipino's as they will be of little use in the war plan he is developing and the trained crews on those ships, particularly the heavily experienced petty officers, would be valuable aboard his fighting ships. He sends a letter to Admiral Stark recommending that and receives an affirmative response late in the year but only if China is evacuated, which is not yet politically possible.

USS Mindanao of the Yangtze Patrol, US Asiatic Fleet

 

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The Creation of the Far East Air Force
Repeated requests for air reinforcements finally prompts Marshall and Arnold to respond in October 1940 after the Japanese seizure of northern Indochina. Some horse trading with the Chinese results in 27 CW21 which were en route by ship to China (via Burma) are instead diverted to Manila and the Philippine Air Force. The Chinese are sent 54 P35s instead, which while old, are sturdy aircraft well suited for local conditions there. The CW21s will be assigned to the Philippine Air Force as the basis of a fighter squadron (with spares). The remaining P26s in the Philippines will be provided to the PAAF as a second fighter / light attack squadron. The remaining ten Martin B10 bombers in the Philippines are transferred to the PAAF as the basis of a patrol squadron. The 4th Composite Group is in effect stripped of aircraft and all personnel are transferred to the PAAF officially as an advisory and support group.


The American Volunteer Group
As an interim measure, to get some air power into the Philippines until a final decision is made about what to send to the Far East, as discussions are underway concerning the creation of the American Volunteer Group to send to China, Arnold persuades Marshall and then Roosevelt to send the AVG to the Philippines for their training. They can trained at the new airfield at Cebu, which is well away from prying Japanese intelligence agents in Manila and Davao but in an emergency can help defend the Philippines until they complete their training in early December 1941. By adding some DC2 transports to move their ground echelon to the mix, the P40s and transports can ferry the entire force via Singapore to Burma and then to China. By August 1941 the AVG and Claire Chennault are in Cebu assembling their aircraft and testing them in flights over the central Philippines, well away from prying eyes. In all the Flying Tigers, as the group soon calls itself, has 100 P40B Warhawk fighters and 12 DC2 transports, as well as nearly 300 personnel by October 1941 and plans to begin shifting to Singapore beginning on December 12, 1941 and to be in China by December 17.

The Deterrent Force
In July 1941 General Hap Arnold proposes that a force of 340 B17s and 260 fighters be stationed in the Philippines as a deterrent force against Japan as tensions continue to rise between the US and Japan. He selects Major General Walter Frank, who has formerly commanded the Hawaiian Air Department and currently commanding Air Army Force units involved in the Louisiana Maneuvers and has gotten along very well with ground force commanders. He is ordered to the Philippines right away, along with the 5th Air Base group, reinforcements for the 20th Air Base (the tenant unit at Clark Field) and personnel and equipment to form the 4th Air Base Group (using Filipino and American personnel).

By early August General Frank reports that the Philippines is not ready for the mass deployment of B17s, and that there is a critical need for oxygen plants (among other things). He urges that the first reinforcements consist of 2 fighter groups and 1 light bombardment group, with the first B17s to arrive in October and for them to be fitted out for long range reconnaissance as target data for Japanese bases in Formosa is very limited and almost unknown for their bases in Indochina and in the Palau Islands. He also makes his own plea for antiaircraft units. That plea is met in part by the arrival of guns stripped from the 197th, 198th and 200th Coast Artillery regiments (National Guard) which are broken up to provide personnel to other anti aircraft units. This provides the Philippine Army with 36 3-inch guns (older models with a range of only 27,000 feet as that is what can be spared), searchlights, 96 37mm AA guns, and dozens of heavy machine guns. Two of the PA regiments are assigned to air field defense with the third assigned to defend Manila.

The first air units to arrive are the 24th Fighter Group (Colonel Harold George commanding) with sufficient pilots and support personnel to reform the 17th Pursuit squadron (with 31 P40Bs). Additional fighters are already one the way, but the first thing General Frank orders upon the arrival of Colonel George is his promotion to commander V Fighter Command and for George to work with Claire Chennault in setting up an air warning network for Luzon using a company from the Department's signal battalion as well as training Filipino volunteers and setting up special lines with the telephone company and telegraph company. The American fighters are assigned to Del Carmen Field, which is again undergoing improvements, including a 6,000 foot concrete runway and revetments built by the Philippine Army engineers.

Of pressing concern is the terrible conditions at Nichols Field. A typhoon has inflicted serious damage to the base, making more clear than ever its vulnerability. As the principal depot for the Department's aviation element, including those of the Asiatic Fleet, its vulnerability is no longer acceptable. General Frank orders that the supplies and parts be dispersed so that none are concentrated at any airfield, with Navy stores sent to their naval station at Mariveles and a fortified facility be constructed at the Army field built at Mariveles which can transport needed bulk supplies by barge to Manila and then by road and rail to other bases in Luzon. He also orders a secondary facilities be constructed at Cebu and Del Monte and that revetments be constructed for all airfields.

Philippine Army Air Force growth
With the arrival of sufficient aircraft the 3rd Composite Group has been formed, and the PAAF is now up to 2,500 men. The 1st Group (training) remains at Zablan Field (Lipa, Batangas) and continues as a flight training organization. The 2nd Group with its transport aircraft is headquartered at Clark Field, but has detachments in Mindanao, Cebu, as well as the various fields around Luzon. Regular transport service is greatly easing the movement of critical supplies and couriers throughout the islands for the military. The new 3rd Group is formed at Nichols Field and has a fighter squadron of CW21 interceptors while the other squadron of P26 light attack aircraft is sent to the new field at Baguio. The new B18 patrol squadron is assigned to Clark Field and the 2nd Group, as the Douglas bombers are sufficiently similar to the DC2 assigned to the AVG (which are also there) and DC3s assigned to the PAAF to ease maintenance. The bombers are all old cast offs from the Hawaiian Department and prone to break down.

Final reinforcements Fall 1941
In October 1941 more reinforcements arrive in the form of sufficient P40Cs and personnel to reform the 17th Pursuit Squadron, as well as 28th Reconnaissance Squadron (reformed from the 28th Bombardment squadron) equipped with 6 B17C. After consultation with Captain Pappy Gunn (whose has joined the PAAF as a civilian advisor and is its senior engineering officer with a handsome salary), the aircraft are converted using field expedient measures that strip them their guns, their waist blister mounts removed and additional skin added to improve streamlining and their bomb bays converted into fuel tanks. With these modifications, based out of Del Monte, the B17s can reach the Palau Islands and from Clark can easily reach anywhere in Indochina or Formosa. It also improves their cruising speed by 10% and their top speed by 5%, and giving that aircraft a speed of 325 aircraft as a top speed. It also can fly somewhat higher giving it a ceiling of 37,000 feet (allowing it to fly well above the A6M Zero fighter).

The 17th Pursuit squadron is moved to Del Monte, along with a battalion from the 4th PA Coast Artillery (AA) as it is a critical stop on the air ferry route from Darwin and General Frank decides it needs protection. The B17s are to be dispersed so that no more than 3 are present at any single airfield. They also begin flying very high altitude missions over Formosa and French Indochina in late November and at their height and speed generally remain undetected although on a couple of occasions the Japanese attempt in vain to intercept them on their departure from the area.

The needed oxygen equipment arrives along with the 27th Bomb Group and 54 A24 (Army versions of the Navy Dauntless), along with their crews and ground echelon arrive in November 1941. Also arriving are planes and pilots for the 3rd Pursuit squadron which is reactivated and has 24 P40E Kittyhawks. The fighter squadron is assigned to Cabantuan Field, while the 27th Bomb Group disperses its dive bombers to Nichols, Del Carmen and makes its headquarters (along with 1 squadron) at Iba Field. The first radar sets have also arrived, and one is placed at Clark Field and the other is set up at Nielson Field (near Cavite) which is headquarters for the Far East Air Force and has an air strip but no aircraft permanently assigned except for a detachment of PAAF Beechcraft light transports. IT is however the location of the air defense headquarters and this allows radar coverage for Cavite, Manila and Nichols Field. The remaining sets quickly raided for parts to keep those two working but the air transports of the PAAF are able to make frequent trips to Australia and Singapore, where air transports from the United States can quickly bring urgent spares.

Strung out between Port Moresby, Darwin and Del Monte is the air element of the 19th Bombardment Group, which has 30 B17s organized into 30th and 94th Squadron. Additional B17s for another Bomb Group are approaching Hawaii when it is attacked while their ground element was still in California loading aboard ships.

 

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1941 Reinforcement
Expansion of the Philippine Army
An infusion of money allows the Philippine Army to call up over 30,000 conscripts in January 1941, enough to bring all 14 brigades of the Philippine Army up to strength as well as replace those who volunteer for service in the Philippine Scouts. The work over the last years to expand training camps and make them habitable pays off this year as well as the efforts to obtain sufficient weapons for the troops. The Army is able to raise an additional 2 MP brigades, and with the arrival of heavier guns fro the US Army and Philippine Scouts, as well as stripping 120 75 mm guns from formations elsewhere (plus those released from the Scouts) the Philippine Army is able to form 10 light artillery battalions of 12 guns each. With the addition of artillery, the 20 MP regiments are reorganized into 6 light infantry divisions (3 regiments infantry, 1 battalion light artillery, 1 engineer/pioneer battalion each) with 1 division each (31st and 41st) at Mindanao and Cebu, and the remaining 4 (11th, 21st, 51st, and 61st) organized into 2 small corps. Each corps is also assigned an engineer brigade (1st and 2nd), while the remaining 2 MP regiments are assigned to Manila and far northern Luzon, while 1 engineer brigade (3rd) is assigned to the Del Monte area and another continues work on improving airfields in Bataan (along with an American aviation engineer battalion) as well as providing engineer companies to continue work improving airfields in Luzon.

Another division, the 1st Division, is raised from cadres supplied by the Philippine Army and Philippine Scouts. Sufficient artillery is found to raise a full regiment of guns (36 75 mm guns) for this division, and sufficient trucks for them as well plus move one of its three regiments at a time. More trucks are on order but they will not reach the Philippines until sometime in 1942. It is assigned to the Mobile Force providing that formation with a third division, although one less well equipped or trained than the other two.

What is missing though are sufficient machine guns and any anti tank artillery for the other 6 divisions of the Philippine Army. Lacking any other choices, the 2.95 inch mountain gun, dating back to the last century, are given trucks and although they have wooden wheels they can be broken down they are mobile enough to move to a vital area although once placed will likely not be able to withdraw. With this expedient a total of 48 anti tank guns are put into service, enough that each of the 4 divisions in Luzon is able to field an anti tank battalion of 12 guns each, which are also were the bulk of the few heavy machine guns that the Philippine Army has available are concentrated (aside from those assigned to air defense). However each company has only 3 light machine guns, and each platoon only 3 BARs, although a few old Lewis guns are found to put into service by companies lucky enough to find them.

However the Coast Artillery finally gets weapons that it needs. A sufficient number of 8 inch guns are found for use by the 1st and 2nd Coast Artillery, Philippine Army, giving each 3 firing batteries and spare tubes. The other 6 batteries in each regiment are given World War I era 155 guns. The 1st Coast Artillery is assigned Lingayen Gulf, while the 2nd Coast Artillery is deployed so that a battalion each covers the Iba/Palauig area, Lamon Bay, and Balayan Bay. The Marines of the 1st Provisional Battalion (USMC) and elements of the US 59th Coast Artillery cover Subic Bay, while the remaining US and all of the Philippine Scout units are manning the Manila Bay fortifications.

US Army reinforcements
The most important arrivals are the 192nd and 194th tank battalions, which between them have 108 M3 Stuart tanks and 46 halftracks fitted with 75 mm guns which have an armor ordinance company as well. General Weaver is assigned command of a provisional brigade sized force called 6th Cavalry Brigade (provisional) consisting of the 1st Provisional Armored Group, the 26th Cavalry (PS) Regiment, and the newly arrived 112th Cavalry Regiment (Texas National Guard) giving him nearly 2,600 armored and cavalry troops. The remaining reinforcements are sufficient personnel to bring the US units in the islands up to strength.

Two regiments of 105 mm guns, as well an infantry regiment are en route, as well as an aviation engineer brigade and heavy equipment such as bulldozers and other earth moving equipment and vehicles are aboard the Pensacola convoy.

A new commander October 1941
In September, now past retirement age and in increasingly poor health, General Parsons is forced to ask for relief. Although General Grunnert is briefly considered for the position, in the end it is decided that as General Krueger has done very well in the recent Louisiana Maneuvers, and has the rank and experience commanding an army, he will be sent. With him is sent his Chief of Staff, Brigadier General Dwight Eisenhower. Both men get a brevet promotion with the job, Krueger to four star general and Eisenhower to Major General (although Ike gets that as a permanent rank as well).

They arrive aboard the Manila Clipper and the change of command ceremony occurs on October 21, 1941. Sent home with Parsons is General Grunnert who is being given an assignment in the US and General Wainwright is given command of the US I Corps.

 

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Further Expansion of the Philippine Coast Guard 1941
In early 1941, the Philippine Coast Guard gains the old hydrographic vessel “Pathfinder” from US Coast and Geoditic Survey office, which is converted into an officer training ship, and orders are placed for 4 minesweepers to be delivered in 1942 (former USN vessels). The Coast Guard also acquires 8 J2F Ducks, enough to start a detachment at Cebu and another at Davao to patrol over the southern and central islands.

In late 1941, the heavy cruiser Louisville arrives escorting 2 transport ships carrying what would be the last reinforcements to reach Luzon before the shooting starts. The Louisville is attached to the Asiatic Fleet, giving Admiral Hart a heavy cruiser division, while the light cruiser Marblehead is detached as it has orders to proceed to the Atlantic Fleet to join her sisters there. She escorts the convoy out of the Southwest Pacific and is near the Santa Cruz Islands when war begins, along with her charges.

As the Marblehead leaves, the Yangtze Patrol Gunboats, as well as the 4th Marine Regiment arrives over the week between December 1 and December 5. The Marine Regiment (with its 2 battalions) is moved to Subic Bay, where it joins the 1st Seperate battalion, which is organized as an air defense artillery battalion and has its own radar. The Regiment is assigned as part of the strategic reserve and as a quick reaction force. The gunboats are assigned to assist the Philippine Coast Guard, although many of their senior petty officers and indeed most of the crew members are quickly reassigned to help out with seriously undermanned ships of the Asiatic Fleet, however orders have barely been cut when the war begins.

The British Deterrent Force and final Allied naval reinforcements
In the fall of 1941, worried about growing tensions with Japan, Winston Churchill proposes reinforcing the Eastern Fleet with a pair of fast heavy warships, as well as a carrier for air support. Initially he proposes sending the Prince of Wales, the Repulse and the Indomitable, along with 4 destroyers. However fate soon deals a blow to that plan. On September 27, the Prince of Wales, covering a convoy to Malta, is torpedoed by Italian aircraft, and while she survives, has suffered sufficient damage to knock her out of action for several months. The carrier Indomitable hits an uncharted rock in the Caribbean on her maiden voyage, requiring repair time for her as well.

Frustrated with his initial plan Churchill decides that a force of fast battle cruisers and heavy cruisers would serve as the deterrent force, being able to make fast slashing raids against any Japanese invasion forces and then escape before the older Japanese battle line could catch them and thus they would serve as the deterrent force he wants. He is gambling, but considering how desperate the situation is looking in late November 1941, with the possibility of Soviet defeat as well as the critical situation in North Africa, he feels a gamble is justified. On November 27, the Renown and light cruiser Trinidad are ordered to the Indian Ocean where they will join the Repulse and form the basis of Force Z, which will be commanded by Admiral Phillips. It it expected that the three ships, along with what cruisers and destroyers can be scraped up from the Eastern Fleet will arrive in Singapore no later than December 12, 1941.

Informal discussions during the meeting at Argentan Bay propose that in the event of war, British, Australian, and American surface forces will combine to defend the Malay Barrier alongside the Free Dutch. A command structure is still being determined even as war comes. However, the clear importance of air cover after the losses and damage suffered by the Royal Navy makes it clear that clear that additional air reinforcements are needed to cover the Eastern Fleet if it is to operate out of Singapore and 5 squadrons of Hurricanes are sent to Malaya, arriving on December 6. They are still being uncrated and the squadrons are still forming when war begins.

The final reinforcement arriving in the theater is the American heavy cruiser Pensacola, which is escorting several transports to the Philippines and is just east of Fiji on the morning of December 7. y Admiral Stark issues three different sets of orders to the convoy, ordering it first to Pearl Harbor, then to sending it to Samoa before finally sending it to Brisbane and eventually the cruiser and some of the transports to Darwin. This, along with the heavy losses suffered in the Hawaiian Islands, is a major reason for his replacement with Admiral King in 1942. However the Pensacola finally joins the Asiatic Fleet in mid January 1942.

Allied Naval Forces ABDA Command (American, British, Dutch, Australian) December 8, 1941

American forces
Surface Forces (Glassford)
CA Houston, Louisville, CL Boise, 13 Clemson class DD, tender Black Hawk, tankers Pecos, Trinity,
seaplane tender Childs, Preston (both converted destroyers),
(all are at Iliolo, Panay on December 8 except for four destroyers at Cavite undergoing maintenance or repair)
en route CA Pensacola

Submarine Forces
29 submarines, with 4 S Boats, 25 fleet boats, of which 3 fleet boats are at Cavite undergoing repair. All other submarines are on patrol to the north, northwest and northeast of the Philippines beginning December 1 after the receipt of the war warning on November 30. 3 submarine tenders are at Cavite on December 8.

16th Naval District Forces (includes Philippine Coast Guard) (Rockwell)
6 minesweepers, 2 seaplane tenders, 1 ocean going tug, 1 submarine rescue vessel, 6 PT boats, 5 smaller PT boats (Filipino crews), 5 gunboats (former Yangtze Patrol), 2 armed yachts, 1 armed sailing yacht, 12 armed patrol boats/craft, 4 mine tenders, 2 converted yachts (minelayers), 4 armed light transports

(5 small PT boats, 2 minelayers, 2 armed patrol boats in Lingayen Gulf, 4 armed patrol craft at Cebu, remainder at Subic Bay, Manila Bay or off Corregidor)


Aircraft
Patrol Wing (PATWING) 10 with 28 Catalina, 5 Kingfisher, 5 Ducks, 12 Seagull (including 4 aboard each CA and 2 aboard the CL) (all operating out of Manila Bay) plus 4 Filipino Ducks at Davao with the seaplane tender Heron and 4 Filipino Ducks with the seaplane tender Langley at Cebu. Four of the Catalina and 3 Kingfisher are with the Preston and Childs at Panay.

British Eastern Fleet (at Singapore)

several minesweepers, patrol craft and gunboats, 5 submarines, Fleet Air Arm Catalina, Hudson and Swordfish aircraft
en route

BC Renown, Repulse, CA Dorsetshire, Devonshire, Exeter CL Trinidad, Caledon, 8 destroyers (at Trincomalee on December 8, 1941)

Australian forces (link up with Penscola Convoy once the war starts)
CA Australia, Canberra, CL Hobart, Perth, 4 destroyers

Dutch Forces in theater
Light cruisers Tromp, De Ruyter, Java, 8 destroyers, 16 submarines


(additional British, Australian and Dutch forces are in the Indian Ocean or operating from eastern Australia when the war begins. Not included are a number of British and Dutch support ships and craft)

 

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Mounting Urgency
After a few days of inspections by General Krueger and analysis of plans by General Eisenhower, a flurry of orders begins flowing out of the Manila Hotel where both Admiral Hart and General Krueger (for a brief time) live. Both commanders agree to move their headquarters initially to Fort McKinley, adjacent to Nichols Field and within a few miles of Cavite after Eisenhower convinces Generals Krueger and Frank that it would be highly desirable for Admiral Hart to have use of a DC3 or Beechcraft at his beck and call, and that such a gift would improve cooperation. For the first time in the history of the Department the two services have staff working at the same location.

Eisenhower persuades Krueger, who needs little such, that the best thing to do is to get the USAFE out in the field for some field training, particularly the I Corps. Live fire training is particularly needed for support weapons and artillery, and on November 11th, for over a week, the units of I Corps do just that, while it is the first such ever for the Philippine Army Divisions. Many problems are found, but some of the more pressing are that nearly 80% of the mortar ammunition for the 3 inch mortars that provide the bulk of company and battalion firepower for the Philippine Army are duds. An urgent message is sent to the United States for immediate resupply, while every available ordinance sergeant in the Far East is put to work looking for solutions that can be done locally.

elements of the 6th Cavalry Brigade moving to wartime positions December 1941

Eisenhower meanwhile discovers that little has been done to prepare the movement of supplies to Bataan in the event that War Plan 3 (the back up plan) gets put into effect, and he bargains with the Navy, Army Air Force and just flat out strips I Corps of their medium and heavy trucks, and organizes them into truck companies with Philippine Army drivers, along with Military Police Companies. These companies remain assigned to their units but on the issue of a code word, they are assigned to the Quartermasters who will use them to move supplies from base areas on the Luzon plain as well as government warehouses such as the NARIC warehouse as well as corporate warehouses along the south harbor of Manila well be seized on issue of that same code word. Supplies will then be moved to Bataan by barge, craft and ship. Eisenhower also orders General Moore to immediately fill his warehouses for his harbor forts and ensure that stocks for 12 months are on hand at all times.

USAFE air defense units take positions during November Maneuvers

Another maneuver is set for January 1942, where the I Corps will prepare in cooperation with the newly arrived 27th Bombardment Group (and their A24 dive bombers) as well as naval forces to practice a counterattack on a potential Japanese landing at Lingayen Gulf. However, the first war warning on November 30 makes it clear that time is increasingly running out. Krueger orders his troops to hurry their maintenance stand downs and get everything back up and running as quickly as possible. He also finalizes his command structure. He remains as theater commander, but he places Eisenhower as commander of all forces in Luzon. Under him is General Wainwright, commanding the US I Corps, General Ord, commanding the II Corps, and General King, commanding the III Corps, plus General Moore commanding the Harbor Defenses of Manila Bay, Subic Bay, Lingayan Gulf, Lamon Bay and Balayan Bay. General Frank commands US Army Air Forces Far East (USAAFFE) but his responsibilities have been expanded to include liaison and cooperation with the Australians, Dutch and British. After an inspection of the American Volunteer Group, Generals Frank and Eisenhower send a cable to Washington urging that Claire Chennault be given a reserve commission of Brigadier General and Eisenhower, Frank and Hart quietly work out a plan to make use of that organization in case war comes before it leaves.

In late November and early December, the 4th Marine Regiment arrives from Shanghai, and Admiral Hart generously places it under Army tactical command. Krueger is pleased to get another regiment of regulars, and he promptly allocates it as the reserve for III Corps.

As of December 8, 1941, all Filipino troops have at least 9 months service, with most having more than that, and are familiar with their weapons and chain of command. While still limited in their tactical training, they are not substantially less trained than the US National Guard troops that have sent to join them.

US Army Far East (USAFE) December 1941
Commander: General Walter Krueger
Luzon Force (Eisenhower) (army level headquarters

Lingayen Defense Zone
I Corps – Wainwright (Tarlac area)
6th Cavalry Brigade - 1st Provisional tank group (US NG) (192nd and 194th tank battalion with 108 M3 Stuarts and 46 halftracks with 75 mm guns) 26th Cavalry Regiment (Philippine Scouts), 112th Cavalry Regiment (TX/Montana NG), (San Jose area)
12th Infantry Division - 31st US Infantry regiment, 43rd Philippines Scouts (PS) infantry regiment, 57th PS infantry regiment, 86th Field Artillery regiment (PS), plus support (10,000 men) (Rosario area)
23rd Infantry Division - 65th US Infantry regiment, 45th PS infantry regiment, 47th PS infantry regiment, 88th field artillery regiment (PS) plus support (10,000 men) (Paniqui area)
attached

11th Infantry Division (PA) reinforced – 11th, 12th, 13th Light Infantry Regiments, 11th Field Artillery battalion (PA)(12 75 mm guns), 11th Antitank battalion (PA)(12 2.95 inch guns), plus 1st PA Coast Artillery regiment (6 x 8 inch guns, 6 x 6 inch guns, 4 x 6 pounder guns (57 mm), 2 x 3 pounder guns (47 mm) all from the old armored cruiser Baltimore, plus 6 x 155 guns (World War I issue). (these Naval guns provided in late November 1941)

Also directly attached to this command are 5 torpedo boats, 2 minelayers and 2 armed trawlers of the Philippine Coast Guard along with the 250 Filipino Coast Guardsmen and 10 US Navy advisors.
Also attached: 2nd Engineer Brigade (Philippine Army)

The coast artillery is dug in in positions recently constructed by the Philippine Army 2nd Engineer Brigade which is still at work on positions for the 11th Infantry Division when the war begins. Engineers assigned to the infantry divisions are assisting in providing cover and concealment for the I Corps mobile troops.

Manila Defense Area
II Corps – Ord
1st Infantry Division (PA) – 1st, 2nd, 3rd Infantry regiments, 4th Field Artillery regiment (24 75 mm guns, 6 105 mm guns, all World War I era), 1st antitank battalion (18 37 mm guns with jeeps, 12 .50 caliber machine guns with jeeps) (Fort McKinley)

21st Infantry Division (PA) reinforced – 21st, 22nd light infantry regiments, 21st artillery battalion, 21st anti tank battalion, 1st battalion / 2nd PA Coast Artillery (12 x 155 guns) Infante area (coast artillery) / Lamon Bay area (infantry) As of December 8 only the coast artillery is dug in, the remaining units are still in tents. This division has almost no vehicles aside from its artillery prime movers and a few staff cars for the division staff and a few trucks for moving supplies.

The 23rd Light Infantry Regiment along with the 2nd Battalion / 2nd PA Coast Artillery (12 x 155 guns) is stationed at Balayan on Balayan Bay, and is fully dug in at the command of the regimental commander.
3rd Engineer Brigade (Lamon Bay) which is about to begin improving defenses for the 21st Infantry Division and attached coast artillery.

Bataan / Subic Bay defense area
III Corps – King
51st Infantry Division – 51st, 52nd, 53rd light infantry regiments, 51st artillery battalion, 51st anti tank battalion. This division is strung out defending the Iba Field area, as well as the long coast from Subic Bay to Cape Bolinao. It is deployed as a picket force except for the 51st regiment and artillery and anti tank battalions that are deployed around Iba Field.

4th Marine Regiment - 1st and 2nd battalions, 1st separate battalion (anti aircraft), provisional 3rd battalion (forming as a training unit to train Filipino marines). (Subic Bay) (attached is the 3rd Battalion / 2nd PA Coast Defense Artillery with 8 x 8 inch guns)
4th Engineer Brigade – construction work in Bataan
III Corps has administrative control of the 11th Infantry Division (PA) that is in the I Corps area

Manila Bay Forts
Harbor Defense Command – Moore
Fort Mills (Corregidor), Fort Drum, Fort Frank, Fort Hughes (also Fort Wint at Subic Bay)
garrison: 91st, 92nd Coast Artillery (PS), 59th Coast Artillery (US), 60th Coast Artillery (anti aircraft, US)
attached: 91st MP Brigade (PA) (garrison troops for Fort Mills)

Other units
4th Engineer Brigade (PA) (airfield construction central Luzon)
101st MP Brigade (PA) garrison duty USAFE facilities in central Luzon (less several companies in northern Luzon as picket forces)
IV Corps – Sharp
31st Infantry Division (PA) Cebu, Panay, Leyte
41st Infantry Division (PA), 803rd airfield construction battalion (US) Mindanao

a useful map
https://baldrunner.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/missionsluzon-citylocatermap.jpg

 

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The Far East Air Force Prepares for War November 27, 1941
On November 27, 1941 a war warning is sent to Admiral Hart by Admiral Stark, and to General Krueger by General Marshall.

"This dispatch is to be considered a war warning x negotiations with Japan looking toward stabilization of conditions in the Pacific have ceased and an aggressive move by Japan is expected within the next few days x The number and equipment of Japanese troops and the organization of naval task forces indicate an amphibious expedition against either the Philippines (printed in ink, "Thai") or Kra Peninsula or possibly Borneo x Execute an appropriate defensive deployment preparatory to carrying out the tasks assigned in WPL 46 x Inform district and Army authorities x A similar warning is being sent by War Department x Spenavo inform British x Continental districts Guam Samoa directed take appropriate measures against sabotage"

A secondary message is sent by Roosevelt directing his Pacific commanders ensure that Japan makes the first overt act.

General Krueger directs General Frank to take measures to preserve his force and fight an air campaign, while ground forces commanders are directed to move their forces to their wartime positions. All forces are ordered to draw live ammunition. The Asiatic Fleet is already on the move but begins armed scouting missions with its Catalinas assisted by B18s and B10s of the Philippine Army Air Force, which are subordinated to control of PatWing 10 based on the example set by Admiral Richardson and General Harmon in Hawaii. Meanwhile most of the submarines are ordered to sea with live ammunition as soon as they can be fueled and armed.

General Krueger (at Eisenhower's urging) now sends a request to Marshall requesting that the American Volunteer Group be returned to USAAF service, with Navy and Marine Corps pilots and personnel, along with sufficient aircraft for them to form a squadron be detached to Naval Service with the Asiatic Fleet. This causes a stir in Washington but Marshall successfully argues that more official help for the Chinese can sent another way, while Stimson argues that sending the AVG at this point would prevent any last minutes peace efforts by Roosevelt, who is still, as late as December 6, attempting to persuade the Japanese to step away from the brink.

Orders reach Chennault and the AVG on December 3, recalling Claire Chennault to active duty as Brigadier General, commander V Fighter Command and Deputy commander, USAAFE. The USAAF personnel are assigned to the newly formed 74th and 75th Pursuit squadrons of the 23rd Pursuit Group. The Asiatic Fleet is given a squadron of 24 P40s from the AVG, along with the Marine Corps and Navy pilots and ground crews which are formed into Marine Corps Fighter Squadron (VMF) 112 (provisional). Hart is very pleased, although Chennault is less so and the pilots, who were hoping for the bonuses and high pay from the Chinese even less so. This transition is still underway at their training facility at Cebu when the war begins. A total of 87 pilots and 300 ground crew thus find themselves transferred back to Naval Service, or the Army or in the case of the civilians, called into active duty in the USAAF. A few civilians who do not meet Army or Navy requirements (including one who flew with the Republicans in Spain) are given jobs with the Philippine Army Air Service at the same pay they would have received in the AVG.

Meanwhile, the Far East Air Force spreads out to its dispersal bases beginning on November 30. Operational aircraft are sent to the dispersal bases, while aircraft requiring repair or extensive maintenance remain assigned to their primary bases. However, engineers begin hurried efforts to complete revetments at all airfields, as well as digging air raid shelters and trenches. Indeed a mechanical ditch digger at Clark Field is working from dawn to dusk every day.

The efforts over the last few years to expand the number of airfields now pays off. There are enough bases and room at them for all of the operational aircraft to deploy while the dispersal of spares, fuel and ammunition over the last year means that the depot at Nichols Field is no longer the sole location of those vital parts. The only problem is that oxygen is still in short supply, with only sufficient for a few sorties for each aircraft, while none is available at all at Del Monte, so the bombers that are supposed to be arriving there will forced to bring their own. General Frank orders a shuttle of DC3 flights from Clark to Singapore as the British have far better facilities for producing oxygen there. Beechcraft will shuttle oxygen to Del Monte and Cebu as well as spares and personnel.

Far East Air Force Dawn December 8, 1941
23rd Fighter Group (Visayans and Mindanao) (Colonel George takes command December 6)
Iliolo Field (Panay) VMF121 (Lieutenant Newkirk, USN) 24 P40B plus 6 spares (moved on December 6) (there are 30 Marine and Navy pilots, plus 100 ground personnel)(authors note: the majority of the Flying Tiger Aces were Marine and Navy pilots, this is a squadron of elite highly aggressive pilots based on their historical record)
Cebu Maclan Field (Cebu) 74th Pursuit Squadron, 18 P40B plus 8 spares (Smith)
75th Pursuit Squadron 20 P40B, 6 DC2 (preparing to move to Luzon) (Shilling)
(the Army pilots do not have the same record of success as the Navy and Marine pilots above but they are still a very highly skilled group historically)
Delmonte Field (Mindanao) 6th Pursuit Squadron (PAAF) (Captain Villamor, PAAF), 18 CW21 interceptors plus 3 spares

also present, 3 RB17C, 4 Beechcraft, 3 DC3, 6 PT17 (the B17s are flying long range scouting missions in the direction of the Japanese held Palau Islands, the DC3s are flying transport missions to Australia while the Beechcraft are airlift Mindanao to Luzon. The PT17s are a detachment of light attack and liaison aircraft)
there is sufficient room on the field to handle the 19th Bomb Group (30 B17s) which are still en route before their final destination of Clark Field
2 seaplane tenders are at Panay and 12 PBY Catalina's are to disperse there once the war starts, adding to the 8 float planes (USN and PCG) already present

Luzon
the 24th Fighter Group, 4th Composite Group, and PAAF 1st and 2nd Groups remain at Luzon
General Chennault arrives on December 6 to meet with General Frank (and protest the orders eliminating the AVG)
the 24th Pursuit Group (30 P40B, 23 P40E with 17th and 3rd Pursuit squadrons) as well as the 7th PAAF Pursuit squadron (14 P26). Due to parts shortages, only 24 of the P40B and 18 of the P40E are operational on December 8. The 17th is organized into 3 flights of 8 aircraft each, deployed at Nichols, Del Carmen and Cabantuan Fields. The 3rd is organized into 2 flights of 8 each (plus 1 spare) at Clark and Rosales Fields. All of the Filipino P26s are at Neilson Field to provide point defense for the city of Manila and Cavite naval yard.

The 27th Bombardment Group (Light) with the 16th, 17th and 91st Bombardment Squadrons has 54 A24 Banshee (the Army version of the SBD Dauntless). Of these only 36 are operational due to parts shortages and the fact that a number of critical parts did not arrive with the crates the aircraft were shipped in. Enough parts have been rushed to the Philippines to get 36 airworthy, and then they are assigned to the 16th Squadron (at Bataan) along with 4 PAAF T6 advanced trainers (as observation aircraft), and 17th Squadron (at Iba Field, also with 4 PAAF T6 trainers). The remaining aircraft and the 39th Squadron are at Nichols Field attempting to get their aircraft operational.

The PAAF transports and trainers are scattered about in 4 plane detachments except for a squadron of PT17s (which are still conducting training) at all of the various airfields, with the B18s and B10s at Clark Field (and the other 3 RB17C) and the primary training squadron still at Zablan Field.

However, only Clark Field and Nielson Field have significant anti aircraft protection (a regiment each of PA antiaircraft guns, with 12 3 inch guns and 32 37 mm guns), the remaining fields have only a company of machine gunners with .50 caliber machine guns each. The antiaircraft units that will defend those airfields have not yet left the United States and will not before the war starts.

The Navy PBYs are stationed at Subic Bay as of the morning of December 8, conducting long range scouting missions in the direction of French Indochina, Formosa and the points in between, the area considered the most likely avenue of approach by a Japanese fleet. The PAAF B18s and B10s are conducting missions to the east of Luzon, while the RB17s are rotating with the rest of their squadron out of Del Monte.

 

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Japanese Plan for the Philippines
The initial plan to conquer the Philippines is put forward based on more general plans developed over the last 20 years in October 1941.

The first phase will be the destruction of the primary American airbases at Clark, Nichols, and Nielson, as well as the destruction of the American Navy Yard at Cavite.

The next phase will be the seizure of forward bases at Legaspi, Aparri, Vigan, as well as seizing the Cagayan Valley in Luzon, as well as a landing at Davao to seize that useful harbor and establish airfields there for operations toward the eastern Dutch East Indies and Darwin, which is viewed as a primary goal for the defense of the East Indies and Malaya once they are seized (as well as ensuring they are seized more easily by blocking a major route of Allied reinforcements to the East Indies from Australia).

Once American air and naval power in the Philippines has been crippled, then a two prong landing will be conducted at Lingayen Gulf and Lamon Bay and these two forces will drive to Manila and destroy the bulk of the American troops in a pincer movement. Once that is completed the remaining American troops that retreat to Bataan will be mopped up.

The final phases will be the seizure of the remaining islands, including a siege and assault on the powerful American fortress at Corregidor.

The Japanese War Plan
The entire operation as planned is expected to be completed by the end of January 1942, but some of the forces assigned will be moved to other assignments and replaced by troops from Manchuria as it is clear in October 1941 that the Soviet Union is collapsing in the face of German assaults which frees additional forces needed for the campaigns planned against northern Australia and eastern India.

Once the Southern Resource area has been seized and the vital western and southern perimeters secured, then the eastern perimeter will be seized by the Navy while the Army finishes off the now isolated Chinese Nationalist government which will have only the barest communication with the outside world over the Himalayas or via Sinkiang to Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.

This is the amended plan as revised after the revision of the Navy plan to destroy the American fleet in the Hawaiian Islands (described in "Battle at Dawn") and based on urging by voices in the Army that point out that the Soviets are clearly finished (with the destruction of huge numbers of their troops at Kiev and Vyzama). The final thing that convinces the Army to strip its forces in Manchuria by 50% is the discovery of the arrival of more American Regular Army and National Guard units in Luzon and the reports that far more on the way. This more than anything else makes it clear that the seizure of Darwin is vital, while intelligence reports that the Americans have a covert fighter group training in the Philippines that they plan to send to China, as well as the reports from German and Italian intelligence that British reinforcements are on their way to Singapore means that the British must be driven not only out of Burma but also eastern India to prevent any allied help from reaching China and thus prolonging that bleeding ulcer for the Japanese Army still further.

Once all of the above have been accomplished, the Navy with Army help will hold the eastern and southern borders of the perimeter anchored at Darwin, Rabual (to be seized June 1942) and Midway (to be seized on December 10-11, 1941), while the Army with Navy assistance will hold the western perimeter (eastern India), mop up the Chinese Nationalists, and once those goals are accomplished, the shattered Soviet Union (which the Germans will certainly finish off by 1942 at the latest) will be helpless to stop the Japanese seizure of Siberia in 1943-44.

The Americans and British will then sue for peace after being defeated when they attack the perimeter and Japan will be the dominant power in the Pacific and Asia.

Such is the plan. Only a few question the final assumption, among them Yamamoto, but their voices are drowned out.

 

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The Lamon Bay landing and landings further south are not pictured

 

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December 8, 1941 War
At 0405 hours December 7, Hawaiian time, a message is sent from Pearl Harbor reporting that an American naval ship, the USS Gamble, a destroyer minesweeper, has been attacked, torpedoed and presumably sunk north of Oahu. This message reaches Admiral Hart at 2205 hours, shortly after he has gone to bed, and begins what will be a very long night for Navy and Army commanders and staff in the Philippines.

Two hours later, the electrifying message “Air Raid Pearl Harbor This is no drill” is received and the United States and the Commonwealth of the Philippines are at war. It is just after midnight, most people are in bed or about to go to bed, and it will be dawn in 5 hours and 42 minutes, and nautical twilight is 30 minutes before that. Admiral Hart alerts Shanghai, Peking, Tientsin and Guam, not that he can do much more than warn them, and ensures that alert is passed on to the Army as well as all of his subordinate commanders. Within two more hours, an order from Washington is received with the instruction “Commence Unrestricted Submarine warfare against Japan.”


As the Navy goes to war, the commanders of the air forces prepare for what is certain to be imminent action. For the last 3 nights Japanese (presumably) aircraft have been flying over Luzon at high altitude and have been picked up by radar. Even as the first warning is picked up a flight of P40Es led by 1st Lieutenant Buzz Wagner is trying to intercept and indeed manages to reach the appropriate position but are too low and miss the Japanese intruder in the darkness. Meanwhile, every available aircraft is being prepared for action or is being hidden in revetments or under cover. Claire Chennault, who had hours before protested his assignment and disbandment of the AVG is now hurriedly revising the defense plan. General Frank sends a message to Darwin ordering the 19th Bombardment Group to wait for further instructions and to not send any aircraft forward but to prepare them for a strike mission that will stage out of Del Monte Field against the Japanese Fleet spotted heading for Mindanao.

Meanwhile, all available B10s, B17s, B18s, Catalinas and float planes are to take off at first light to patrol their sectors for enemy warships, some of which were spotted over the last couple of days.

First Blood
By dawn American search planes are in the air looking for the enemy. The first attack comes soon after, when just after dawn a strike from the carrier Ryujo hits the small Philippine Coast Guard facility at Davao, wrecking it, and Claude fighters shoot down 2 J2F Ducks of the Philippine Coast Guard they encounter along the way. Meanwhile Japanese destroyers run down and destroy 2 armed yachts of the Philippine Coast Guard. No Japanese aircraft are lost.

However the massive attack the Americans are expecting has not yet occurred. All through the morning the American fighters have been taking turns so that at a quarter are in the air, half are on strip alert and the remaining quarter are being serviced. The RB17Cs out of Clark take off at first light and are well on their way to Formosa to photograph enemy airfields. At their cruising speed of 200 mph, the bombers reach the Japanese island (680 miles from Clark Field to the northern tip of Formosa) at 1000 hours local time to find that heavy fog covers much of the suspected airfields of the IJN while the IJA bases are visible. Flying at 36,000 feet, they are well above the ceiling of available Japanese Army fighters and by 1900 hours are nearly home, having noted that the fog over Formosa cleared on their return trip and thus completing their mission of photographing and mapping the Japanese airfields.

Sadly this information will not be useful for the next two years as the planned bombing missions against those fields were not to occur.

The First Attack on Luzon
The first significant Japanese attack occurs at 0900 Hours when a formation of 27 bombers are spotted on radar at Clark Field. Chennault, at the command center at Nielson, orders 8 P40Es and 4 P40Bs on strip alert at Rosales, Clark and Cabantuan to take off and engage the enemy.

At 0915 hours the Japanese bombers turn, completing their feint, and head for the actual target of Baguio. The Japanese are 27 Ki48 Lily Bombers, weakly armed with 3 rifle caliber machine guns and a small bomb load and also limited armor but they are high speed types, capable of 300 mph at their dash speed and they are making every effort as they approach their target. The P40s only have a 50-60 mph speed advantage and thus use up most of their fuel trying to catch the enemy. However they catch the enemy just after they release their bombs, and only having fuel for one pass, Buzz Wagner becomes the first Allied pilot to score a kill over the Philippines, flaming one of the enemy bombers, while several others are damaged. The American fighters are forced to land at Baguio, where fueling facilities are limited and are thus out of action until nearly 1230 hours. Little damage is suffered at Baguio although it does thoroughly alarm President Quezon who is staying there for health reasons.

Enemy approaching
The principal attack has been delayed by the fog that the B17s saw during their mission over Formosa. The last plane of the Japanese attack force does not get off the ground until 1030 Hours, and at 1130, Clark picks up at extreme range a Japanese formation circling over the South China Sea, killing time for the remainder of their aircraft to link up with them.

Chennault has only 4 P40E and 4 P40Bs in the air, plus 12 more P40E and 6 P40B on strip alert. He orders the airborne fighters to engage the enemy over the South China Sea, while the remaining fighters are ordered to orbit over Nielson Field. The P26s are on strip alert with orders to wait until ordered to take off.

The Japanese meanwhile finish forming up by 1145 and begin their approach on Clark Field. Meanwhile another formation is coming in directly over northern Luzon.

The Clark Field attack force consists of 72 Nell bombers, escorted by 48 Zero fighters. The other attack force, still undetected, is heading for Nielson Field and consists of 66 Betty Bombers and 36 Zero fighters, and still another group is coming in behind the Nielson Field force consisting of 30 Betty bombers and 21 Zero fighters. The American and Filipino fighter pilots are hopelessly outnumbered.

But they are willing to fight anyway.

 

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The First Day: Air Battle of Luzon December 8, 1941

As the first formation of 8 P40s climb toward the approaching Japanese bombers flying straight for Clark Field at 20,000 feet, Chennault scrambles the rest of his fighters. He orders them to assemble over Nielson Field and to defend Manila, Nielson and Nichols as well as Cavite. This force is Tiger (8 P40B, 10 P40E) Flight and Captain William Dyess is in command. The 8 P40s (4 P40E, 4 P40B) that were already airborne are Puma (4 P40B, 4 P40E) Flight, while the 12 P40s that Buzz Wagner led earlier and are still refueling at Baguio are Panther Flight (8 P40E, 4 P40B). He orders them to take off as soon as they can and to attack the enemy after they bomb Clark and are retiring.

He also orders every plane that can take off to immediately do so and to remain at low altitude and fly in the direction of Bataan (single engine planes) or to fly to Cebu (the transport aircraft). The patrol bombers are still on patrol and hopefully will not be engaged.

Puma Flight is still climbing as the Japanese bombers and fighters of Raid 1 cross the coast over Dagupan. The Japanese spot the American fighters as they climb and dive to meet them with 18 Zeros. In a short vicious dogfight, American fighter pilots of the 3rd and 17th Pursuit Squadrons learn the hard way what Chennault has been teaching his American Volunteer Group, never dogfight with the Zero. Outnumbered by twice their number of enemy, at a disadvantage as they are climbing while the Zero's are diving, the Americans quickly discover that the Zero have every advantage in a turning battle. Only Puma 3 and Wolf 1 manage to survive, while the other 6 P40s are shot out of the sky (and only two pilots escape from their aircraft). The two survivors are forced to dive away and learn that while they can not dogfight a Zero, they can most definitely out dive one. Both fighters escape but the Americans have lost 6 aircraft and inflicted only minor damage in return.

The remainder of Raid 1, 72 Nell Bombers and 30 Zero fighters approach Clark Field unmolested and flying well above the ability of American anti-aircraft gun fuses to reach them, proceed to level every building and severely crater the runways and aprons. After the 10 minutes of bombing, the Zero fighters then swoop down to strafe. There are 12 P40B, 5 P40E, 1 DC2, 1 DC3, 2 B18 and 2 B10 in revetments or in hangers that were undergoing repair or awaiting vital parts, and not one of them survives the bombing or the 45 minutes of strafing that follows it. American anti-aircraft gunners fight back as best they can but they suffer heavy losses as well, with nearly half of them killed or wounded. Only 3 Zeroes are shot down by flak, while Clark is wrecked as an operational base and along with it the bulk of the repair capability of the Far East Air Force. Personnel casualties are also heavy with nearly 300 men killed or wounded in the attack in spite of slit trenches and foxholes aplenty.

As Clark Field is converted into a hell, the next round is already underway. Japanese Raid 2, with 66 Betty Bombers and 36 Zero fighters had been flying south over the Sierra Madre mountains, which has hidden them from ground observers and radar as well, and they are not spotted until they are mere 25 miles from Nielson Field. General Frank is still in his headquarters building attempting to get through to Clark Field when the bombers arrive. General Chennault is outside by a radio truck when he sees the enemy approaching and well aware of what is coming dives into a slit trench just as the bombs begin to fall. Meanwhile Dyess and Tiger Flight spot the enemy and have just reached their assigned altitude of 25,000 feet when the frantic call from Nielson comes over the radio. An intervening layer of scattered clouds blocks the enemy from sight on their approach and they only spotted when the first puffs of bomb blasts are spotted far below at the airfield.

Japanese bombing is near perfect, utterly destroying most of the buildings on the base and nearly completely destroying the air strip as well. General Frank is seriously wounded and knocked out, while Chennault manages to avoid physical injury although is covered in mud and water. The radar station is completely destroyed, sharing the fate of the radar at Clark, and within the first few hours of the war the Americans are down to one functioning radar facility in the Philippines. Luckily the Japanese are unaware of the facility at Subic Bay or it likely too would have been targeted.

Casualties are severe, as shelters had not yet been constructed at Neilson and over 400 men are killed or wounded and as a command facility the base is effectively destroyed. However the base is spared the heavy strafing that occurred at Clark because as the last bomb falls, Tiger Flight dives on the enemy formation. Dyess orders his fighters to make one pass and to break away and to concentrate on the bombers and ignore the enemy fighters. Captain Dyess had spent several days talking to Chennault about China and Japanese aircraft and he knows that the Dive and Zoom are the proper tactics.

His pilots manage to flame 9 Betty's in their firing pass and American pilots discover first hand that the Betty is a flying gas tank with almost no armor and inadequate fire power. Diving away, his fighters avoid any losses, although several have suffered damage, and the Japanese fighters are in hot but ultimately futile pursuit. Meanwhile the Japanese bombers having completed their run turn away and flee at high speed. The Japanese fighters soon break off, as they are near the end of their range and they head for home as well, while Dyess and his fighters regroup over Bataan.

However Tiger Flight is well out of position when the final Japanese strike, Raid 3, 30 Betty bombers and 21 Zero fighters comes in a few minutes behind Raid 2 having followed the same flight path. This force heads straight for Nichols Field, and with command and control shattered by the effective destruction of Nielson and Clark Fields, no warning is sent and indeed the first inkling of attack is a rain of bombs. On the field in revetments and hangers are 18 A24s, 4 T6 and 4 Steerman trainers as well as 10 observation aircraft that were awaiting parts and unable to take off. Again bombs destroy or severely damage every building, severely crater the airstrip (the only concrete strip in the Philippines) and not facing any opposition, the field is then severely strafed for 15 minutes. Casualties are very heavy, with nearly 300 killed or wounded as the ground defenses are a few heavy machine guns many of which are silenced early on. Every plane on the field is destroyed or wrecked except for 2 Steerman's that were parked under some trees at the edge of the field.

The Japanese finish their strike and are exiting over Manila Bay when Tiger Flight spots them. The Japanese bombers are naked of cover, as their fighter cover is still strafing Nichols Field. Dyess leads his formation to a position above and behind the Japanese bombers, and then hits them as they reach the entrance of Manila Bay. The 18 American fighters inflict heavy revenge, flaming 12 of the Japanese bombers, with Dyess getting 4 of them (adding to the bomber he flamed earlier) and thus becoming the first American ace in the Philippines. The Americans only break off as ammunition is nearly exhausted and the hastily summoned Japanese fighter escort finally climbs back up to altitude.

The Americans get away clean once again, as the Japanese fighters are low on ammunition and fuel, and Dyess will eventually be awarded the Medal of Honor for his leadership this day.

Meanwhile, over Lingayen Gulf, Buzz Wagner and Panther Flight have missed the Japanese bombers of Raid 1 which have already flown by, but they are in position when 27 Zeroes are spotted flying low heading north. This formation are the strafers of Clark Field and many are damaged and nearly all are out of ammunition. The 12 P40s dive on them and manage to splash at total of 7 of the enemy fighters before they escape. Several more are damaged and 4 of these end up ditching on the way home. However some of the American pilots, the relatively inexperienced pilots of the 3rd Pursuit, end up in dogfights with enemy fighters and while they destroy 2 of the Zeroes lost in this fight, 2 of them are shot down (and both pilots are killed) and 2 more heavily damaged.

By 1400 hours the Japanese are gone. Behind them they leave Nichols, Clark and Nielson Fields burning, littered with wreckage and knocked out of action. Nearly 1,000 American and Filipino casualties are being laid out for hasty burial or flooding into hospitals, among them General Frank who along with several other badly injured are flown out by DC3 to Singapore that night. A total of 7 American fighters (5 P40E, 2 P40B) have been shot down, another 6 fighters (2 P40E, 4 P40B) are damaged and effectively write offs as the principal repair facilities for the Far East Air Force have been destroyed, and another 47 aircraft have been destroyed on the ground. Imperial Japanese Navy losses are heavier than hoped, with 10 fighters and 21 bombers destroyed (and 4 more fighters lost on the way home) but considered acceptable as the principal infrastructure to support the Far East Air Force has been destroyed and Japanese pilots claim 21 kills (matched only by the 60 kills claimed by American pilots in terms of inaccuracy).

American reporters in the Philippines soon get word back to the United States of the outstanding efforts by Tiger Flight, and from then on the P40s of the Far East Air Force are known as the Flying Tigers. Within a couple of days the remaining P40s are all sporting Tiger Shark paint jobs to match their moniker.

 

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Recovering from the blow
By late afternoon Chennault has managed to inform Krueger that General Frank is out of action and he has assumed command of USAAFE. General Krueger signs off on the command change and orders Chennault to fight with his forces as best he can, but also orders him to safeguard his remaining bombers and sufficient fighters to cover them. Reports are coming in from patrol planes that the Japanese are already landing in the Calayan Island group, only a few miles north of Luzon. Another fleet is approaching northern Luzon and will likely enter the Babuyan Channel on the 9th. Another Japanese fleet has been spotted leaving the Pescadores heading for Luzon, and behind it is a fleet with 2 battleships and numerous cruisers and destroyers clearly providing cover for it as well as Japanese forces attacking Malaya. B17s on their scouting mission into the Palau Islands has spotted yet another fleet on a course that will take it either to southern Luzon or potentially Samar or further into the central Philippine Islands.


Chennault flies to the various airfields aboard a Beech 18 to see what he has left. The 3rd Pursuit Squadron is down to 10 P40E so he orders it to fly to Del Monte to provide defense for his one remaining operational B17 airfield. Admiral Hart agrees to allow him to continue to control VMF112 for now, but only as long as least one squadron remains at Cebu to protect his patrol planes and surface ships at Cebu and Panay. Chennault moves the 6th Pursuit (PAAF) to Cebu, and Colonel George and all 3 squadrons of the 23rd Pursuit Group to Bataan, Mariveles and Rosales. He decides Iba is too vulnerable and he orders Del Carmen and Zablan Fields evacuated, with all remaining training aircraft evacuated to Bataan. The bombers he has left are sent to Del Monte (the B18s and B10s) to provide air search to cover the southern Philippines, while the PBYs continue to cover the northern islands and the B17s out of Del Monte prepare for a strike. Colonel Eubanks in Darwin reports that 18 of his B17Ds are ready to fly to Del Monte, and Chennault orders him to launch a strike at the fleet steaming from Palau on December 10. Chennault plans to hit the Japanese with the B17s and his A24s, in coordination with Admiral Hart's plan to attack the Japanese fleet.

Aside from fighters, no aircraft will remain stationed in Luzon. The remaining fields will be used only for airlift and staging as will Clark once the 4th Engineer Brigade (PA) makes a concerted effort to fill the numerous bomb craters and remove debris. Chennault expects that the Japanese will hit his airfields again tomorrow and his transports spend the afternoon and evening moving men and to Cebu, Bataan and Del Monte. As night falls, trucks supplied by Eisenhower continue to evacuate personnel and as much equipment as can be moved where it is sent to Manila where equipment and spares will be sent by barge and boat to Bataan. The other major movement is the hundreds of wounded that have to be evacuated from the fields hit today, and the burial of over 300 dead.

December 9
The Japanese are concerned about their losses but feel they have inflicted far worse on the Americans. The Army aircraft will be supporting the landing at Aparri. The Navy will had planned to spread out their attacks on the remaining American airfields but in light of losses on the 8th decides instead to concentrate on a massive raid on Cavite with half of the available fighters as close escort, and the other half to conduct a fighter sweep against the enemy airfields hoping to catch the Americans as they take off.

The Japanese raid takes off just after dawn from Formosa. The attack force consists of 60 Nell bombers, 15 of which are tasked to hit the Manila Hotel, 15 will hit Fort Santiago, and the other 30 to hit the Manila Docks. Japanese intelligence reports that both Krueger and Hart live at the hotel, and that many of their staff officers do as well while Fort Santiago is the headquarters of the Philippine Department. The rest of the attack force consists of 72 Betty bombers which will hit Cavite Naval Yard. Covering the two formations will be 2 groups of 27 fighters. Just ahead of the bombers will be 36 fighters in 4 groups of 9 aircraft each that will attack Iba, Del Carmen, Zablan and Baguio fields and American fighters as they take off.

The first Japanese fighters hit Iba Field at 0830 hours only to find it empty of aircraft. Unwilling to waste ammunition these fighters join up with Raid 1, which is 60 Nell Bombers and 27 fighters, increasing the escort to 36 aircraft. Chennault has moved his headquarters to Subic Bay, where the Marines have an operational radar and good signals equipment. Meanwhile General Eisenhower is in the field overseeing the continued movement of everything that can be moved for the USAAFE to Bataan and as the raid crosses the coast is at Fort Stotsenburg a few hundred yards from Clark Field with one of the few radio trucks. Admiral Hart and General Krueger are at the Manila Hotel in a conference when word reaches them that Japanese bombers are crossing the coast but certain that the enemy will hit the airfields continue their conference.

Cavite Naval Yard October 1941

Reports reach Chennault of the enemy strike and he orders his squadrons to assemble over Mount Arayat at 24,000 feet to wait for orders. Still convinced that the enemy is heading for his fields, Chennault has that view further confirmed as Japanese fighters strafe Baguio, Zablan and Del Carmen where 8 PT17s are destroyed as they were grounded due to mechanical problems. Casualties are light however, as the bases had mostly been evacuated and only 23 men are killed and 45 wounded as many are caught by surprise before they can reach cover.

Radar finally picks up the Japanese bombers as they fly just south of Subic Bay and cross the coast at Bataan on before splitting into Raid 1 (Manila) and Raid 2 (Cavite). Realizing that the Japanese have tricked him, Chennault orders his squadrons to hit the enemy. However the Japanese have a head start and will hit their targets before the American fighters can reach them.

Raid on Cavite and Manila
The Japanese bombers are flying well above American flak, and 72 bombers convert the base into burning wreckage in 15 minutes. Bombs sink the submarine Sealion, while a bomb hits the yard lighter and barge with over 200 torpedoes aboard, destroying at a single blow most of the torpedo supply for the Asiatic Fleet. This formation then turns over Laguna de Bay and prepares to make a second run to finish the job. At that moment 32 P40B Warhawks of the 74th and 75th Pursuit squadrons hit the Japanese escort of 36 Zeros, while the 30 Warhawks of 17th Pursuit and VMF112 hit the Japanese bomber formation of 72 bombers.

Cavite Naval Yard December 12, 1941

However, as the air battle erupts Japanese Raid 2 is attacking Manila effectively unopposed. Japanese bombing is against outstanding, scoring several hits on the Manila Hotel effectively destroying it as it erupts into flames, while nearly every bomb blasts apart the interior of Fort Santiago and more bombs sink several merchant ships and start fires in the port area. Civilian casualties are severe, with post attack estimates of at least 2,000 civilians killed or missing and at least 5,000 injured. The military losses are also severe, with over 200 Army and Navy casualties including General Krueger who is evacuated unconscious and badly burned, and Admiral Hart who is killed (and only identified by his his class ring). In a few minutes the Philippine Department and Asiatic Fleet have been decapitated.

Raid 2 turns north heading directly over the Luzon Plain for its planned exit for home and is unopposed on its way out.

The Americans get a measure of revenge however on Raid 1. Using the dive and zoom tactics that Chennault has taught and Dyess has proven the previous day, the American fighters destroy 6 fighters and 8 bombers in their attack before diving away. However the Japanese do manage to catch the trailing elements as they attack, and several P40s are damaged and the 74th and 75th lose 2 fighters each. The arrival of 18 more Zeroes that have been called to link up from strafing attack however provides urgently needed reinforcements and having orders to hit and then run, the American fighters break off. The Japanese make their second bomb run, but at their maximum speed and their bombing is far less effective this time, not that it matters much as the naval yard is already badly damaged and enough bombs hit the target to finish the job. At least 500 American and Filipino civilian and military personnel are killed, and many hundreds more are injured. The only good news is that aside from the submarine hit in the initial attack, no other naval vessels or ships are hit. But Cavite is finished as a functional base.

Chennault orders his fighters to regroup and hit the enemy again on their way out. The Americans pursue but every available Japanese fighter turns to meet them. In all 60 Japanese fighters attack the American fighters and prevent them from reaching the fleeing bombers, and the Japanese manage to down 6 more American fighters but lose 8 of their own. Both sides then break off and head for their bases as ammunition and fuel are spent.

The morning December 9 raids are a devastating blow. In a few short minutes both US major commands have lost their commanders and many key staff officers, while Cavite naval yard is completely ruined. Along with this damage 10 more American fighters have been lost, along with 4 pilots killed in action. However for the Japanese it has been another costly day, with 14 fighters and 8 bombers lost and another 20 bombers have suffered damage sufficient to require repair that will keep them out of action for at least a day. The air commanders on both sides are are forced to examine the fact that they have lost nearly 25% of their fighters in a mere two days of air combat. For Chennault he has the painful knowledge that there will be no replacements, while commander of 11th Air Fleet, Vice Admiral Takenaka has the knowledge that replacements for his losses are still a trickle and none can be expected for several days.

For this reason Chennault is forced to note helplessly the destruction of Iba Field by an afternoon raid as the Japanese bombers return and convert the airstrip into a moonscape. His own fighters are kept on that ground at Bataan or ordered to patrol over Manila in case of another attack on the city.

Change of Command
It is not until nearly 1600 hours that Eisenhower is finally informed that General Krueger is severely wounded and no longer capable of command. He also learns of the heavy casualties in Manila and that Admiral Glassford is now acting commander of the US Asiatic Fleet. He sends a courier to Panay to learn if Glassford plans to continue to his planned attack on the Japanese fleet approaching either southern Luzon or the central Philippine Islands. For now nothing will change.

Glassford meanwhile orders his support ships and combat ships out of Manila Bay, regardless of their state of repair and along with the Philippine Coast Guard transports to pick up the Marines. To assist in covering this he sends 4 destroyers to meet them at Subic Bay, leaving him with 2 heavy cruisers, 1 light cruiser and 8 destroyers. By dawn on the 10th the American ships are at Subic Bay, where they can be covered by American fighters from Bataan.

Meanwhile the Japanese make plans to hit the American airfields on the 10th as distant support for landings planned for the next two days.