Why the Chinese play cricket (an Imperial Federation timeline)

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-April 1894: Treaties are the treat

January 1894: The French and Russians formalise their alliance in an exchange of governmental notes. While not a formally treaty, rather a set of understandings which will come to be known by the French term entente, the Franco-Russian alliance will divide Europe into two competing blocs. With the Austro-Hungarian, German and Italian Triple Alliance on one side and the Franco-Russian Entente on the other.

January 1894: While it has received the most attention, the South American Arms Race has not been confined solely to naval construction, nor confined solely to the three ABC powers. Over the past eight years, most nations in Latin American have been purchasing large quantities or arms and other military equipment. Argentina in particular purchased a licence to produce the 7.65mm M1889 Mauser in 1891, while the Brazilians adopted the M1893 variant. Both have then sold their surplus arms on to other Latin American nations, with Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru all seeking to improve their armed forces. The only nation thus far holding back has been Chile. However, no longer able to ignore the situation, the Chileans order 50,000 modified Lee-Metfords and 30 Maxim guns in 0.303” British from London Small Arms Company and Vickers in Britain. The Chilean Lee-Metfords feature a new deeper pattern of rifling to deal with an ongoing issue of excessive barrel wear caused by the new cordite ammunition.

January 1894: Concerns over the growing number of migrants leads the US Congress to pass the Dowes Act. The new law imposes quotas authorises the President to impose quotas on migrants and requires competency in English for permanent entry. President McKinley immediately uses the act to slash migration from Asia and Eastern Europe.

February 1894: Five Welsh Liberal MPs led by David Lloyd George defect to form a new Welsh Nationalist party Cymru Fydd. While this ends Campbell-Bannerman's majority. The new party will continue to vote with the government on virtually all issues, maintaining their position. The defections also occur in the Welsh Regional Administration Board, though here eighteen of the twenty four Liberal members of the thirty two member board defect, giving the party control of the board.

February 1894: Until now, cricketing tours have been organised on a ad hoc basis. However they are now becoming a regular annual occurrence and it felt some form of organisation is required. To this end, representatives of the British MCC, Dominion, Indian and US cricketing bodies meet in London to establish the Imperial Cricket Council to coordinate the game. It is agreed while the MCC should continue to be the custodian of the laws of cricket which govern the game, the ICC should organise tours to ensure regular rotation of teams.

February 1894: With the Sudan Military Railway now again making good progress towards Abu Hamad, General Kitchener dispatches the Dominion Brigade, supported by two Sudanese battalions under Brigadier William Gatacre to secure the town. In the wake of the recapture of Dongola, the Khalifa has built up the garrison to some 9,000 men. In a fierce five hour battle the Dominion Brigade successfully captures the town, killing over 4,000 Mahdists, holding it until the railway finally reaches it in late June.

March 1894: Since the end of the Great Eastern War in 1878, the Armenian people in the Ottoman Empire, already treated as second class citizens, have been struggling for reform, Sultan Abdul Hamid II has responded with increasing levels of persecution, encouraging local Kurds and Circassians to raid and loot Armenian villages and towns. In response the Armenian Sots'ial Demokrat Hnch'akyan Kusakts'ut'yun (SDHK) or Social Democratic Hunchakian Party, a communist Armenian political party organises a resistance around Sassoun. The Ottoman response is launch a series of brutal reprisals which rapidly develop into full scale massacres of Armenians and Assyrian Christians.

March 1894: To further strengthen their fleet, the Japanese order two further battleships and two protected cruisers. While the two Fuji class battleships are ordered from British yards, the two Suma class cruisers will be the first major warships constructed in Japan to Japanese design using entirely Japanese materials.

March 1894: Emperor Pedro II of Brazil contracts a fever and dies three weeks later. His death causes a massive outpouring of grief in Brazil and he widely mourned throughout the world. His surviving daughter succeeds him as Empress Isabel. Though her succession is entirely constitutional, her accession to the throne causes a great deal of disquiet in conservative circles in Brazil. Not only is there opposition due to her gender, her liberal sympathies are well known as is her deep commitment to her Catholic faith. However it also widely celebrated amongst the lower classes, especially those of African descent.

March 1894: The Wolseley Reforms to the Indian army have proven to less than ideal, with the British two battalion regiment model not being a good fit for the army. A new inquiry under General Frederick Roberts is commissioned to investigate further reforms.

April 1894: Since the beginning of the regeneration of the US Navy in 1883, 62 new warships have been ordered. However only 19 of those are suitable for patrol, commerce protection and security roles while 23 are optimised almost entirely for fleet combat, the remaining 20 being torpedo boats only suitable for coastal defence. In light of this, serious questions are asked in Congress regarding the 'top heavy' nature of the new US navy, with many feeling the dedication to Mahanist doctrine has gone too far. Despite Secretary of the Navy's request for more more ships suitable for the line of battle, Congress instead orders two small fast protected cruisers, four torpedo gunboats and ten torpedo boats for coastal defence, along with an increase in funding for coastal defence around the main US harbours.

April 1894: With their attempts to undermine British control of Egypt and Sudan through Khedive Abbas II's revolt having failed, the French begin supplying Emperor Menelik II weapons in an effort to expand their influence into Abyssinia, and thereby provide a base to threaten Sudan. He immediately gains the support of Russia unwilling to see an Orthodox Christian nation under Catholic control.

April 1894: In addition to the issues with barrel wear in the Lee-Metford due to the new cordite ammunition, operations in the Sudan have shown up some serious defects in the manufacture of British rifle ammunition, with problems regarding headspacing and bursting cases. In an effort to resolve these issues, entirely new machine tooling is imported from Germany and the US, while inspection for quality control is greatly tightened up. In particular the previous system whereby a manufacturer may resubmit a fail batch for a new round of testing is abandoned. These policies will result in a significant improvement in the quality of British military munitions, not only for small arms but across all army and navy weapons. The situation will also result in the creation of the National Development Board to ensure British industry remains abreast of technology. This is followed by the Technical Education Act later in the year, further encouraging engineering and scientific education.

April 20th 1894: After having mastered the basics of flight in balloons, Alberto Santos-Dumont begins experimenting with petrol driven non-rigid airships.

 

[Miss Construction]

~May-Aug 1894: Home to roost

May 1894: Despite conservative opposition to Prime Minister Afonso Celso's liberal reforms, the 1894 elections see the Liberals mainlining a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, while conservative dominance in the Senate is being slowly eroded. However, despite remaining Prime Minister Celso is now facing increasing discontent from within his own Liberal Party, both due to concerns over the pace of reform and the deteriorating economy.

May 1894: The Pullman Company is one the leading manufacturers of railway rolling stock in the US, with most of its workers living in company towns, close to their place of employment. As a result of the Panic of 1893 and subsequent depression, the demand for rolling stock has dropped dramatically. In response the Pullman Company has drastically slashed the wages of its workers without reducing the rents they charge in their company towns, leaving many of their workers facing sever financial hardship. In response the workers form the American Railway Union and call a general strike in an effort to reduce the rents the company is charging. When this proves unsuccessful in forcing the company to reduce their rents the union organises a boycott of all trains using Pullman cars for transport. As Pullman cars are found on most trains, this brings rail transport to a near halt in the US. In an effort to break the strike and get trains moving again, President Cleveland authorises the deployment of the army. The strike will last several months, worsening the already dire economic situation.

June 1894: Italian anarchist Sante Geronimo Caserio stabs and kills French President Sadi Canot in retaliation for the repression of anarchism in France. This will lead to most of Europe passing laws similar to the French 'Lois Scélérates' repressing the anarchist movement or support for 'propaganda of the deed.' This will be a major factor in the triumph of communism over anarchism in the radical left throughout Europe.

June 1894: A note obtained from Maximilian von Schwartzkoppen, German military attaché in Paris comes to the attention of French military intelligence. The note contains a list of secret French military documents which might be available, penned by an unnamed source. An investigation is immediately launched to discover the source of the leak.

June 1894: The Regional Administration Amendment Act increases the competency of the new national administration boards in Britain, giving them control over fisheries, most government artistic and cultural organisations, prison services and conservation. As with the original law creating the boards, the new new act generates a great deal of controversy and opposition from the Conservatives and Irish Coalition. The act originally included a provision for the boards to gain limited control over their funding, however this is defeated by the Conservatives in the Lords, along with an attempt to place the courts under their control. The act will also finally spell an end to the Progressive Party with it deeply split over the issue of devolution. While party leader Lord Rosebery opposes the policy, a considerable number to the remaining Progressives are in support and twelve Progressive MPs defect to the Liberals over the matter, restoring the government's absolute majority. The remaining sixteen Progressives meet and agree to join with the Conservative Party. However more important is over half the Progressive peers elect to return to the Liberals, seriously upsetting the Dominance the Conservatives have had since Gladstone's defection from the Liberals in 1878.

July 1894: An Italian force of some 2,500 men engages a Mahdist army of 3,000 holding the town of Kassala on the border of Eritrea. The Italians under General Oreste Baratieri will successfully take the town inflicting heavy loses on the Mahdists, further weakening their morale.

July 1894: The Dublin Imperial Conference is once again dominated by the issues of further Imperial integration. Unlike previous conferences the British do not suggest a customs union, instead advancing as the 1886 Imperial Preference tariff scheme has been a success, a single common tariff scheme for Imperial goods should be introduced. To achieve this goal, a committee will be formed under the Imperial Security Council to develop an acceptable regime. This naturally leads to discussion of the proposed All Red Route of Imperial shipping. To this end, First Sea Lord Admiral Tryon suggests the Royal Naval Reserve and navy's War Book be extended to include the Dominions, with the same subsidies applying to Dominion flagged vessels as apply to British flagged ships. The idea finds enthusiastic support with the Dominions, though Campbell-Bannerman somewhat dampens this by adding that this would mean the Dominions would have to contribute to the costs. Regardless, the Dominions agree in principle, with the matter again being referred to the Imperial Security Council to work out the details.

July 1894: While the focus of the Dublin Imperial Conference is on Imperial integrations, security matters are raised. In particular the Cape Colony and Natal are increasingly concerned by the growing militancy of the Boer republics and there is general disquiet at the Egyptian rebellion, given the threat it posed to Imperial communications. Army Commander in Chief Field Marshall Wolseley attempts to quiet the fears over Egypt by pointing the rebellion was dealt with quickly and control restored. Eventually it is decided the British garrison in Egypt should never be allowed to fall below the level of the Egyptian army, with the Dominions agreeing to commit a composite battalion to the garrison, drawn from Canada and Newfoundland, southern Africa and the Pacific on a rotating two year basis. Regarding the Boer republics, it is determined no provocative moves should be made, but their should be preparations to rapidly reinforce southern Africa in the event of a crisis. The Dominions raise the matter of expansion of the shipbuilding industry, again pushing for expansion of the Royal Dockyards in the Dominions. However the response is the same as at the Wellington Conference, that it is simply unaffordable and any further expansion will require a significant financial contribution from the Dominions. At the close it is clear the Dominions mistrust of the Imperial government is falling and the conference has been a resounding success. The next conference is scheduled for Ottawa in 1896.

July 1894: Pressure for reform in the Chinese tributary state of Korea has been growing for many years. In March a peasant revolt breaks out over harsh treatment by local officials. Fearing the revolt may spread the Korean King Gojong appeals to the Qing for assistance in putting down the revolt and a small force is dispatched. However the Japanese, seeking to expand their own influence in Korea, claim this is a violation of the 1885 Convention of Tientsin, under which the Chinese and Japanese agreed not to deploy troops to Korea without informing the other first. As a consequence they deploy troops to the peninsula and occupy Seoul, installing a pro-Japanese government. This new government immediately requests Japanese aid in expelling the Chinese. A Chinese attempt to reinforce their position leads to the naval Battle of Pungdo where the Japanese destroy the reinforcement convoy. This is followed by an attack on the Chinese troops at Seonghwan, forcing their retreat to Pyongyang, beginning the Sino-Japanese War.

August 1894: The experimental vessel Turbinia is launched in Britain. The Turbinia will be the world's first vessel powered by a marine steam turbine.

August 1894: With the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, now Captain Zaitian Aisin-Gioro resigns his commission to resume his role as Guangxu Emperor. He is given a final promotion to the substantive rank rank of major and an honorary rank of Major General in the Royal Engineers along with being made a Stranger Companion of the Order of the Garter. He departs on the month long journey aboard the cruiser HMS Blake. The young Emperor is horrified when he receives a copy of the official Chinese declaration of war, with its derogatory language towards the Japanese. He rescinds the declaration, issues an apology for the 'misunderstanding' and reissues it in far more respectful tones. He is also appalled when he learns a bounty has been placed on the heads of Japanese soldiers. He immediately orders the practice ended and the Chinese forces to strictly follow the established European customs of war.

August 1894: Emperor Menelik II of Abyssinia, judging his power is now secure, renounces the Treaty of Wuchale he signed with the Italians in 1889. He immediately begins conducting small raids into Eritrea to harass the Italians.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Sept-Dec 1894: Tokyo calling

September 1894: In accordance with President Cleveland's 1892 election promise, the much criticised McKinley Tariff Act is replaced by a new regime. The new Williams-Gorman Act is supposed to reduce tariffs across the board, and thus improve US international trade by encouraging other nations to remove their retaliatory tariffs. While the act in its original form would have achieved that, the ongoing depression has sparked renewed support for protectionism and the acts intent has been essentially undone by a series of some six hundred individual amendments which have resulted in only a very limited reduction in tariffs. While President Cleveland denounces the new law as a betrayal of tariff reform and a product of “party perfidy and party dishonour.” Nevertheless he signs the act into law as being better than nothing.

September 1894: In a major move acknowledging the modernisation of Japan, the British give up the right of their citizens to extraterritoriality in Japan. The British lead will be followed by most of the rest of the western powers over the next three years.

September 1894: The Guangxu Emperor finally arrives in China and begins his direct rule of the country. He immediately begins a review of the state of the Qing army and is shocked when he learns its true state, being little more than a collection of local forces of vastly differing quality, with individual commanders responsible for training and equipping their troops. This review convinces him it is no condition to fight the current war and orders negations begun in an attempt to end the war. However he is unprepared for the intricate politics of the Qing court. His attempts to open talks with the Japanese regarding a negotiated settlement are thwarted by Dowager Empress Cixi, who believes the war can be won. Cixi is able to gather sufficient backing to retain the Regency until the newly returned Emperor has “acquainted himself with the customs of the Qing court” thus retaining her control over the government.

September 1894: The Japanese seize the city of Pyongyang, forcing the Chinese from Korea. The Chinese then suffer a far more serious defeat in the Battle of the Yalu River when the Beijing Fleet under Admiral Ding Ruchang is comprehensively defeated by the Japanese Combined Fleet under Admiral Itō Sukeyuki. The Beijing Fleet is hamstrung by poor command, discipline, training and defective ammunition. While three Japanese ships are severely damaged, no less than seven out of the ten Chinese ships are sunk, the Beijing Fleet retreats back to Lüshunkou on the Liaodong Peninsula for repairs and will play no further part in the war, ceding control of the sea to the Japanese. The crushing defeat of the Chinese navy, along with the poor performance of their army leads the British to begin attempting to bring about a negotiated settlement to avoid a total Chinese defeat. However Dowager Empress Cixi is still confident of victory and refuses to negotiate.

October 1894: With war between Argentina and Chile now seeming highly likely and having previously been unable to halt the ongoing arms race by diplomatic means the British and US have pressured their banking industry to cut off loans for the purchase of new military hardware or warships. This has finally had the desired effect. In a conference jointly hosted by the two Great Powers the three ABC nations sign the Treaty of Philadelphia. Under its terms they agree to purchase no new warships for ten years, while the Brazilian cruisers Minas Gerias and Sao Paulo ordered in 1893 are to be sold to the US. The treaty will finally end the South American Naval Arms Race and begin to reduce tensions in the region.

October 1894: With the ongoing issues with the British machine tool industry Canadian industrialists Nathaniel Curry and Nelson Rhodes expand their railcar manufacturing company to produce high quality machine tools using US manufacturing techniques. Capitalising on the lower tariffs throughout the Empire due to the Imperial preference scheme, the venture will be a huge success, and Curry Rhodes will become one of the leading producers of machine tools in the British Empire.

October 1894: Suspicion as to the author of the Schwartzkoppen note falls on Captain Alfred Dreyfus an artillery officer of Jewish heritage, despite an expert on handwriting analysis firmly stating Dreyfus had not penned the note and Dreyfus being patriotic to the point of jingoism, even being a supporter of the boulangist movement. Despite the complete lack of evidence and motive, Dreyfus is arrested and charged. Driven by anti-Jewish racism, the popular press quickly condemns him. After a closed trial, Dreyfus is convicted of espionage and sentenced to life in exile on the Devils Island penal colony. The case results in a surge of anti-Jewish racism throughout France with even his fellow boulangists turn on him.

October 1894: The Welsh Regional Administration Board, now dominated by Cymru Fydd introduce one hour a week instruction in the Welsh language Cymric. Within eighteen months both the Irish and Scottish boards will institute a similar policy, greatly improving the prospects for the survival of the British Celtic languages.

November 1894: Now realising the threat the British forces advancing from Abu Hamad pose, the Khalifa orders a 12,000 strong force to engage the British advance guard of 6,000 men under General Archibald Hunter, The Battle of Arbara will be the true turning point of the campaign, with Hunter's forces routing the Mahdists and securing the vital river junction. This will clear the way for the final advance on Omdurman.

November 1894: After an almost month long siege the Japanese capture Lüshunkou on the Liaodong Peninsula. The Chinese order the remnants of the Beijing Fleet to retreat back to Weihaiwei to avoid capture.

November 1894: The poor state of the US economy results in the US midterm elections bringing in yet another landslide victory, but for the Republicans this time, with President Cleveland's Democrats losing control of both houses, though only narrowly in the Senate.

November 1894: Tsar Alexander III of Russian contracts a fatal liver disease and dies, being succeeded by his son Nicholas II. Though many hope Nicholas will institute a new liberal regime similar to his grandfather, he continues with his father's autocratic policies.

December 1894: A group of young Greek military officers found the Ethniki Etaireia, a secret society. The group is dedicated to advancing the Megali Idea, bringing all ethnic Greeks into a Greater Greek state.

December 1894: John Thompson becomes the second Canadian Premier in succession to die in office when he suffers a massive heart attack at age 49. Charles Tupper is selected to replace him. Tupper, a staunch support of the Imperial Federation League, adopts policies of moving Canada closer to the Empire.

December 1894: Eritrean leader Bahta Hagos supported by Ras Mengesha Yohannes, Abyssinian governor of Tigray, launches a rebellion against the Italians. The Italians rapidly crush the rebellion at the Battle of Halai and occupy the Tigrayan capital of Adwa.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-April 1895: They don't like it up 'em

January 1895: Suspecting the Abyssinian governor of Tigray Ras Mengesha Yohannes is planning to invade Eritrea, attack and defeat his army in the Battle of Coatit. With captured documents clearly showing Emperor Menelik II's complicity, this is usually regarded as the start of the Italo-Abyssinian War.

January 1895: With her resumption of the role of Regent, Dowager Empress Cixi again begins pushing for the Guangxu Emperor to marry one of her relatives, Lady Jingfang of Yehe Nara clan, younger sister of her previous choice Jingfen. However the Emperor finds her no more palatable than her elder sister, preferring instead Lady Keshun of the Tatara clan, who shares his modernistic attitudes. Nonetheless the Emperor is eventually forced to give in, taking Lady Jingfang as his Empress, though he is able to take Lady Keshun as his First Consort.

January 1895: The report of the Roberts Inquiry makes a number of radical proposals for reform to the Indian Army. Roberts suggest reorganising the current dual battalion infantry regiments into twenty to twenty five a number large regiments, each to consist of six to eight battalions, with one battalion dedicated to training and recruitment. Additionally he recommends the Viceroy's Bodyguard become a permanent formation with an infantry guards unit formed alongside it. Regarding the Gurkha Regiments, Corps of Guides along with the cavalry and support arms, the report recommends they remain unaltered. Robert's also reiterates Wolseley's proposal to form an Indian Regiment of Artillery. However perhaps his most radical proposal is that a pool of Indian officers suitable for higher command and staff work should be cultivated. Roberts suggests three cavalry, ten infantry, one pioneer battalion, the Madras Sappers and Miners, and five artillery batteries should be selected for 'Indianisation.' Under his scheme suitable Indian candidates would be trained at Sandhurst and Woolwich, ideally recruited from those educated at the English style public schools established by Viceroy Temple in 1882. These would then be posted in at the bottom of the command structure and British officers wasted out through natural attrition. Viceroy Lord Wallington moves to institute the Report essentially unaltered. The Viceroy's Bodyguard is expanded to three battalion, one from each presidency, while the Indian Regiment of Guards is formed from the four most senior battalions from Bengal, Bombay, Madras and Punjab, with the remaining 146 battalions organised into twenty two infantry and four pioneer regiments. But perhaps most importantly, a regiment of Indian artillery is finally formed. Despite its acceptance by the Viceroy, the report creates a great deal of controversy in Britain, with many asking questions regarding the 'suitability' of large numbers of Indian officers and the wisdom of allowing Indian troops access to artillery. Nevertheless, Secretary of State for India Lord Ripon approves the program, the only alteration being as it is considered 'inappropriate' Indian officers train alongside British officers, two Indian military academies are opened. One at Derhadun for service arms and one at Dapodi for technical services.

February 1895: Since his exile to the US after a long failed rebellion ending in 1878, Cuban revolutionary José Martí has been rallying support for another rebellion in the Cuban exile community. In late 1894 Martí organises three ships to transport weapons and rebels to Cuba. While two of the ships are seized by US authorities, Martí proceeds and begins his insurrection, starting a vicious war in Cuba.

February 1895: Alberto Santos-Dumont launches his first non-rigid airship, the No. 1. Despite some early promise, the airship is a failure, with its envelope being too small to enable to fully retain its shape.

February 1895: For many years their has been a dispute between Britain and Venezuela over where the western border of British Guiana lies. The British base their claims on the Schomburgk Line established by explorer Robert Schomburgk in 1840, while Venezuela claims all territory west of the Essequibo River. For the past few years the Venezuelans have unsuccessfully attempting to involve the US, claiming the British are violating the Monroe Doctrine. In a renewed effort, they have engaged a US lobbyist who has been capitalising on latent US Anglophobia to elicit support for the Venezuelans. Eventually he is successfully in getting Congress to pass a resolution calling for Britain and Venezuela to submit the matter to arbitration, claiming the dispute falls under the Monroe Doctrine.

February 1895: The Japanese capture the port of Weihaiwei in the Shandong province, finally crushing the Chinese resistance in the Sino-Japanese War. The remnants of the Beijing Fleet are either scuttled or captured, with Admiral Ding Ruchang committing suicide despite an offer of political asylum from the Japanese Commander Itō Sukeyuki. The fall of Weihaiwei finally convinces the Chinese to accept the British offer to mediate and open negotiations to end the war.

March 1895: To deal with the barrel wear issue of the Lee-Metford rifle, a new barrel using the improved deeper 'Chilean' rifling is introduced, resulting in the Lee-Enfield Mk I. Other than the new barrel and gas relief ports to better cope with burst cartridges, the rifle is identical to the existing Lee-Metford Mk II*. Alongside the new rifle a new 0.303” Mk III round developed at the Dum Dum arsenal in India is introduced. The new round features an exposed point, leading to the bullet expanding on impact, greatly increasing the damage inflicted.

March 1895: The financial collapse of the Argentine banking system in 1890 and Prime Minister Celso's policy of granting generous loans to conservative landowners to reduce opposition to his reforms has pushed Brazil in a deepening depression. In an attempt to deal with the situation Celso introduces a series of drastic austerity measures. His conservative opponents seize on the opportunity to attempt to remove him. His position is only saved by Empress Isabel working discreetly behind the scenes to gain support from the Catholic traditionalists. However they demand Celso abandons his reform program in return, a demand to which Celso will reluctantly agree in order to implement his austerity program.

March 1895: General Kitchener's army in Sudan finally has advanced to take the Mahdist capital of Omdurman. With some 23,800 troops he faces the Khalifa's main 55,000 strong army. The result will be a fierce six hour battle which will see the Mahdist army routed by withering rifle and machine gun fire. Kitchener's troops have been issued with the new 0.303” Mk III round, inflicting horrific wounds, greatly increasing the effectiveness of their fire. The battle will be noted for the last cavalry charge by the British army when the 2nd (Empress of India's) battalion, Prince of Wales Royal Lancers make one of the final cavalry charge of the British army, suffering heavy casualties attacking a force of Mahdist spearmen, not realising their true strength. While the Khalifa will survive, fleeing the battlefield, the Battle of Omdurman will be a decisive defeat, ensuring a British victory in the Sudan Campaign.

April 1895: The Treaty of Shimononseki ends the Sino-Japanese War. Despite British support the terms are extremely harsh, the Chinese are forced to cede Formosa, the Pescadore Islands and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan while permanently renouncing suzerainty over Korea. The British attempts to moderate the treaty are only successful in reducing the indemnity from 200 million taels {£38,157,064} to 150 million {£28,617,793}. Nevertheless, the British efforts are well received by the Chinese, however they also cause significant resentment amongst the Japanese government.

April 1895: After two years of fighting for new capital ship construction the 1895 US naval program includes two new battleships. The Kentucky class will be almost unique with a dual 8" gun turret directly fixed on top of the dual 12" main armament. This arrangement will prove to be a failure with the 8" guns unable to fire without inflicting serious blast damage on the main guns. In addition to the two battleships are six gunboats and four torpedo boats.

April 1895: The defeat in the Sino-Japanese War has greatly undermined the position of Li Hongzhang, the leading advocate of reform in the Qing court and main supporter of the Guangxu Emperor, who has been blamed for the defeat. However it has allowed Prince Gong to regain his position as head of the Grand Council. Perhaps far worse though is it has led the British to reconsider their support for the Chinese, with Foreign Secretary Joseph Chamberlain now advocating switching to supporting Japan as a counter to Russian expansion in Asia.

 

[Miss Construction]

~May-Aug 1895: The delicate art of diplomacy

May 1895: The ceding of the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan by the Treaty of Shimononseki particularly alarms Germany and Russia, both of whom have designs on northern China. Russia uses its recent alliance with the French to gain their support in what will become known as the Triple intervention. The three Great Powers jointly demand the Japanese give up the peninsula in return for increasing their indemnity from china by 30 million taels {£5,723,560} to 180 million taels {£34,341,358}. The Japanese attempt to gain support from Britain and the US fails, leaving them no choice but to give in to the demands. Having forced the Japanese to back down, the three Great Powers will quickly move to exploit Chinese weakness to extend their influence while cooperating to exclude Britain the the US.

May 1895: With the Imperial government refusing to expand the shipbuilding industry in the Dominions, Canadian Premier Charles Tupper arranges with Vickers to establish a shipyard at Montreal. Much of the funding will be provided via loans obtained under the Imperial Development Act. While the plan is heavily criticised by the opposition Liberal Party as a wasteful extravagance, Tupper claims it will provide an important boast for the economy. The decision to locate the yard in Montreal is political move designed to hopefully increase the Conservative governments support in the province of Quebec.

May 1895: Chinese anger at the terms of the Treaty of Shimononseki leads to the Gongche Shangshu Movement, who present a petition to the Guangxu Emperor. The petition has five major points: the cancellation of the Treaty of Shimononseki, the resumption of war with Japan, the modernisation of the Qing Army, the relocation of the capital to Xi'an and the reform of the Imperial examination system. Dowager Empress Cixi, in capacity as Regent, rejects the petition out of hand. However, while realising the war can not be resumed, the Emperor is highly sympathetic to the leaders of the movement and begins to cultivate them as allies.

May 1895: In an effort to forestall Japanese control of Formosa local Chinese officials led by Tang Jingsong proclaim the formation of the Republic of Formosa with its capital at Taipei. In a critical move Tang is able to recruit Liu Yongfu, a veteran commander from the Sino-French War to head the defence of the Island. One week later the first Japanese troops begin landing. The Japanese rapidly take control of the import port of Keeling, Taipei and Tamsui in the north of the island. With the fall of Tamsui, Tang Jingsong flees the island, leaving Liu Yongfu as de facto leader of the new republic, who relocates the capital to the southern city of Tainan.

June 1895: During Secretary of State for War Reginald Brett's presentation of the annual army estimates to parliament, the Conservatives raise the issue of the continuing issues around British rifle ammunition, citing issues with barrel wear, poor quality ammunition, supposed inadequate stockpile of cordite and the frequent modifications to the new Lee-Enfield rifle. They go on to point to the Goschen Report on the state of the navy in 1889 and the near loss of Egypt in 1893, claiming the Liberals have neglected defence in the pursuit of radical social reform. In what will become known as the Cordite Vote, they move a motion of no confidence. With many Liberal members out of the house for what was expected to be a purely procedural matter, the motion passes by three votes, forcing the government to resign, triggering new elections in July.

June 1895: Seeking to replace their long obsolete 0.45-70”single shot Springfield M1873 rifles with a modern smokeless powder magazine rifle, the US Navy adopts the 6mm Lee M1895 as its standard issue service arm. The new rifle uses a tipping straight pull wedge locking bolt, firing a 6x60mmSR cartridge from a five round en-bloc clip. Unlike the Mannlicher en-bloc clip, the Lee clip falls from the rifle as soon as the first round is chambered and allows the magazine to be topped up with individual rounds when desired. The Lee rifle with it high velocity 6mm round will proved to be reliable and exceptionally accurate.

June 1895: With anti-anarchist 'Lois Scélérates' programs having been introduced throughout most of Europe, many leading anarchists have been imprisoned or even killed, driving the movement underground and drastically reducing its numbers. The only real remaining safe havens are Britain, the Dominions and to a lesser extent the US and Nordic countries. In light of the situation the International Anarchist Conference scheduled for Oslo in September is cancelled, with no future conferences to be held. The International Working People's Association or Black International in London agrees to act to clandestinely coordinate communication between the various surviving anarchist groups in Europe. Over the next five years the crackdown will lead to the movement abandoning classic revolutionary anarchism in favour of labour movement based anarcho-syndacalism.

July 1895: The British general election is fought over the issues of the Liberals radical program of devolution and social reform, along with their policy of increasing self government in India, with the Conservatives claiming it is placing Britain's strategic interests at risk. The Irish Parliamentary Coalition on the other hand campaign in Ireland that the devolution program does not go far enough, calling for full home rule in Ireland. The election is closely fought, but the critical point comes when moderate Irish nationalists William O'Brien and Thomas Russell break from the Irish Parliamentary Coalition to form the Irish National Party, supporting the Liberals program of devolution. While the Conservatives do gain 44 seats to give them 282, and the Liberals lose 29 leaving them with 310, the Irish Parliamentary Coalition only manages to hold 24 seats as against the Irish National Party's 39. Support for devolution is also seen in Scotland and Wales with Lloyd George's Cymru Fydd returning five MPs and the new Scottish National Party under former Liberal Robert Graham having seven. Even Keir Hardie's Labour Party increases its representation to three members. Regardless of the vindication of his policy of devolution, Campbell-Bannerman resigns as leader of the Liberal Party due to allow the more moderate Joseph Chamberlain to lead the party. Chamberlain forms a minority government with the support of the Irish National Party. Despite Campbell-Bannerman's resignation, Chamberlain makes him Home Secretary, moving Charles Dilke to Chancellor of the Exchequer. His own post as Foreign Secretary goes to Herbert Asquith, with former Progressive Lord Lansdowne as Colonial Secretary.

July 1895: Despite the recommendation of President Cleveland and the willingness of the Canadians, the US Congress refuses to implement the second round of tariff reductions in the Gresham-Thompson Treaty. While the move is popular across the political spectrum in the US, it is solidly condemned in Canada, with many believing it shows the US to be untrustworthy and duplicitous. The rejection will serve to further increase support for the Empire with the Canadian public.

August 1895: The British response to the US call for arbitration in the Venezuelan border dispute was broadly favourable, however they have rejected any suggestion it falls under the Monroe Doctrine and insist the start point for arbitration must be the Schomburgk Line. The then US Secretary of State Walter Gresham had let the matter rest, ignoring Venezuela's lobbyist continuing to generate anti-British feeling in the US. With Gresham's death Richard Olney is appointed as Secretary of State and is unwilling to let matters continue. He dispatches a stern diplomatic note demanding British compliance, stating "Today the United States is practically sovereign on this continent, and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it confines its interposition.” Chamberlain's new government politely dismiss the note, stating “The Government of the United States is not entitled to affirm as a universal proposition, with reference to a number of independent States for whose conduct it assumes no responsibility, that its interests are necessarily concerned in whatever may befall those States, simply because they are situated in the Western Hemisphere.”

August 1895: While the Japanese have quickly taken control of northern Formosa, they are now facing increasingly stiff resistance organised by Liu Yongfu and a campaign of guerilla resistance in their rear, greatly slowing their advance. In the critical Battle of Baguashan the Japanese successfully clear the Formosan forces from the central portion of the island, opening the way for a final advance on Tainan.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Sept-Dec 1895: Setbacks and recoveries

September 1895: With the Italians now massing to attack, Emperor Menelik II of Abyssinia appeals to his backer France for an alliance. However the French abandon him in favour of Italy agreeing to acknowledge the 1881 Treaty of Bardo, establishing a protectorate over Tunisia. With Russia as his only remaining backer, Menelik orders a mass mobilisation of all available men, creating a hastily raised army nearly 200,000 strong.

September 1895: The Guangxu Emperor, now having a greater understanding of Qing politics has managed to gather some powerful allies in the Qing court, including Li Hongzhang, Prince Gong, and Zhang Zhidong, Governor of Nanjing. With it now being beyond any question the Chinese military is in need to extremely radical reform, he is able to manoeuvre himself to head those reforms. His ultimate goal being to totally recreate the Chinese army and navy as a long service professional forces along British lines. His first action is to order the creation of an entirely new military force, the Xinjian Lujun or Newly Created Army, more commonly referred to as simply the New Army. Initially to consist of four divisions, each of ten infantry battalions in five regiments, a single dual battalion cavalry regiment, an artillery regiment of five batteries and a battalion of engineers, totalling some 12,500 men. Most importantly, arms, artillery and equipment is to be standardised across the New Army. These are placed under the command of Yuan Shikai in Beijing, one of the few army commanders who performed well in the Sino-Japanese War. The Emperor sends a personal request to Field Marshal Wolseley for advisers. The request will play heavily on his status as decorated British army officer.

September 1895: The Colt company introduces the first US designed machine gun, the Colt M1895. Designed by John Browning, the M1895 is a belt fed air cooled gas gun chambered for the 6mm US Navy Lee cartridge, the M1895 uses a gas operated lever action based on Browning's lever action rifles. The highly unusual lever action results in the gun being nicknamed the 'Potato Digger.' While the Colt will never be formally adopted by any military service, it will be modestly successful, with an order for 150 guns from the US Navy.

October 1895: Prime Minister Celso's austerity program has thus far failed to resolve the ongoing economic crisis in Brazil. In an effort to deal with the situation, Celso proposes loosening the highly restrictive laws on land ownership to stimulate the economy. His conservative opponents again seize the opportunity to remove him. Despite the Empress's attempt to again muster support for him, a motion of no confidence is passed, forcing his resignation. Having served six years and 122 days, Celso is Brazil's longest serving Prime Minister. At the recommendation of the Constitutional Court, the Empress invites Conservative João Correia de Oliveira to form a government.

October 1895: The ongoing Ottoman massacres in Armenia have received widespread press coverage in Europe, resulting in massive public outrage and calls for action. Regardless of the outcry, the Great Powers are reluctant to intervene. Eventually public pressure compels them to force Sultan Abdul Hamid II to sign an agreement to implement reforms and bring an end to the massacres. However no action is taken when the Sultan simply refuses to honour the agreement, allowing the massacres to continue.

October 1895: Despite a skilfully conducted defensive campaign by Liu Yongfu, he has failed to halt the slow Japanese conquest of the Island. Realising the situation is hopeless, Liu offers to conditionally surrender in return for a guarantee no Formosan who has taken up arms against the Japanese will be punished and that his troops be evacuated to China. Under pressure from the British, the Japanese commander, Admiral Kabayama Sukenori agrees to the terms and the Island falls to the Japanese.

November 1895: Jewish community leader Theodor Herzl, having been strongly supported and encouraged by several prominent members of the British based Interfaith Jewish Relief Society, organises a Zionist Congress in London. The Congress establishes the London Program aimed to encourage Jewish migration to Palestine with the aim of establish a Jewish state to give them sanctuary from persecution by politically organising Jewish communities throughout the world. In order to achieve this goal, the Congress establishes the Zionist Organisation to promote their goals.

November 1895: In an effort to make Transvaal dependent on the Cape Colony for its foreign trade, Premier Cecil Rhodes of the Cape Colony has been discount rail freight rates from Johannesburg to Cape Town. With a rail line from Johannesburg to Delagoa Bay in Mozambique nearing completion, President Kruger of Transvaal imposes heavy tariffs on rail traffic crossing the Vaal River which forms the border with the Cape Colony. In an effort to avoid thee tariffs, Cape merchants begin off-loading goods at the border and moving them by wagon for the remainder of the journey. In response President Kruger has closed the crossings, causing a greet deal of anger both in the Cape Colony and even the Orange Free State. With some in the Cape Boer community even calling for war. With Premier Rhodes attempting to deliberately escalate the situation as a pretext for war, Colonial Secretary Lord Lansdowne issues an ultimatum demanding the crossings be reopened in an effort to defuse the crisis. Without the support of the Orange Free State, President Kruger is left with no option but to comply. However it will also prompt the Boer republics to order another 30,000 modern Mauser rifles from Germany.

December 1895: An Abyssinian force attacks and overruns an Italian garrison Amba Alga in Tigray, forcing them to retreat back to the incomplete fort at Mekele in Eritrea. The Abyssinians follow, besieging the fort several days later.

December 1895: In response to the Guangxu Emperor's request, Chamberlain agrees to send a British military and naval mission to China to assist with their military reforms. However, now also wishing to build ties with the Japanese, the mission is only of a limited size.

December 1895: With the US public now firmly supporting Venezuela and regarding Britain's rejection of the Monroe Doctrine to the Venezuelan dispute as an affront, President Cleveland is well aware of the importance of the issue in light of the dramatic fall in his Party's support and the 1896 election. He therefore makes an address to Congress supporting the Venezuelan claims and reaffirming the applicability of the Monroe Doctrine, laying out US determination "To resist by every means in its power wilful aggression upon its rights and interests." However he is also unwilling to abandon seven years of work to restore relations with Britain. Therefore he resists calls for a show of military force and has previously sent a private note to Chamberlain forewarning him of his upcoming address, stressing the importance of this to the US and reiterating his desire for cordial Anglo-US relations. For his part Chamberlain is equally unwilling to see a return to the Blaine years. The official British response again rejects the relevance of the Monroe Doctrine, but acknowledges the US has a vital interest in maintaining stability in the Americas and in that light are grateful for the US offer to facilitate a resolution to the dispute. This proves acceptable and work immediately begins on establish the terms of reference for arbitration.

December 1895: Infuriated by the intervention of the Imperial Government, Premier Rhodes orders 500 British South Africa Company Police under Leander Jameson to launch a raid into Transvaal. Rhodes hope is the raid will leader to disenfranchised British workers in Transvaal, known as Uitlanders, to start an uprising. Realising the seriousness of the situation Lord Lansdowne immediately orders Governor-General of the Cape Colony Hercules Robertson to repudiate Jameson's actions and make make every possible effort to stop the raid. He also informs Rhodes, if any evidence of involvement by the British South Africa Company is found, the Company's charter will be revoked. The raid is an unmitigated disaster, with Jameson and his men being forced to surrender within five days, then being turned over to the British for trial. The raid causes massive international embarrassment for Chamberlain's new government, with German Kaiser Wilhelm II sending a congratulatory telegram to President Kruger.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-April 1896: Visions of the future

January 1896: After a sixteen day siege, the Italian garrison of Mekele in Eritrea surrenders to the Abyssinians. They are allowed to leave the fort with the full honours of war. With this reverse Italian commander General Oreste Baratieri realises he is outnumbers. Aware the Abyssinians can not keep a large in the field for long, he begins establishing a defensive position to await Menelik's army's dissipation. Unfortunately the Italian government is unwilling to simply wait and order Baratieri to advance and attack the Abyssinians.

January 1896: The British central African territories of Barotseland, Bembeland, Manicaland, Mashonaland and Matabeleland have been governed by the British South African Company since its creation in 1888. The company renames its territory Rhodesia for its director Cecil Rhodes. This territory is divided into two regions, Southern Rhodesia consisting of Manicaland, Mashonaland and Matabeleland and Northern Rhodesia of Barotseland and Bembeland.

January 1896: A drought in the Bundeklhad district of the United Provinces in India is declared to be a famine under the Famine Relief (India) Act of 1879, bring the act's first major test. By this stage what is thought to be a substantial fund of £3,500,000 {£4,097,222} has been built up for relief and it is hoped significant deaths can be avoided.

February 1896: In 1890, the Canadian province of Manitoba made English the only official language in the province and withdrew funding for religious schools, effectively halting public support for the French language. While this cause caused a great deal of anger in the French Canadian community throughout Canada, there was little the central government could do as eduction was devolved to the provinces. However in 1894, the Privy Council ruled the central government could intervene. Premier Charles Tupper prepared a bill to override the Manitoba provincial government and restore funding to denominational schools. However the bill causes immense controversy in Tupper's Conservatives, spiting the Party. Sensing an opportunity to overturn thirty years of Conservative dominance in government, Wilfrid Laurier's Liberals filibuster the bill, blocking its passage, hoping for an election before the bill is passed. However Tupper, aware of the positive impact the Ottawa Imperial Conference in July will have on public opinion resolves to delay any elections until after the Conference.

February 1896: With the massacres of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire continuing at ever increasing levels and public outrage in Europe now at fever pitch, Sultan Abdul Hamid II engages with Theodor Herzl and the Zionist Organisation to assist in countering the flow of information from Armenia, along with reducing the Ottoman public debt. Herzl agrees, hoping to sway the Sultan to support Jewish migration to Palestine. While Herzl attempts to keep Zionist involvement secret, it outrages several other leading Zionists who vehemently oppose cooperating with the Ottomans.

February 1896: in 1895 the ruling NRS government of Nikola Pašić of Serbiawas replaced by Jovan Avakumović's Liberalna stranka or Liberal Party. The policies pursued by Avakumović's have alienated popular opinion leading to widespread public unrest. Capitalising on this unrest. King Alexander stages a coup, replacing the liberal 1889 Constitution with the conservative 1869 document. His new regime invites former King Milan to return as Commander in Chief of the army and returns to the former pro Austria-Hungarian policies of former King Milan. Milan will soon become de facto ruler of Serbia and institute a number of reforms greatly improving the Serbian Army's efficiency.

February 1896: In keeping with the Liberal Party's policy of continuing devolution, the Regional Assemblies Bill is introduced. This bill would rename the current Regional Administration Boards as Regional Assemblies, recognising their intended function and establishing the originally intended English and Welsh Offices, though the Irish National Party has insisted the Ulster Assembly should remain under the Irish Office. The bill extends their powers to cover the Registrar-General, sports and recreation, land valuation, public houses and sale of liquor, along with forestry. The bill would also finally give the assemblies the power to set the sales taxes and reserve a portion of the national tax take for their use. As expected, the bill meets fierce opposition from the Conservatives, but passes the Commons easily.

March 1896: General Baratieri finally engages Abyssinian Emperor Menelik II in battle at Adwa. Baratieri's force of some 17,000 troops is simply overwhelmed by the 75,000-120,000 soldiers. Around 5,000 Italian troops are killed in the battle, with another 1,500 wounded and 3,000 captured. While the Italian prisoners are treated well given the circumstances, their indigenous troops are brutal punished with most dying. The crushing defeat results in mass shock in Italy, with rioting and the fall of the government of Francesco Crispi. Menelik does not attempt to force the Italians from Eritrea, being content with the recognition of Abyssinian independence in the Treaty of Addis Ababa.

March 1896: French intelligence officer Major Georges Picquart, comes across an intercepted German secret message similar to the Schwartzkoppen note which lead to the conviction of Alfred Dreyfus. Believing there is another spy, Picquart begins a secret personal investigation to avoid the possibility of another scandal. The note is addressed to one Major Charles Esterhazy. Picquart discovers Esterhazy has been frequently reprimanded for ill-discipline, has heavy gambling debts and has already been suspected of espionage. Upon informing his superiors he is told to continue his investigation in secret to avoid another scandal.

March 1896: The failed Jameson Raid has essential deprived the Southern Rhodesia of its defensive forces. Taking advantage of this situation the Matabele people launch a revolt. Local forces are quickly raised by Frederic Selous and Frederick Burnham to defend the settlers but order will not be restored until reinforcements arrive from the Cape Colony under General Frederic Carrington.

April 1896: The Waffenfabrik Mauser company introduces a radical new handgun, the Mauser C96, the world's first successful automatic pistol. A recoil operated recoil operated locked breach pistol firing a powerful high velocity 7.63x23mm round from a long 14cm barrel. It is loaded by a ten round stripper clip into a fixed magazine in front of the trigger. While the pistol will not see adoption as an official stand sidearm by any European army, it will be a huge commercial success, with large numbers of officers in many countries purchasing the weapon privately, along with being extremely popular with civilians. As the first of a new type of weapon, naturally the design is not without faults, being expensive, heavy, and somewhat unbalanced due to it forward magazine. However perhaps its biggest flaw is that it has to chamber a round after being loaded, but totally lacks a manual safety.

April 1896: After many attempts to revive them, the First Modern Summer Olympic Games are held in Athens. Organised by French aristocrat Pierre de Coubertin, the games are attended by 241 athletes from fourteen countries.

April 1896: In the wake of the disastrous Jameson Raid, though no direct evidence can be found of British South African Company involvement, Cecil Rhodes is nonetheless removed as Premier of the Cape Colony and direct company rule over Northern and Southern Rhodesia is ended in favour of direct rule by the Colonial Office. The company however retains its dominant commercial interests in the new colonies.

April 1896: With the ongoing depression in the US, Congress is only willing to authorise the construction of three battleships and four of the new destroyer type warships. The Montana class are the first US battleships to truly match European designs, while the destroyers, technically classified as torpedo boats are, like the British destroyers, designed by individual yards to a general set of specifications.

 

[Miss Construction]

~May-Aug 1896: Truth and consequences

May 1896: Public pressure over the Armenian Massacres force Chamberlain to act. He pressures the British banks to cut off loans to the Ottoman government. While the measure does impact the Ottomans, the massacres continue unabated as German and French financiers step in to partially replace the lost funds.

May 1896: Campbell-Bannerman, in his new position as Home Secretary sees the Pensions Act passed into law. The act establishes a national fund to provide pensions for those over the age of 60. This will be funded by a combination of worker and employer contributions along with additional funds from taxation. As with the 1892 Health Insurance Act, these pensions will be administered by the five Regional Administration Boards within a national minimum framework. The nature of these two acts, established nationally but administered locally, will go a long way toward increasing support for the Liberals policy of devolution will prevent the national government, quieting fears it will prevent the central government acting nationally.

May 1896: Despite his defeat in the Battle of Omdurman, the Khalifa still retained a considerable army under his command, and retreated to the west of Sudan. With his army's morale severely deteriorating after the crushing defeat, the Khalifa determines to halt his retreat and make a stand at Umm Diwaykarat. General Gatacre's Dominion Brigade, supported by 5,000 Sudanese troops have been pursuing the defeated Mahdist force. With some 15,000 troops at his command, the Khalifa launches an attack, attempting to destroy Gatacre's force, but are driven off by withering Maxim gun fire. Recognising all is lost the Khalifa makes a final stand, being killed along with his personal guard.

June 1896: The Russians exploit Chinese weakness in the wake of the Sino-Japanese War to force the Qing to sign the Li-Lobanov Treaty. During a visit by Li Hongzhang to Moscow Russian finance minister Sergei Witte offers to provide loans to help pay the large indemnity imposed as a result of of their defeat. In return the Russians would be granted extensive concessions in northeastern China, including the right along with granting the right to construct and garrison a Trans-Manchurian railway linking the Trans-Siberian railway at Chita to Harbin and then Vladivostok. These concessions amount to the virtual ceding of the region to Russia. With no options available, Li agrees. However the result will be a major increase in hostility toward westerners in China.

June 1896: The the formation of the New Army underway the Guangxu Emperor turn his attention to the dire state of the Chinese navy. Every modern warship in the navy was either sunk or captured during the Sino-Japanese War. In addition, the only naval base capable of repairing large vessels has been lost. Though there are two modern battleships now nearing completion in British yards, the Emperor recognises they would impossible to maintain. He therefore offers to sell the ships to the British, intending to use the funds to order more suitable ships and upgrade the Fuzhou naval base to replace the one lost at Lüshunkou. The British are initially reluctant but agree to prevent another power obtaining them. The Emperor's decision creates a great deal of opposition in the Qing court, but he is rapidly learning to work within the intricate politics of the court and prevent himself being overruled. To replace the two battleships he orders two small cruisers and four destroyers from British yards, along with beginning improvements to the Fuzhou Navy Yard as well as constructing a new naval yard at Nantong. Unfortunately he is unable to muster enough support to succeed in his attempt to abolish the four essentially separate navies in favour of a single fleet deployed as required.

July 1896: The Fourth Congress of the Second International in London is dominated by the split with the anarchist movement. Several prominent members of the Black International, including Lucy Parsons, Sam Mainwaring, and Peter Kropotkin attend attempting to get the ban on anarchist overturned and end the conflict between the two movements. Their efforts are in vain, with the Congress refusing to rescind the ban. As usual other resolutions are passed opposing militarism, colonialism, and monarchism. The Congress also passes a resolution by the Hay Heghap'vokhakan Dashnakts'ut'yun or Armenian Revolutionary Federation, condemning the role of the 'Jewish media and financiers' in supporting the Ottomans with the ongoing Armenian massacres.

July 1896: Security issues are the first matter raised at the Ottawa Imperial Conference, will all the Dominions concerned the Venezuela Crisis could signal a return to the Blaine years, especially as it is considered highly likely the Republicans will take the Presidency in November. There are also many concerns regarding the quality of the army and navy's equipment after the Cordite Issue which brought down the Campbell-Bannerman Ministry. Field Marshall Wolseley and First Sea Lord Tryon both reassure the Conference the army and navy's equipment and training are world class pointing to the successful Sudan Campaign. They also highlight the great improvements since the Goschen Report and reforms after the Toronto Imperial Conference. In this discussion. For his part Chamberlain is confident the Blaine Administration was an exception and any future US government will not pursue his path. The Pacific Dominions raise the Sino-Japanese War, believing the Qing Empire will inevitably collapse and that it might be better to foster improved relations with Japan. Chamberlain confirms his intending to pursue a policy of improving relations with Japan as a counter to the Russians, but he firmly believe it is wise to maintain the current modest support for the Chinese. He does not believe a Qing collapse is in any way imminent and even if were to occur, the policy of closer relations will put the Empire in a favourable position to prevent other powers exploiting such a collapse to the Empire's detriment.

July 1896: With security concerns dealt with attention turns to Imperial integration and economic issues. Colonial Secretary Lord Lansdowne presents the report of the Imperial Security Council into a common tariff regime and an 'All Red' shipping policy. The report recommends when tariff changes are required the Imperial Security Council should produce a preliminary report. This report would then go for to the various governments for comment and alteration, and when finalised, uniformly implemented across the Empire. In fact the Imperial Security Council has already produced such a preliminary report for consideration. While there are still concerns regarding the loss of autonomy, the Conference agrees to the scheme for a trial period, being reviewed at the next Imperial Conference. It is even suggested this would be a suitable method for determining all non-urgent matters of common concern and this will eventually be accepted becoming the Ottawa Doctrine. Regarding the 'All Red Route' the Council suggest a radical option. The establishment of a common registry and navigation policies for the Dominions and Home Nations. There is some disquiet at this suggestion, and it is decided the Dominion governments should return home and review the proposal with their full cabinets At this juncture, Lord Salisbury makes another radical suggestion. The Dominions should have a permanent representative in the London Cabinet, a Secretary of State for the Dominions who would a voice and even vote on matters of Imperial Concern. While Chamberlain and the other ministers present are taken aback, the Dominions are enthusiastic. Eventually the proposal is accepted, with a review to be made as to who should fill the post. While the next regular Conference is scheduled for Port Elizabeth, Natal in 1898, it is decided as all the Dominion government Premiers will be in London fro Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee next year, an additional Conference will be held then with the Port Elizabeth Conference delayed to 1899. It is also decided in light of the increasingly close alliance with the Chileans, they should be invited to send a delegation of observers to the Conference.

August 1896: in an effort to avoid a repeat of the Cordite Vote which brought down Campbell-Bannerman's government, the Chemical Industry (Support) Act is passed. It is intended to encourage the growth of the British chemical industry and ensure it is a the forefront of science in the field. The act provides generous subsidies for research and education along with loans to establish or expand chemical production facilities.

August 1896: Inspired by the ongoing Cuban Rebellion, Filipino revolutionaries led by Andrés Bonifacio launch a revolt against Spanish rule. The revolt will spread rapidly forcing additional troops to be dispatched to the Philippines from Spain.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Sept-Dec 1896: An exercise of power

September 1896: Canadian Premier Charles Tupper's instincts prove correct. The boast in pro-Imperial sentiments feeling from the Ottawa Imperial Conference allows him to narrowly win the federal elections, taking 109 seats as opposed to 98 for Wilfrid Laurier's Liberals. Tupper will adopt strong policies moving Canada closer to the Empire.

September 1896: Aware the general mood of the country is in favour of further devolution, Lord Salisbury's Conservatives elect not to attempt to block the Regional Assemblies Bill in the Lords. Instead they focus on limiting its scope. They are once successful in removing the provisions for a separate English and Welsh Office, along with blocking giving the Assemblies power over taxation, thought they are unable to prevent a portion of the national tax take being dedicated to the Assemblies.

September 1896: Major Picquart, having obtained examples of Esterhazy's handwriting and compared it to the note used to convict Dreyfus discovers Esterhazy's handwriting is identical to that the Schwartzkoppen note and that Esterhazy is the spy, with Dreyfus being innocent. Though he brings the matter to his superior's attention they inform him the matter can not be reopened. Rumours of Dreyfus escape bring the matter back to public attention along with another round of anti-Jewish racism in the press and the French General Staff decided that, in light of Picquart's determination to pursue the matter he should be sent to an isolated posting out the way.

September 1896: In a further attempt to satisfy the demands of the Irish nationalists, an Irish Land Conference between moderate landlord, unionist and nationalist representatives is arranged. The conference will recommend far reaching reforms to encourage the sale of land to tenant farmers in Ireland.

October 1896: The rail line from Ankara to Konya is completed. However by now the funding has become a serious problem, with the Ottomans unable to further subsidise construction due to the British freeze on loans to the Ottomans. Regardless, the Sultan is determined to press ahead with further railways, beginning work on a line from Damascus to Mecca. The work on the Hijaz Railway progresses slowly as the Sultan insists the route is out of the range of British naval gunfire, preventing the use of the easier coastal route.

October 1896: Danish weapons engineers Vilhelm Madsen and Julius Rasmusse have been working on developing a self loading rifle for approximately a decade. Their initial Rekylgevær m/1888 or Recoil Rifle model 1888 was unsuccessful but showed enough promise to warrant further development. This led to the Rekylgevær m/1893 which was sufficiently developed to attract an order for 100 rifles for use in Danish fortifications. Further development results in the lighter and more reliable Rekylkarabin m/1896 or Recoil Carbine model 1896 for the Danish navy, who order 300 for use on warships, making it the world's first self loading service rifle. The Rekylkarabin m/1896 is a recoil operated falling block semi automatic rifle firing the standard Danish 8x58mmR round from a ten round detachable gravity fed magazine.

October 1896: The report of the Machine Gun Committee into the use of the Maxim gun in the Sudan Campaign is released. It finds the weapon proved to be highly effective, with its devastating fire a key contributing factor to the scale of the victory. While acknowledging the usefulness of Maxim guns organically attached to units in dealing with unexpected situations such as the Egyptian Revolt, it states the Maxim gun is best employed as specialist units allocated to units as required by operational considerations. Therefore, while it recommends the number directly attached to each battalion be increased to two, it states the bulk of machine guns should remain allocated to the Royal Artillery. However it is felt the current six gun battery organisation is too inflexible, suggesting instead four gun troops as the basic unit. Despite its positive finding the report includes two caveats Firstly the Committee finds the primary determinant of victory remains disciplined massed rifle fire by volley. Secondly the Committee stresses while the Maxim gun's effectiveness against 'native' opponents is clear, there is no evidence to suggest it would be equally as effective against disciplined regular European troops. As a result to the report, the existing ten Machine Gun Batteries will be reorganised into fifteen independent troops, though the increase of guns per battalion is estimated to cost £40,000 {£46,825} and thus rejected on economic grounds.

October 1896: The summer monsoon has brought only limited rain to India and the famine has spread to the entire United Provinces, Central Provinces and parts of Madras and Bombay, severely stretching the Famine Relief Commission's resources, with the funds available proving inadequate. In response Parliament votes an additional £3,500,000 {£4,097,222} for famine relief, in addition to Viceroy Lord Wallington ordering a halt to all food exports from the effected regions. These measures will improve relief efforts, but will still fail to fully deal with the scale of the famine.

November 1896: The Dominion Affairs Act is passed creating the position of Secretary of State for the Dominions in the British cabinet. Unlike other British Secretaries of State, the Dominion Secretary will only have the automatic right to be included in discussions of matters of Imperial concern, though the Prime Minister may include them in other matters at his discretion. The Dominion Secretary will head the Dominion Office, responsible for coordinating the Imperial government's relations with the Dominions. After consultation with the Dominions the initial appointee is Jan Hofmeyr, a well respect Afrikaner politician from the Cape Colony who has attended every Imperial Conference and a strong supporter of greater economic integration in the Empire. Hofmeyr is created Baron of Stellenbosch to enable to him to take the post.

November 1896: Following tradition, President Cleveland declines to run for a third term as President. The campaign is therefore between Republican William McKinley and Democrat William Bryan. The major campaign issue is the ongoing US depression and financial policy. McKinley advocates abandoning bimetalism in favour of the Gold standard, along with increased protectionism. Bryan on the other hand, is strong supporter of bimetalism regardless of its inflationary effects along with reduced tariff barriers to encourage international trade. The Republicans are expecting an easy victory after their landslide victory in the 1894 midterm elections, but Bryan is able to mobilise significance support in the largely rural Midwest, leading to a fierce campaign. Eventually however, McKinley's appeal to the urban working class gives him a clear victory.

November 1896: Since the appointment of Admiral George Tryon to the position of First Sea Lord, the Royal Navy has been engaged in a major program of expansion, with eighteen battleships and thirty four cruisers having been ordered. The cost of the program has drawn heavy criticism from many in the Liberal government. In an effort to reduce naval expenditure, Admiral Tryon begins ordering the wholesale disposal of many obsolete ships which have little or no value in modern naval warfare. While some vessels are re purposed as training ships or for other roles, the vast majority are simply scrapped. Unusually, HMS Warrior the first British ironclad, is saved from the scrapyard when a group of retired officers form a charitable trust to preserve her.

December 1896: With the final defeat of the Mahdists and death of the Khalifa at Umm Diwaykarat, the British coerce the new Egyptian Khedive Hussein Kamel to signing the Treaty of Cairo permanently ceding Sudan to Britain as a crown colony.

December 1896: While former Prime Minster Celso's austerity program has succeeded in stabilising the Brazilian economy, it has come at great social cost, falling predominantly on the lower and middle classes. Recognising the need to shift some of the burden onto the landowning elite, Prime Minister João Correia de Oliveira enacts the Lei da Reconciliação or Law of Reconciliation pardoning those involved in the attempted 1889 republican coup. The law is an attempt by Correia de Oliveira to shore up conservative support before introducing what he realises will be deep unpopular measures to improve the economy.

December 1896: With the formation of the first divisions of the Chinese New Army progressing well, and funds being available for further expansion, the Guangxu Emperor moves on to the next stage of his planned reforms. He orders the creation of a second group of four divisions identical to the first to be based at Guangzhou under his ally Yin Chang, to provide a core to base defence in the south around. Additional he plans the creation of proper army services, ordering the formation of medical, commissariat, and ordinance corps to support the field army. However he is politically outmanoeuvred, with the Dowager Empress overriding him, cancelling his proposed service corps in favour of further field divisions in the Gansu Province under the highly conservative Dong Fuxiang.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-April 1897: Ottoman triumphs

January 1897: The final connections are made in the undersea telegraph cable linking Chile into the All Red Line. With this, Imperial communications have now become the most secure in the world, and given Britain's dominance, controlling over 80% of the worlds submarine telegraph lines, provides a vital intelligence advantage, Regardless, the Imperial Security Council considers it would be advantageous to link the US into the network, suggesting a cable from Fiji to Hawaii and then to California. However it is recognised this may take some time to negotiate and in the meantime work begins linking Fiji to Hong Kong.

January 1897: Capitalising on the upsurge in right-wing support due to the Dreyfus Affair Victor Rochefort, leader of the boulangists in the Chamber of Deputies, is finally able get an amnesty for the boulangist leaders in exile, enabling them to return to France.

January 1897: The Naval Defence Act is passed by the Canadian Parliament authorising the creation of the Royal Canadian Navy. To be formed around the nucleus of the existing Canadian Maritime Patrol Service, the navy will take over patrolling Canadian waters from the Royal Navy in peacetime, and be available for Imperial service in the event of a war. The strength is initially set at two cruisers and and six destroyers, with all but two of the destroyers to be built in Canada at the new Canadian Vickers yard in Montreal, expected to be completed in 1898. However two destroyers will be immediately orders from British yards, though as the current British destroyers have proved to be poor seaboats, there will be a strong emphasis on seakeeping in the Canadian design. To provide for training, the Royal Navy transfer the cruiser Bonadventure to the new service.

February 1897: The Treaty of Washington is signed between Venezuela and Britain regarding the arbitration of the Venezuelan border dispute. The treaty provides for a five member arbitration committee, with two members each selected by Britain and Venezuela along with a neutral chair. There is an informal understanding between Venezuela and the US that the Venezuelans will select US arbiters, while the Russian jurist Frederick Mertins is selected as chair.

February 1897: The Ottoman island of Crete's predominately Greek population has long sought Enosis or union with Greece. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 granted the island a great deal of autonomy, nonetheless the Ottomans have largely ignored those provisions leading to frequent unrest. Support for the Megali Idea, calling for all for a Greek nation encompassing all ethnic Greeks has been steadily growing in Greece and with a new outbreak of violence, Prime Minister Theodoros Deligianis gives in to public pressure to intervene. Despite an international naval squadron turning back the bulk of the Greek forces, a small number do land and immediately proclaim Crete's union with Greece.

February 1897: In the wake of last year's report of the Machine Gun Committee the Indian army will adopt the maxim gun. As with British and Dominion forces, one will be issued per cavalry and infantry battalion with an additional ten independent machine gun troops, each with four guns, being formed as part of the newly raised Indian Regiment of Artillery.

March 1897: A number of senior British Army officers led by General Frederick Roberts begin advocating for reducing the size of the standard service rifle. Based on their experiences on the Northwest Frontier of India they argue reducing the barrel length would result in a lighter and handier weapon without unduly affecting range or accuracy. They are strongly opposed by others, led by Field Marshal Wolseley who counter their experiences in Africa show the need for range is paramount and therefore a full length barrel should be retained.

March 1897: With the spread of electrification, the Board of Trade recommends a common set of standards be introduced ensure interoperability between suppliers. The result will be the Electrical (Supply) Industry Act, which introduces national standards electricity supply throughout Britain.

March 1897: Representatives of the Mauser company present the Guangxu Emperor with a custom matched pair of Mauser C96 pistols. The Emperor is greatly impressed by the weapon, immediately ordering 5,000 as the New Army's standard handgun and negotiation for a production licence. This makes China the first nation to adopt a semi-automatic pistol as their standard general issue service handgun.

March 1897: The Land Purchase (Ireland) Act is passed. Unlike earlier acts, this law will make the sale of land to tenants attractive to both sides by enabling the government to make up the difference between the price demanded by the landlord and that offered by the tenant, with the fair price determined by the independent Land Commission. The act will effectively end absentee landlordism and result in the transfer of over half all agricultural land in Ireland to tenants.

March 1897: The French Hotchkiss company introduces their first machine gun. Unlike the Maxim the Hotchkiss is a gas operated air cooled weapon, fed from 32 round metallic feed strips. While the French army has as yet shown little interest in machine guns after the disappointing performance of their manually operated Mitrailleuse during the Franco-Prussian War, the success of the Maxim in colonial operations leads the French to purchase 30 guns as the Mitrailleuse Modèle 1897 dit “Mitrailleuse Hotchkiss”for use in Africa and Indochina.

April 1897: With the US Navy increasingly concerned by the threat posed by torpedo boats, the 1897 estimates include sixteen destroyers. As with British practice, the navy simply issues a broad set of specifications and allows individual builders to construct the vessels to fit those requirements.

April 1897: The Japanese adopt the Type 30 Arisaka, their first modern smokeless small bore rifle to replace the Type 22 Murata. Designed by Arisaka Nariakira, the new rifle incorporates features from a number of existing designs. It uses the five round stripper clip from the Mauser along with a modified bolt largely taken from the German Gew 88 as modified by Austro-Hungarian ÖWG engineer Otto Schönauer.

April 1897: In an effort to revitalise the Brazilian economy Prime Minister João Correia de Oliveira proposes introducing a series of land reforms similar to those which brought about his predecessor Celso's fall. Despite his efforts to build up support, he immediately faces a vote of no confidence which narrowly passes. With no clear successor, the Constitutional Court recommends the Empress call new elections. The elections will see the Liberals win a narrow majority in the Chamber of Deputies under Joaquim Nabuco.

April 1897: In response to a force of Greek volunteers crossing into Macedonia to support insurgents there, the Ottomans declare war. The poorly equipped Greeks prove no match for the Ottoman army, which has been reformed by the German mission and is now equipped with modern Mauser rifles. The Greeks are forced back and by the end of May the Ottomans have occupied Thessaly and the Greeks sue for a humiliating armistice.

 

[Miss Construction]

~May-Aug 1897: Risk theory

May 1897: The Guangxu Emperor has been successful in obtaining yet more funds to restore the Chinese navy after the Sino-Japanese War. While most of the Qing court are calling for further large warships, he chooses to only order another four destroyers from British yards and continue expenditure on improving the Fuzhou and Nantong naval bases. Regardless of this success, he is still unable to muster sufficient support to unify the Qing navy under a single command.

May 1897: The new US President William McKinley elects to follow his predecessor Cleveland's policy of attempting to improve relations with the British. Concerned by the attempts by France, Germany and Russia to exclude both the US and Britain from China, he suggests a joint approach to combat these efforts. Chamberlain's government is equally concerned over the matter and further suggests working in conjunction with the Japanese, who suffered what they regard as a 'national humiliation' at their hands in the wake of the Sino-Japanese War. McKinley is open to such an approach, though he has reservations regarding Japanese ambitions in China. Despite McKinley's reservations, talks in London between US ambassador John Hay and Foreign Secretary Herbert Asquith will result in the Hay-Asquith Understanding, an informal agreement to coordinate policy on China with the aim of containing French, German and Russian expansion.

May 1897: The arrival of rain has finally ended the 1896 Indian Famine. While relief efforts have not been able to cope the magnitude of the disaster, it is estimated the death toll has been held down to five hundred thousand to one million as against the three to eight million predicted. As it was the first significant test of the effectiveness of the Famine Relief Commission established by the 1879 Famine Relief Act, Secretary of State for India Lord Ripon sets up a Royal Commission under former Viceroy Richard Temple to investigate the effectiveness of the relief effort and to recommend any changes required. The Temple Commission will examine the response in minute detail, taking nearly a year in its investigations.

June 1897: Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz becomes head of the German navy. He immediately sets about implementing his 'Risikoflotte' strategy of building up the German fleet to the point where the British can not contemplate war with Germany without risking sufficient damage to the Royal Navy that would rob them of their naval dominance.

June 1897: During the Spithead Naval Review for Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, the experimental vessel Turbinia will make an unscheduled appearance. She will cause a considerable stir, manoeuvring between the assembled warships at the unheard of speed of 34 knots. The 'demonstration' will lead to the Royal Navy ordering two experimental turbine powered destroyers next year.

June 1897: As part of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebrations a Royal Proclamation raising of a Regiment of Irish Foot Guards in recognition of Ireland's long and distinguished history of contribution to the British military is issued. The establishment of the new regiment is to be set at a single battalion, with its cadre drawn from he existing eight Irish regiments. Additionally, as unlike the other historic Irish provinces, Ulster does not have a regiment associated with it, the Royal Irish Rifles are to be renamed the Royal Ulster Rifles to give recognition to the province's contributions.

June 1897: During the celebrations of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, Foreign Secretary Herbert Asquith conducts secret talks with the Japanese representative Prince Arisugawa Takehito regarding cooperation to contain Russian expansion in Asia. The talks proceed well but produce no firm results beyond a commitment to hold further discussions.

July 1897: The Diamond Jubilee Imperial Conference in London is the first to be attended by a non Imperial state, with Chile sending a delegation as observers, though the Chileans do take part in discussions. The first matters of business are the proposed common Imperial Tariff scheme and the proposed single Imperial merchant ship registry. Regarding the common tariff scheme, while several Dominions do request some alterations, after negotiation it is agreed that the common regime should be adopted. Here the Chilean delegation specifically requests to be included in the intended common tariff zone. After some discussion, and at the prompting of Prime Minister Chamberlain, it is eventually agreed Chile should be allowed to join the Imperial tariff zone. However the matter of a common ship registry meets far more resistance, with the Dominions as yet unwilling to surrender their autonomy on this matter. Nevertheless it is agreed a common set of maritime laws should be established to encourage greater Imperial integration, along with an agreement in principle to work towards the eventual goal of a full Imperial Federation, though no timeline is set.

July 1897: US President McKinley promised in his election to campaign to increase tariffs and return to full protectionism. However he is acutely aware of the effect his 1890 tariff act on the Republican Party's election prospects. In an effort to avoid a similar backlash the Dingley Act will gradually increase tariffs over the next four years, returning them to the levels of McKinley's 1890 act, though it does not repudiate the 2% tariff reduction on Canadian goods under the Gresham-Thompson Treaty.

July 1897: News reaches the outside world of the discovery of gold in the Klondike region of the Yukon Territory in Canada. This will result in a massive influx of prospectors to the undeveloped region. While the Klondike Gold Rush will only last a few years, it will see the start of major development of infrastructure in Alberta, British Colombia and the Yukon Territory.

July 1897: The overwhelming Ottoman victory in the Greco-Ottoman War has led to a upsurge of Islamic unrest in the new Indian province of Pashtunistan. This unrest leads to an uncoordinated but widespread uprising in the province, beginning with the Mohmand tribe around Peshawar.

August 1897: The first two Canadian St Lawrence class destroyers are laid down at Hawthorn Leslie in Britain. The class will displace 450 tons and while only capable of 25 knots, unlike existing British destroyers they will be capable of maintaining their speed in most sea conditions. The second ship, HMCS Skeena will be fitted with Parsons turbines as an experiment to test their suitability.

August 1897: In an effort to deal with the ongoing economic depression, Brazilian Prime Minister Joaquim Nabuco introduces a series of measures to reduce government expenditure. Part of this program will see four battleships and two cruisers decommissioned, while each infantry battalion is reduced from four to three companies, cutting some 2,000 men from the army.

August 1897: Becoming more familiar with the nature of Qing court politics and having gained further allies, the Guangxu Emperor is finally able to get his plan for the establishment of a proper set of service corps for the Chinese army adopted, with the creation of formal medical, ordnance, and supply corps being agreed to. He is also able to establish four military academies, the Guangzhou Imperial Military Academy in Guangdong Province and Zhengzhou Imperial Military Academy in Henan Province patterned after the British Woolwich Military Academy to train officers for the technical branches and the Baoding Imperial Military College in Hebei Province and Kunming Imperial Military College in Yunnan Province to train infantry and cavalry officers, both similar to the Sandhurst Military College. In addition the existing Imperial Naval Academies at Fuzhou and Nantong are to be reformed, with the changes pattered after the Royal Navy's Dartmouth College. He immediately begins attempting to recruit overseas instructors, particularly from Britain, to train the new officer recruits.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Sept-Dec 1897: Carving up the melon

September 1897: A Muslim mob massacres hundreds of Cretan Greeks along with the British Vice-Consul, his family and fourteen British soldiers and sailors. As a result the International Squadron puts troops ashore and expels the Ottomans from the Island. The island is turned into the autonomous Cretan State under a High Commissioner, with the initial appointee being Prince George of Greece and Denmark.

September 1897: The Pashtun Uprising has spread to the Afridi tribe in the Khyber Pass, who being to attack and besiege the garrisons in the pass In one of these attacks a force of twenty one men of the 4th Battalion, 12th Sikh Regiment hold off 10,000 Pashtuns for several days before being wiped out to a man. The Battle of Saragarhi will become the Sikh Regiment's Regimental Day. To deal with the uprising the Malakand Field Force under General under General Bindon Blood is dispatched to deal with the Mohmand revolt while a much large force under General William Lockhart is gathered to secure the Khyber Pass.

September 1897: Concerned by the growing prosperity of Hong Kong and growing British influence in southern China, the French coerce the Chinese into granting them a concession to build a railway from the Vietnamese border to Guangzhou. The concession includes the right to deploy military force to protect the railway at French discretion. Work on surveying the route begins immediately.

September 1897: Despite Britain's continued refusal to recognise the US annexation of Hawai'i, the new US Secretary of State John Sherman and British Ambassador Julian Pauncefote sign the Sherman-Pauncefote Treaty agreeing to the construction of a British owned undersea telegraph cable between California, Hawai'i and Fiji. The new cable will link the US into the All Red Line. However, that the cable will be British owned creates fierce debate in the US Congress, with many in the US concerned about British ownership of the cables. To assuage these fears the Anglo-American Telegraph Company is formed to control the cable. The Imperial owned Trans Pacific Cable Company will hold 50% of the shares, with the other 50% held by US companies. This compromise allows the Treaty to be narrowly ratified by Congress.

October 1897: Lord Wallington steps down as Viceroy of India and is replaced by Lord Elgin. One of his first acts is to introduce a major reduction of the much hated Salt Tax as India's ongoing development is generating significantly increased income. He continues his predecessors policy of consulting the INC, which now dominates the elected positions in the Provincial Legislative councils, in his administration of India.

October 1897: The 1891 Irish development acts have thus far proven relatively effective in encouraging the development of industry in Ireland outside of Ulster. In an effort to further encourage such development the Shannon Water and Electrical Power Act is passed. It envisions the construction of a massive hydroelectric power scheme on the Shannon River in Ireland. The act has created a great deal of controversy, with the estimated cost at over £2.5 million {£2,798,044}. However it is believed this scheme will on it own provide the vast bulk of electrical generation capacity required in Ireland for the foreseeable future, as well as massive employment during the three to four years it will take to build the scheme, with the cost being recouped within fifteen to twenty years through the sale of power.

October 1897: General Blood's Malakand Field Force successfully restores order to the area around Peshawar, forcing the Mohmands to submit and agree to pay large fines for the uprising. Meanwhile the larger Tirah Force under General Lockhart begins its advance into the Khyber Pass.

October 1897: In line with his Risikoflotte strategy, commander of the German navy Admiral von Tirpitz succeeds in getting a Naval Law passed by the Reichstag. It calls for the construction of a fleet of 19 battleships, 12 large cruisers and 30 smaller cruisers by 1903. While the law is aimed at challenging British naval dominance, its passage goers largely unnoticed in Britain as it poses no immediate threat to British dominance.

November 1897: Having been unable to convince his superiors to act on the obvious miscarriage of justice in the Dreyfus Affair, now Lieutenant-Colonel George Picquart reluctantly turns the evidence over to Dreyfus's lawyers, who after failing to obtain any official response take the matter to the press. With Dreyfus's innocence and the true culprit revealed, the result is a national scandal with France split into between Dreyfus's supporters, known as the Dreyfusards, and the Anti-Dreyfusards convinced of his . Despite Esterhazy's guilt being now made clear, the French General Staff continue in their attempts to protect him.

November 1897: With the US press full of stories about supposed 'atrocities' being committed by the Spanish in Cuba, US public opinion has become firmly in favour of some form of intervention to end Spanish control of Cuba. In an effort to end the rebellion, President McKinley offers to mediate a settlement. While the offer is initially rebuffed, the election of a new liberal government in Spain leads to an opening for such mediation, with the new Spanish government stating its willingness to offer concessions.

November 1897: The Red Sword Society, an anti-Western Chinese secret society murders two German missionaries. The German government uses the incident to seize control of Jiaozhou Bay on the Shandong Peninsula. With the French, Germans and Russians still cooperating, the Chinese face the prospect of war with three Great Powers and are left with no choice but to permanently cede sovereignty over the area as the Kiautschou Bay Colony along with major commercial concession in Shandong Province in return for a one off payment of five million marks {£265,689}. The will go on to develop the town of Tsingtao in the new colony as their major naval base in Asia.

November 1897: With Relations with the US rapidly deteriorating, the Spanish purchase the former Brazilian battleships Riachuelo, Aquidaban, Alagoas, and Mato Groso, along with the cruisers Amazonas and Almirante Abreu. These additions will more than double the number of modern armoured ships in the Spanish navy.

December 1897: The Treaty of Constantinople is signed ending the Greco-Ottoman War. The Greeks are forced to cede parts of Thessaly back to the Ottomans and pay heavily reparations. The reparations bankrupt the Greeks and they are forced to take out large loans and place their finances under Great Power control.

December 1897: In recognition for their heroism during the The Battle of Saragarhi, the 4th Battalion, 12th Sikh Regiment is transferred to become the 5th Battalion of the Indian Regiment of Guards. The Sikh Regiment will never raise a 4th battalion again.

December 1897: With the Germans having seized Kiautschou Bay, the Russians grow fearful they may attempt to also take control of Lüshunkou to exploit its strategic locations. With the Li-Lobanov Treaty allowing them to station over 10,000 troops on the Liaodong Peninsular, the Russians send warships into the town and seize control of the vital port.

December 1897: General Lockhart's Tirah Force retakes the last of the forts taken by the Afridi in the Khyber Pass, restoring British control. He will continue punitive operations until April 1898, by which stage the Afridi are will to submit and pay large fines along with turning over a considerable number of rifles as punishment, restoring order to Pashtunistan.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-April 1898: Endless humiliation

January 1898: With public pressure over the Dreyfus Affair mounting in France, Major Esterhazy demands a trial so that he may be acquitted. The trial is held in a closed military court and duly finds Esterhazy not guilty. The verdict only serves to further deepen the divide in France with anti-Jewish riots breaking out throughout France. With the nation now polarised, prominent intellectual Émile Zola publishing a lengthy open letter titled J'Accuse condemning the French establishment, accusing the Minister of War, Jean-Baptiste Billot of covering up evidence of Dreyfus's innocence. Zola's letter will further increase the divide between the Dreyfusards and Anti-Dreyfusards, increasing the growing chaos. In response to the unrest Esterhazy flees to Britain.

January 1898: With the Germans and Russians having seized control of Chinese ports, the French land an occupation force in the minor fishing port of Zhanjiang in the Guangdong province, intending to turn it into a major naval base to challenge British Hong Kong.

February 1898: In an effort to protect US interests, President McKinley dispatches the armoured cruiser Ticonderoga to Cuba. The Ticonderoga however suffers a magazine explosion whilst in Havana harbour, sinking with heavy loss of life. While McKinley calls for calm and avoids blaming the Spanish, the US public is incensed, with the press proclaiming it a deliberate act of sabotage by the Spanish and calling for war. Despite the popular clamour for an immediate response, McKinley refuses to take any action until a full investigation into the Ticonderoga's loss is completed

February 1898: Émile Zola is charged with criminal libel against Billot for J'Accuse. During his trial clear evidence presented showing Dreyfuss to be innocent. Nevertheless Zola is convicted and sentenced to the maximum penalty, one year in prison and a 3,000 franc {£133} fine, however the verdict is overturned on a technicality, requiring a new trial.

February 1898: With the purchase of the ex Brazilian warships, the Spanish have reinforced their squadron in the Philippines with the two older ironclad battleships. With war now appearing unavoidable, the US desperately need to reinforce their Asiatic squadron to counter these vessels. However their lack of a base in South East Asia means they could not support such an enlarged squadron. In an effort to resolve this issue, US ambassador to Britain John Hay, a committed Anglophile with an excellent relationship with Chamberlain's government, secures an assurance of friendly neutrality in the event of war. The agreement includes allowing neutral merchant ships to load coal and ammunition for the US Asiatic Squadron at Hong Kong. With this agreement secured, the US charters Danish shipping company Det Forenede Dampskibs-Selskab to provide logistic support for the Asiatic Squadron and moves two older battleships, three armoured cruisers and two additional protected cruisers to reinforce Commodore George Dewey's existing force of three Montgomery class cruisers.

February 1898: The Temple Commission into the 1896-97 Indian Famine releases its report. The report finds the relief efforts were generally well organised and timely, but the funds available where overwhelmed by the scale of the famine. It suggests the annual contribution to the Famine Relief Commission be increased and the Viceroy be able to make an immediate cash injection should the available funds prove insufficient. It also recommends food exports be halted and price controls on food be implemented in affected areas immediately a famine is declared. For the longer term it recommends India be moved away from subsistence agriculture and industrial development be encouraged to provide alternate forms of employment. The report also stresses the importance of railways in distributing food, advising the Famine Relief Commission be given priority for rail transport in effected areas. The Temple Report is well received both in Britain and India, with Chamberlain's government committing to enact legislation to implement its recommendations as soon as possible.

February 1898: Despite the Spanish Navy strongly advising the government of Práxedes Sagasta that the navy is in no state to fight the US, Sagasta orders the bulk of the Spanish Fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera to immediately sail to reinforce Admiral Taylio Montoya's Caribbean Torpedo Flotilla in Cuba.

March 1898: Zaifeng, the Guangxu Emperor's half brother, enters the Royal Navy's Britannia Royal Naval College at Dartmouth as a midshipman.

March 1898: The French introduce the Canon de 75 Modèle 1897 as their standard field artillery piece. Featuring a revolutionary hydro-pneumatic recoil system allowing the gun to avoid the need to be relaid after firing and one piece self contained ammunition, the gun is capable of an unprecedented rate of fire. While it is capable of firing up to fifteen rounds per minute for short periods, its sustained rate of three to four rounds per minute is twice that of any other contemporary artillery piece. The 75mm Mle 1897 will be the first modern quick firing weapon and lead to all other nations seeking to upgrade their artillery to this new pattern.

March 1898: After having seized Lüshunkou in December 1897, renaming it Dal'niy, the Russians force the Chinese to relinquish sovereignty over the southern tip of Liaodong Peninsular, while the remainder of the peninsula is to become a 'neutral zone, with the Chinese unable to grant any concessions to other nations in the region. In addition, the Russians are granted the right to construct a branch line of the Trans-Manchurian railway, linking Dal'niy to Harbin. In return the Russians agree to pay ten million roubles {£1,130,524} over ten years. Despite the new name of Dal'niy, the region will be more commonly referred to as Port Arthur, the name of the Naval base located in the new Russian territory.

March 1898: Concerned at the Russian expansion into the Liaodong Peninsula, the British negotiate for a lease over Weihaiwei to establish a naval base. Unlike the German and Russian expansions, the Chinese are to retain sovereignty and responsibility for civil administration of the territory, while the British will pay an annual lease fee of £400 {£434}. While the British will only be responsible for defence and other military matters, British subjects in the territory will have extraterritoriality rights. To assist in the defence of the base, the formation of Weihaiwei Regiment of two battalions recruited from the Shandong Province is authorised.

March 1898: The US navy inquiry into the loss of the Ticonderoga concludes the sinking was caused by the detonation of a mine attached to her hull, resulting a fatal magazine explosion. While the inquiry does not directly blame Spain, the US public are convinced of Spanish responsibility by further inflammatory reporting in the press. With the calls for war now near impossible to resist, US Congress votes to imposes a blockade around Cuba, leading to a Spanish declaration of war.

April 1898: Despite only having four destroyers, two torpedo gunboats and three small torpedo boats at his disposal, Spanish Admiral Taylio Montoya in Cuba adopts an aggressive strategy of fast hit and run raids against the blockade. Requisitioning the Hayak, a 800 GRT Mexican steamer as a crude depot ship, he keeps his flotilla moving to prevent being trapped. His strategy is surprisingly successful, claiming the cruisers Denver sunk and the San Francisco crippled along with sinking three gunboats and an armed yacht, for the loss of a two destroyers and one torpedo boat. However his luck runs out in early May when he is lured into an ambush. His flagship, the Audaz is sunk along his two torpedo gunboats in the following battle. However his operations greatly reduce the blockade's effectiveness, allowing Admiral Pascual Cervera to reach Cuba undetected. Montoya himself survives the Audaz's sinking to be captured, but returns to Spain a hero after the war.

April 1898: With the outbreak of war with Spain two days ago, the US naval estimates include three new battleships, four monitors and twenty additional torpedo boats. The Maryland class introduce Krupps armour and water tube boilers to US ship designs, while the monitors are intended to form the basis for the expansion of the naval militia. A proposed amendment to the act by Senator Henry Teller committing the US not to annex Cuba is narrowly defeated in the Senate. Instead a modified resolution calling simply for the Cuban people's 'interests' to be respected is passed.

April 1898: Seeking to see active service, US assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt resigns and enlists as second in command of the 1st US Volunteer Cavalry or Rough Riders being raised for the war with Spain. The unit's initial commander will soon be promoted to command of a cavalry brigade, leaving Roosevelt as commander of the regiment.

April 1898: With the ongoing scramble to obtain ports in China, the French force the Qing to cede the port of Zhanjiang and its surrounding area as the Territory of Guangzhouwan for the sum of 15,000,000 francs {£644,876} over twenty years. The new territory will be placed under the administration of the French Indochina but will not be considered part of those territories.

 

[Miss Construction]

~May-August 1898: Attempting to go boldly forwards

May 1898: While Commodore George Dewey's reinforced Asiatic Squadron is more than a match for Admiral Patrico Montojo's Spanish squadron of two battleships, two protected and three unprotected cruisers, he has been unable to force his opponent to give battle. Montojo, aware of the logistical problems facing Dewey has been content to remain in Manilla Bay, protected by guns of Manila's coastal fortifications. Despite the agreement with the British for support from Hong Kong, Dewey's situation is growing desperate. Needing to take action or return to the US, Dewey launches an attack into Manilla Bay in an effort to destroy Montojo's squadron. While Dewey is successful in sinking or disabling most of Montojo's squadron, he loses the battleship Maine after she strikes a mine along with a cruiser sunk and another crippled Also the battle all but exhausts Dewey's ammunition, allowing Montojo's survivors to escape to be interned in the Netherlands East Indies. Despite his losses, the victory in the Battle of Manilla Bay gives the Dewey control of the sea around the Philippines. However he lacks sufficient troops to capture Manilla itself and is forced to call for reinforcements.

May 1898: The humiliation caused by the recent treaties ceding territory to France, Germany and Russia finally enables the Emperor Guangxu to gather sufficient support to end Dowager Empress Cixi's regency and begin ruling in his own right. He immediately embarks on an ambitious program of reforms to fundamentally transform the Qing government. His first act is to abolish the traditional exam system governing admission to government service, replacing it with a system based around modern western style ideas and knowledge, To support this change he orders the creation of western style universities in Beijing, Nanjing, Guangzhou, Chongqing, Jinan and Wuhan.

May 1898: The elections for the French Chamber of Deputies are totally dominated by the Dreyfus Affair. The election sees a majority of Anti-Dreyfusard candidates elected, including 80 boulangists and members of the racist Antisemitic League of France, enabling the Prime Minister Jules Méline to remain in power. However Méline replaces Billot as Minister of War with Anti-Dreyfusard Godefroy Cavignac. Cavignac is determined to put the Dreyfus Affair to rest and obtains access to the secret dossier of evidence against Dreyfus. After reviewing the dossier, Cavignac announces to the Chamber that there is incontrovertible evidence of Dreyfus's guilt. However to reassure the public once and for all, he appoints Captain Louis Cuignet to conduct a final investigation.

June 1898: Filipino rebels declare their independence from Spain as the Republic of the Philippines with Emilio Auginaldo as President. The declaration is not recognised by the US or Spain. Nevertheless the Filipinos set about creating a government and drafting a constitution. The Filipino declaration will be followed by a similar move by Cuban rebels led by Bartolomé Masó, which is likewise ignored by the US and Spain.

June 1898: Since the French forced the Chinese to cede Guangzhouwan, the British have been attempting to pressure the Qing to cede territory to expand their colony of Hong Kong. While the Guangxu Emperor is aware of the potential damage further territorial concessions might cause his precarious position in the Qing court, he agrees to cede 162km2 to the British. He is however successful in increasing the offered payment from £3 million {£3,259,145} over twelve years to £3.5 million {£3,802,336} to be paid over three years. Approximately half of these funds are to be invested in implementing western education throughout China, with the remainder used to purchase two powerful armoured cruisers from British yards. In conjunction with these orders, the existing four independent fleets are finally amalgamated into a single unified Chinese navy.

June 1898: US troops land in Cuba in an effort to take the island. The US forces will suffer heavy casualties, engaging in repeated Civil War style frontal assaults against Spanish troops armed with highly accurate Mauser rifles and modern smokeless powder Krupps artillery. In comparison many of the US are still armed with single shot Springfield black powder rifles, while the US artillery is likewise entirely obsolete black powder weapons. Despite these losses, the US will gradually gain control of the island.

July 1898: Émile Zola's second trial begins. Zola is again found guilty but flees to Britain before the end of the trial. By this point the violence and rioting throughout France has reached the stage where it is feared it may lead to a complete breakdown of civil order.

July 1898: With anti-Jewish violence in France now reaching frightening levels the British Interfaith Jewish Relief Society, established after the Great Eastern War in 1879, begins providing assistance for French Jews to migrate to Britain and the Dominions. Over the next few years nearly two thirds of France's Jewish community will migrate, with more than half relocating to Canada. There they will provide a solidly pro-Imperial voice in the previously overwhelmingly anti-Imperial Francophone community.

July 1898: As with Admiral Montojo in the Philippines, Admiral Pascuel Cervera has adopted a fleet in being strategy, simply sitting under the guns of the coastal fortifications at Santiago de Cuba and forcing the bulk of the US Atlantic Fleet to blockade him, allowing supplies to continue to flow to the Spanish forces in Cuba. However with US troops now threatening his base at Santiago de Cuba, he is left with little choice but to attempt a breakout. With ten armoured ships to Cervera's six, US Admiral William Simpson has a clear advantage. While Simpson is able to all but destroy the Spanish squadron, the Battle of Santiago de Cuba will highlight some serious deficiencies in the US ships with a battleship and armoured cruiser being lost. Once again, the Spanish survivors escape to be interned in neutral territory However the US victory does give them total naval dominance, essentially deciding the war in their favour.

July 1898: The Guangxu Emperor divorces the Empress Jingfang, taking his consort Keshun as his Empress. The move angers many conservatives in the Qing court and in an effort to placate them, she is granted the title Emeritus Empress Longyu.

July 1898: Santiago de Cuba falls to the US after a ten day siege, ending major operations in Cuba. With the island secured, the move on to attack the Spanish island of Puerto Rico. As with in Cuba, the US forces will engage in wasteful frontal attacks, suffering heavy casualties from the modern Spanish weapons.

August 1898: Continuing his reforms, the Guangxu Emperor implements sweeping changes to the Qing bureaucracy, with large numbers of officials dismissed and the abolishment of sinecures which provide income for little or no work. While this promises to dramatically improve the efficiency and reduce the cost of the Qing administration, it also creates many disaffected former bureaucrats who begin appealing to the Dowager Empress Cixi to intervene on their behalf.

August 1898: Unwilling to allow Filipino insurgents take Manilla, the Spanish and Americans stage a 'show' battle before the Spanish surrender to Commodore Dewey's forces. The US actions in preventing Filipino forces from entering Manilla fatally damage their relations with the Filipino insurgents. However, with the Philippines and Cuba having been lost and Puerto Rico close to falling, Spain sues for terms and an armistice is hastily arranged to end the fighting.

August 1898: Under instructions from the Guangxu Emperor, Chinese diplomat Tan Sitong negotiates an agreement with a number of British and US steel companies, including Hume and Tata Steel in India, for the sale of several Chinese iron works, particularly those feeding the arsenals at Chengdu and Hanyang along with the modern shipyards at Fuzhou and Nantong. The intention is not only to improve the works efficiency, but also serve to as part of the Emperor's program to move China to a western capitalist economy. The funds from the sales are used to retire Qing debt to western powers.

August 1898: Captain Louis Cuignet, reviewing the dossier against Dreyfus discovers a critical piece of evidence is a forgery. He brings the matter to Minister of War Cavignac's attention. While remaining convinced of Dreyfus's guilt, Cavignac obtains a confession from head of French counter intelligence Hubert-Joseph Henry admits to forging the document and reports the forgery to the National Assembly. In the wake of this revelation, Cavignac is forced to resign, being replaced by Émile Zurlinden, while the government is left with no choice but to allow the Court of Cassation, the French court of last resort in criminal cases, to review Dreyfus's 1894 court martial.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Sept-Dec 1898: Downward spirals

September 1898: With the Gew 88 Commission rifle having proved to have many issues in service, the German army has been looking for a replacement. After several years of trials, a further improved version of the Mauser M1895 is adopted as the Gewehr 1898. Despite the adoption of the new rifle, production will be limited with an initial order of only 65,000 examples.

September 1898: While work on the Main Trunk Line across New Zealand's North Island Volcanic Plateau has progressed well, the line is now faced with the challenge of crossing the 200m drop from the plateau to the Whanganui River. The problem is solved by engineer Robert Holmes who proposes constructing a route which would loop back then spiral down by utilising tunnels and bridges. The proposed route would reduce the gradient from 1 in 24 to a manageable 1 in 52. The Ruarimu Spiral will be acknowledged as one of the greatest feats of railway engineering of the era.

September 1898: US Secretary of State William Day is appointed to lead the negotiation of a peace treaty with Spain. John Hay, ambassador to Britain is appointed as his replacement. Hay will lead the US to pursue a highly pro-British foreign policy.

September 1898: A new Famine Relief (India) Act is passed, implementing the recommendations of the Temple Report. Not only does the act increase the funding of the Indian Famine Relief Commission, it includes funding to encourage a move away from subsistence agriculture in India. These measures will be supplemented by similar legislation passed by all the Indian Provincial assemblies. As the Relief Commission's funds have been all but exhausted, an immediate cash injection of £1,500,000 {£1,629,573}, jointly funded by the British and Indian governments, is include in the act.

September 1898: The Vickers Canada shipyard in Montreal is completed and the Quebec, first of two Highflyer class protected cruisers is laid down. She will be followed by the first two St Lawrence class destroyers, HMCS Saguenay and HMCS Margaree, to be built in Canada.

September 1898: The Guangxu Emperor announces his most ambitious reform to date, a plan to transform China into a constitutional monarchy. A formal written constitution is to be drafted by 1900, followed by provincial elections in 1902 and national elections for an Imperial Parliament in 1904. Fearing these plans will undermine the fundamental basis of Qing power, the proposals alienate many moderate reformers who had previously supported the Emperor's program.

October 1898: In line with the Liberal Government's policy of regional devolution in Britain, a new Regional Assemblies Act is passed. While the act only extends the six regional assemblies competence to include agriculture, roading and Retail trading hours, it for the first time gives them the power to impose a sales tax on certain items giving them some limited control over their own finances. It also finally establishes a Welsh Office separate from the Home Office. Despite the limited expansion of the regional assemblies powers, these last two provisions again create considerable controversy, with the act only narrowly passing the Lords.

October 1898: With the Lebel Mle 1886 rifle rapidly falling behind the more modern service rifles which have been introduced since its entry to service, the French redesign the 8mm Lebel cartridge in attempt to improve its performance. The new Balle D round will once again be a revolution in small arms design. The Balle D bullet will feature a streamlined pointed tip and boat tail rear, increasing its muzzle velocity from 628m/s to 700m/s giving a flatter trajectory resulting in increased point blank range along with increased wounding potential.

October 1898: The years of reform coupled with the austerity measures forced by Brazil's economic depression have built up considerable opposition amongst the Brazilian elites. This boils over in an attempt by politician Ruy Barbossa to lead a coup to overthrow the government. Unlike the 1889 coup attempt, the plotters do aim to install a republic, rather their intent is to replace Empress Isabel with her cousin Prince Pedro Augusto. While the coup attempt does gain some support in the military, the majority of officers remain loyal. Barbosa's attempt to seize the General Assembly is thwarted by National Guard and Marines. However he is able to gain support in the southern province of Rio Grande do Sul and he able to start an insurrection there with support from Uruguayan mercenaries.

October 1898: The 1st US Volunteer Cavalry Regiment returns from service in Cuba and is formally disbanded. The units activities in the war received extensive press coverage and its commander Theodore Roosevelt is popularly acclaimed as a war hero. Seeking to capitalise on his fame, the Republican Party selects him as the candidate for Governor of New York, a position to which he is duly elected in November.

November 1898: Brazilian aeronautic pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont demonstrates his latest non-rigid airship with a thirty minute flight around the Eiffel Tower. The success of his No. 6 airship gains him considerable worldwide fame.

November 1898: The French Hotchkiss company introduces an export model of the Mle 1897 machine gun. The new weapon will find some success in South America and particularly with Japan, who order no less than 200 guns, though they request it be modified to use 250 round cloth belt as in the Maxim. The Hotchkiss will become the first viable competitor to the Maxim gun.

November 1898: Though the US Navy totally dominated over their Spanish opponents during the Spanish-American War, they still suffered unexpectedly heavy losses with two battleships, one armoured cruiser and two other cruisers sunk, and another four cruisers requiring extensive repairs. Facing heavy criticism over these losses, Secretary of the Navy John Long resigns, while a Congressional inquiry into the Navy's performance headed by Henry Cabot Lodge is begun.

November 1898: Continuing his efforts to turn China into a western style capitalist economy, the Guangxu Emperor grants US and British companies the right to establish modern machine tool factories in Shanghai, Nanjing and Guangzhou. By this stage the Emperor's clear preference for British and US interests is causing considerable alarm amongst the other Great Powers.

November 1898: A boulangist extremist, Pierre Géroux murders George Picquart, claiming he is a 'Jew loving traitor to France.' Picquart's murder serves to further polarise the nation over the Dreyfus Affair, especially when Géroux is only given a five year sentence on the grounds the murder was 'politically motived.'

December 1898: While the British had acquired the lease over Weihaiwei planning to develop it into a major naval base, a survey by the Royal Engineers indicates the site is unsuitable for such purposes. While many suggest simply returning the territory to the Chinese, it is decided to retain the lease and develop a minor base to support operations in Northern China. Agreement has also been reached with the Guangxu Emperor to use the Weihaiwei Regiment to further the training of Chinese officers and NCOs for the Chinese New Armies.

December 1898: Despite having gained wide support amongst radical elements in China, the Guangxu Emperor's reforms have alienated many within the Qing court. This has allowed the Dowager Empress Cixi, with secret French, German and Russian backing, to gather enough support to plan a coup to regain control of the Qing government. While the Emperor does become aware of Cixi's plans, he places his reliance on Yuan Shikai, commander of the Beijing Army to counter it. Unfortunately Yuan betrays him, revealing his preparations to Cixi, allowing the coup to succeed, bringing an end to the Emperor's reforms after just 217 days. With Cixi and the conservatives back in control, most of his reforms are quickly reversed, with only the new universities in Beijing, Nanjing and Guangzhou, along with his unification of the navy surviving. The Emperor himself is placed under house arrest while many of his leading supporters are executed or forced to flee overseas. While Cixi is unable to undo the sale of iron works to British and US interests, the contract for machine tool plants is cancelled and reissued to French, German and Russian interests.

December 1898: The Treaty of Paris bring an official end to the Spanish-American War. Under its terms Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines are transferred to US control with their ultimate status to be determined later. Pending a decision on their final status, the territories are placed under US Military administration.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-April 1899: Beware the Paris Mob

January 1899: Former US senator Benjamin Harrison, the head of the Venezuelan delegation to the international commission to settle the Venezuelan border dispute with Britain makes his final statement to the commission. Much to the surprise of the commission, his statement is highly supportive of the British position, leading to suspicion of political interference by the extremely pro-British Secretary of State John Hay.

January 1899: After years of discussion over the viability of the project, the conquest of Sudan has finally allowed work to begin on a Cape to Cairo railway. While there is no continuous land route due to German East Africa, the intention is to use ferries on Lake Tanganyika to bridge the missing link through German territory.

January 1899: US President McKinley establishes a commission headed by US diplomat Jacob Schurman to determine how the former Spanish possessions of Cuba, Guam, the Philippines and Puerto Rico should be governed. The commissions membership will be drawn solely from the US, with no local representation from any of the territories concerned.

January 1899: Dowager Empress Cixi revokes the Guangxu Emperor's divorce of Empress Jingfang, restoring her as Empress. She also banishes his new Empress Keshun to Kunming in the Yunnan Province, seeking to end her influence over the Emperor.

February 1899: Anti-Dreyfusard French President Félix Faure dies unexpectedly. With the nation in crisis over the Dreyfus Affair, Émile Loubet is elected as compromise candidate to replace him. The boulangists led by Paul Déroulède and Jules Guérin convince Military Governor of Paris General Georges-Gabriel de Pellieu, to join them in coup. On the day of Faure's funeral troops under Pellieu's command seize the Élysée Palace and National Assembly placing Loubet under arrest. General Joseph Brugère, commanding the nearest troops to Paris, refuses to act to suppress the coup, allowing the boulangists to consolidate their control. Pellieu's troops expel the majority of Dreyfusard delegates, allowing the rump to elect Jules Méline as president with Guérin appointed Prime Minister. The coup turns the chaos in France into near civil war, with armed clashes throughout the country. Attempting to restore order Méline declares martial law, ordering the arrest of many prominent Dreyfusards.

February 14th 1899: Since becoming Prime Minister in 1885, Henry Campbell-Bannerman has spearheaded in a steady program of social reform, progressively introducing measures to improve women's, children, tenants and workers rights along with increasing social welfare. Even after resigning as Prime Minster in 1895 he has continued this program as Home Secretary. Finally convinced the Liberal government have sufficient support to win an election on the matter of women's suffrage or workers rights, he introduces the Representation of the People Bill and the Hours of Work Bill. The first would give women the vote on the same basis as men, while the second would introduce the forty hour working week. Both bills are immediately met with intense controversy.

February 1899: With Ruy Barbossa's attempted coup having turned into an armed uprising is Southern Brazil, the Brazilian National Assembly has authorised a temporary increase of the Brazilian Army from 12,000 to 20,000 men, along with the introduction of conscription for the National Guard. In an effort to end Barbossa's uprising an offensive spearheaded by the National Guard and naval Marines is launched in Rio Grande do Sul Province. The offensive will see fierce fighting but the government forces will gradually begin to gain the upper hand. The introduction of conscription will have the secondary effect of further increasing literacy amongst the Brazilian lower classes.

February 1899: The US Congress ratifies the Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish-American War. Attached to the ratification is the Platt Amendment which formally annexes Cuba, Guam, the Philippines and Puerto Rico as the first US overseas colonies. The new colonies are to be governed under a policy of 'benevolent assimilation,' which extends military rule but gives guarantees of respect for justice and human rights. The annexation is rejected by the independence movements in both Cuba and the Philippines, resulting in the outbreak of a bitter war between US forces and the rebels in both colonies. As the rebels in both Cuba and the Philippines are well armed and in control of considerable territory, the US declares a blockade of both, ordering the navy to intercept any vessels attempting to smuggle supplies to the rebels.

February 1899: German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin has been pursuing the goal of developing a viable airship since his retirement from the army in 1890. Spurred by Alberto Santos-Dumont's successful flight last year, Zeppelin launches his first viable airship, LZ1 in southern Germany. Unlike Santos-Dumont's No 6, the LZ1 uses a rigid aluminium framework to retain its aerodynamic shape. This flight will be followed by two further flights in April. While successful, it is not deemed sufficiently developed to warrant central government support. However von Zeppelin does gain the support of the King of Württenberg, and along with mortgaging his estates, is able able continue his work.

March 1899: With France now essentially engulfed in civil war, many citizens have fled the chaos. Included amongst them is the Brazilian inventor Alberto Santos-Dumont, who relocates to Britain to continue his experiments in flight.

March 1899: Despite their victory in the Spanish-American War, the US Army is unsatisfied with the performance of their Krag-Jørgensen rifle compared with the Spanish Mauser. As a result the US order the Springfield Armoury to develop a new service rifle based on the Mauser action along with a new high velocity cartridge to match the 7x57mm Mauser.

March 1899: Over the years, spread of British expatriates around the world due to growing commercial interests have been incidentally spreading the game of cricket, with it having gained a firm foothold in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway and Southern China. In an effort to further encourage the game, a European tour by an All-Britain team is organised. The tour will see the first test match to be played outside the Empire or US held in Copenhagen.

March 1899: Germany, with designs on both Cuba and the Philippines, begins covertly smuggling arms and supplies to the anti-US rebels, including significant numbers of obsolete Mauser Gewehr 1871/84 black powder rifles. This will lead to a significant deterioration in relations between the Germany and the US.

April 1899: The US naval program includes three new battleships and nine cruisers in an effort to replace the losses suffered during the Spanish-American War. The Virginia class battleships will see a reversion to the highly unorthodox policy of placing the 8" battery directly over the main battery as in the Kentucky class. The six cruisers of the Denver class will be conventional protected cruisers while the three St Louis class, though not classified as such are in fact small armoured cruisers with a 2" belt. The program also includes twelve small lightly armed 750 ton gunboats to enforce the blockade of Cuba and the Philippines. The Iroquois class are patterned after the famous '90 day schooners' of the Civil War and will be built rapidly, taking an average of six months to complete.

April 1899: Since the early 1890s, various proposals have been put forward for a federation of the Imperial Dominions in the Pacific. Support has ebbed and flowed over the years, with the smaller Dominions fearing domination by the larger ones. However recently support has firmed up, with many of the smaller Dominions believing federation will give them a larger voice in Imperial affair. A referendum in 1898 throughout the Australian Dominions to ratify a draft constitution was defeated in Queensland over concerns regarding the potential of a federal government banning non-white migration which could seriously impact their sugar cane industry. In an effort to resolve Queensland's concerns, a new constitutional conference is convened in Adelaide.

April 1899: The Lodge Inquiry into the performance of the US Navy during the Spanish-American War delivers a report highly critical of the administration of the service and US ship designs. It particularly notes the loss of the battleship Massachusetts was due entire to a design flaw which rendered its armoured belt totally useless a full load, allowing a Spanish shell to penetrate its magazine, while the loss of the battleship Maine is attributed to Commodore Dewey's disregard of the possibility of mines when entering the restricted waters of Manilla Bay. The report is scathing regarding the Navy's total lack of any coordinated professional administration or even a professional commander in chief. It strongly recommends the Navy's administration be totally overhauled, pointing at the Royal Navy's First Sea Lord and Admiralty Board as a potential model. The Lodge Report will result in far reaching changes to the US Navy.

 

[Miss Construction]

~May-Aug 1899: Bird is the word

May 1899: In an effort to codify the rules of war, a conference is opened in the Hague. Called at the suggestion of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the intention is to draw up a convention regulating warfare based on the principles of military necessity, distinction, proportionality and humanity.

May 1899: The New Zealand Parliament passes the Native Forest and Wildlife Protection Act. The act establishes a number of protected wildlife sanctuaries throughout the country. Human access to these areas will be heavily restricted and extensive pest control program instituted in order to exterminate imported predators in the protected areas. The sanctuaries will include a number of off shore islands for the relocation of particularly endangered species such as the Huia and Piopio.

May 1899: With its defeat in the Spanish-American War, the remaining Spanish possessions in the Pacific have become unsustainable. In the Treaty of Berlin Spain sells its few remaining colonies to Germany for the sum of 25 million pesetas {£834.621}. This gives Germany control of Palau along with the Caroline and Northern Mariana Islands.

May 1899: In an effort to resolve ongoing differences over the voting rights of British migrants or Uitlanders in the Boer Republics, Orange Free State President Martinus Steyn organises a conference in Bloemfontein. The British delegate Arthur Milner demands Transvaal immediately grants the Uitlanders voting rights, introduces the language in the Transvaal Volkstaad and that any laws passed by the Volkstaad be subject to confirmation by the British Parliament. Transvaal President Paul Kruger is totally unable to accede to these demands. In an attempt at compromise, he offers the residency period for voting rights be reduced from fourteen to seven years. Milner is unwilling to accept the compromise and the conference collapses with no resolution. Milner then begins calling for war while the Boer Republics increase their purchases of modern weapons from Europe.

June 1899: With the death toll in France over the Dreyfus Affair climbing alarmingly, President Jules Méline orders Dreyfus retried in an effort to calm the situation. While this does go some way toward satisfying the Dreyfusards, it enrages the Anti-Dreyfusards and the violence continues unabated.

June 1899: Despite passing the Commons, the Representation of the People Bill is defeated in the Lords, returning it to the Commons. The bill is immediately reintroduced with Prime Minister Chamberlain making it a matter of confidence.

June 1899: The international commission to settle the Venezuelan border dispute with Britain delivers it report. The commission unanimously recommends the British receive over 95% of the disputed territory. While the report is received with great disappointment in Venezuela, they reluctantly accept its terms and agree to a border based almost entirely on the Schomburgk Line.

June 1899: The seasonal monsoons fail again in Central India, exposing some 58 million people to famine. While not quite as widespread as the 1896 famine which exposed 70 million people, the Famine Relief Commission's funds only stand at £2,300,000 {£2,361,117}, woefully inadequate to the scale of the famine. In order to bolster the available funds, Parliament votes an additional £1,500,000 {£1,539,859} for famine relief, while the Central and Provincial Indian governments contribute £2,500,000 {£2,566,143}. Coupled with some £300,000 {£307,972} worth of charitable donations rapidly raised establish a total cash pool of approximately £6,500,000 {£6,672,271}. While it is accepted further cash may be required, it is hoped this sum will avoid an excessive death toll.

June 1899: The English Regional Assembly, dominated by the Conservative Party extends free compulsory education to 15 years of age and divides education above the age of 11 into three streams. The grammar schools will teach Latin and Greek, focusing on the traditional British education in preparation for entry to the more prestigious universities, whereas the comprehensive schools will focus on the sciences in preparation for university education in the sciences. Finally the technical schools are intended to prepare their students for appropriate education in trades. Entry into the various streams will be determined by performance in an exam in the final year of primary school. Within the next two years the other Regional Assemblies will follow suit to some degree.

July 1899: As with the Representation of the People Bill, the Hours of Work Bill is also defeated in the Lords. Though Home Secretary Campbell-Bannerman presses for it also to be reintroduced as matter of confidence, Chamberlain decides to let the matter lapse to focus on the single issue of women's suffrage.

July 1899: The Port Elizabeth Imperial Conference is dominated by the growing crisis in Southern Africa. All the Dominions express outrage at the treatment of the Uitlanders by the Boer Republics, with common agreement that the Empire must act to prevent mistreatment of its citizens by foreign powers. This will come to be known as the Port Elizabeth Doctrine. With war considered likely the Dominions agree to form a Dominion Brigade for service in South Africa, similar to that which recently served in the Sudan. The Brigade is to consist of one battalion each from Canada and the Pacific Dominions. These will be supported by a composite cavalry battalion drawn from Canada and the Pacific as well as two artillery batteries and a machine gun troop. Chile, again attending as an observer, stuns the conference by also offering to commit troops. While there is reluctance at the idea of a non-Imperial nation participating in an Imperial campaign, it is eventually agreed that Chilean troops should be requested 'if circumstances warrant' with the expectation they will not.

July 1899: Concern is also expressed at the Port Elizabeth Imperial Conference about the situation in China, particularly the seeming anti-British tendencies of the new regime under the Dowager Empress. Foreign Secretary Asquith assures the Conference the government is monitoring the situation in conjunction with the US. Regarding the US there are concerns raised regarding US involvement in the All Red Line. Foreign Secretary Asquith reassures the Conference, pointing out Anglo-US relations have improved markedly since 1889, making any conflict with them unlikely, He also points of the cables linking the US to the All Red Line are controlled by the separate Anglo-American Telegraph Company meaning there is no US involvement in the actual All Red Line and in fact, British involvement in these cables gives the Empire a considerable intelligence advantage. On economic matters, Chamberlain points to the success of the Imperial Preference tariff scheme, suggesting the removal of all tariffs for trade within the Empire, creating an Imperial common market. The Dominions however are only willing to accept a more limited program encompassing just Britain and themselves. Chamberlains efforts to have at least India included are unsuccessful, and he is forced to agree to the reduced plan. At the close of the conference it is agreed the next should be in Melbourne in 1901.

August 1899: The first pair of Royal Canadian Navy destroyers, HMCS St Lawrence and HMCS Skeena are completed. Their sea trials will show a marked improvement in seakeeping over contemporary destroyers in other navies, capable of a far higher sustained speed. The Skeena's turbine engines will also prove to be reliable and an equally significant improvement over the ubiquitous triple expansion engines used in other vessels. They will ultimately lead to a major rethink in worldwide destroyer design philosophy.

August 1899: In wake of the Ruy Barbossa's uprising, Brazilian Prime Minister Joaquim Nabuco is finally able to force through a program of land reform as a further measure to deal with the economy. While more limited than the earlier attempts by Afonso Celso and João Correia de Oliveira, the measures do go some way toward breaking the power of the land holding elites which have dominated Brazilian politics and previously prevented large scale reform.

August 1899: The French military court convened to retry Dreyfus again delivers a guilty verdict. However in a shock decision they reduce his sentence to five years to be followed by permanent banishment from France, resulting in his immediate release. Despite Dreyfus being freed, the chaos in France continues, with the death toll now having reached into the thousands. Dreyfus himself, settles in the US after his release.

August 1899: The Hague conference ends with the first set of major international treaties to regulate the Laws of War. The Hague Convention incorporates the Geneva Convention of 1864 as well as providing protection for prisoners of war and non-combatants, banning the use of poison or asphyxiating gases, expanding bullets and giving protection to medical personnel and hospital ships. It also requires states to attempt arbitration before resorting to war and to this end establishes the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the Hague. In response to the article banning expanding bullets, the British withdraw their 0.303” Mk V hollow point round which has superseded the Mk III dum dum, reserving it solely for use against colonial opponents, replacing it in general service with the Mk VI, which is basically a slightly reworked of the older full jacketed Mk II.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Sept-Dec 1899: The dangers of confidence

September 1899: In response to growing tensions in Southern Africa the British deploy a force of some 25,000 men under General Redvers Buller to the region. Believing the Boers pose no serious military threat, Buller begins dispersing his forces in defensive positions around Cape Colony and Natal, without forming a dedicated field force. Despite the commitment made at the Port Elizabeth Imperial Conference, first Dominion troops will not begin arriving in early December.

September 1899: The Spanish-American War has highlighted numerous deficiencies in US warships, particularly regarding protection, seaworthiness and the lack of quick firing guns. In an effort to rectify this situation an extensive program of refit and reconstruction of existing ships is begun, while the results of the war will be extensively studied in order in an effort to incorporate its lessons into new designs. With the loss of two cruisers being attributed to capsizing due itinerant instability in their design, future vessels will pay particular attention to this aspect, along with a general improvement in seakeeping, though limits on the size of vessels imposed by Congress in an effort to reduce costs will continually hamper these efforts.

September 1899: The Representation of the People Bill, granting women the vote has again been passed by the Commons virtually unmodified only to be defeated in the Lords. As it is now a matter of confidence, the Liberal government resigns, confident of victory in the inevitable elections. During the election campaign the Liberals will focus on their achievements in social reform such as the introduction of universal health insurance in 1892, old age pensions in 1896 and increasing workers rights over the period. The Conservatives however will focus on the growing crisis in South Africa and the supposed Liberal neglect of Imperial security.

September 1899: While the Lodge Report into the US Navy has resulted in a major scandal, attempts to implement its recommendations, particularly those regarding professional control of naval operations, have run into strong opposition in Congress, with many unwilling to surrender civilian control. However new Secretary of the Navy, William Moody is able to create a professional Naval Board, though it is to be strictly an advisory body.

September 1899: US President McKinley establishes the Department of Colonial Affairs to administer the newly acquired former Spanish possessions, with William Taft appointed as the first Secretary of Colonial Affairs. While US control over Cuba and the Philippines is still facing armed uprisings, Guam and Puerto Rico are both relatively peaceful and Taft declares military rule ended, establishing a commission of five US and two local representatives to govern the colonies pending the publication of the Schurman Commission's report.

October 1899: The continued humiliation of China by the Western Powers has lead to considerable anger amongst the Chinese. Over the past decade this has led to the formation of numerous secret martial arts societies dedicated to removing foreign influence. During the Guangxu Emperor's attempted reforms these came together as the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, more commonly referred to as Boxers. A group of Boxers using the name Militias United in Righteousness clash with Qing troops near the Temple of Senlou in Shandong Province. The Boxers are easily defeated but this first clash with Qing troops brings the movement to the attention of the Qing court. Many of the conservative faction, most importantly the Dowager Empress herself, see the movement as a means of defeating the Western Powers and thus begin encouraging the Boxers.

October 1899: The revised draft constitution for a federal Australia is narrowly approved in Queensland by a margin off only several hundred votes, allowing for the eventual formation of the federal Commonwealth of Australia. Despite being offered membership, both Fiji and New Zealand opt to remain independent Dominions Thus the new Commonwealth of Australia will consist of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. The interim capital of the new Commonwealth is to be in Melbourne pending the development of a dedicated federal city equidistant from Sydney and Melbourne.

October 1899: Convinced war is now inevitable, the Boer Republics mobilise their militia and issue an ultimatum demanding the British withdraw their forces. The ultimatum is greeted with disdain in Britain and refused. The Boers declare war on the 11th and invade Natal and Cape Colony. The British force are totally unprepared for the style of fighting utilised by the Boers. The Boer Commandos are groups of fast moving mounted infantry armed with with modern high power Mauser rifles, excelling at marksmanship and the use of cover. By contrast the British are still wedded to structured linear operations with little regard for cover or individual initiative. As a result the British suffer a series of stinging defeats and by the end of the month the towns of Kimberley, Ladysmith and Mafeking are all under siege.

November 1899: Previous International tensions over Samoa resulted in the 1889 Berlin Convention which placed the islands under joint British, German and US control This agreement has proved unworkable and new Tripartite Convention is signed in London. Under its terms the British withdraw their claims in return for German concessions elsewhere, particularly the Germans renouncing their claim to Tonga. The Islands themselves are divided into German Samoa consisting of the islands of Upola and Savi'i and American Samoa of Tatuila and the Manu'a Islands.

November 1899: General Buller, having been reinforced by an additional 10,000 troops launches an offensive to relieve the besieged towns. However yet again, the British are unable to cope with the Boers tactics and suffer still more humiliating defeats. The worst comes in the 'Black Week' in early December with three defeats in quick succession and nearly 3,000 casualties. As a result of these defeats Buller is replaced by General Frederick Roberts, while further troops are mobilised for service in South Africa, including an appeal to the Dominions to increase their contribution. The Canadians agree to send an additional brigade of four infantry and one cavalry battalions, while the Pacific Dominions respond with particular enthusiasm, organising a division of seven infantry and three cavalry battalions lavishly supported by artillery and machine guns. By the end of December there are some 180,000 British and Dominion troops in Southern Africa.

November 1899: Though the General Election is a result of the defeat of the attempt to introduce women's suffrage, the election has been dominated by the disasters in South Africa, with the Conservatives focus on the Liberals supposed history of failure to prioritise Imperial affairs over domestic reform finding a great deal of support. Lord Salisbury's Conservatives take 346 seats to give them a clear 22 seat majority. The Liberals representation is slashed from 310 to 269 seats, with the Irish National Party taking 30, the Irish Parliamentary Coalition 18. Cymru Fydd and the Scottish National Party both hold just three seats and the Labour Party is reduced to a single member. The election marks the end of seventeen years of Liberal government. Lord Salisbury takes the position of Foreign Secretary himself, appointing former Progressives Lord Rosebery and George Goschen as Colonial Secretary and First Lord of the Admiralty respectively. For the rest of his cabinet, he appoints Charles Richie as Home Secretary, Michael Beach as Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Hamilton as Secretary of State for India and William Brodrick as Secretary of State for War, retaining the South African Jan Hofmeyr as Dominion Secretary.

December 1899: Dreyfusard elements organise a national strike in an effort to bring down the French government. President Jules Méline orders army unit to break up the strike. However the 4th Dragoon Regiment in Toulon refuses to act, triggering a mutiny which spreads rapidly throughout the army.

December 1899: After months of hard fighting, the US has established physical control over both Cuba and the Philippines. However the rebels have refused to accept defeat and moved over to guerilla warfare. While the US is confident the insurgency will fade quickly, it will drag on for many years.

December 1899: With the successful airship flights of Alberto Santos-Dumont and Ferdinand von Zeppelin, French industrialist Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe, having fled the chaos in France for Britain due to his Jewish heritage, offers a £4,000 {£4,106} prize for the first successful powered heavier than air flight. This prize will see a surge in interest in the possibility of such an aircraft.

December 1899: With the French army in a state of mutiny and the country on the verge of revolution, President Jules Méline steps down in favour of former President Émile Loubet. Loubet dismisses Prime Minister Jules Guérin, instead appointing Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau in his place at the head of a government of national reconciliation. Waldeck-Rousseau requests and receives a motion from the National Assembly dissolving the Third Republic and ordering the election of constituent assembly to draft a new constitution. These drastic measures finally begin to quiet the disorder in France.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-March 1900: The Empires strike back

January 1900: Now with the backing of many in the Qing court, the Boxer movement in China is growing in strength rapidly, moving from simply attacking Chinese Christians to murdering foreigners. While the Qing conservatives support the movement, many moderates are concerned about the possible European reaction and press for them to be suppressed. In a clear display of support, Dowager Empress Cixi issues an edict forbidding the movement's suppression.

January 1900: Alberto Santos-Dumont, now working in Britain, shifts his focus from airships to developing a viable heavier than air aircraft. He particularly pays attention to the work of German aviation pioneer Otto Lilienthal and his efforts to develop controllable gliders.

January 1900: US Secretary of State John Hay and British Ambassador Julian Pauncefote hold detailed discussions regarding a joint policy regarding China. Both Britain and the US remain concerned by the efforts of France, Germany and Russia to exclude them. Hay advocates an 'open door policy' which would see all nations having equal access to the Chinese market. Pauncefote suggests Hay make a visit to London to discuss the matter directly with Lord Salisbury.

January 1900: The Dreyfus Affair in France has seen a massive growth of support for the Interfaith Jewish Relief Society, not just in Britain, but also the Empire and US, leading to the formation of similar groups such as the American Jewish Relief Society. These groups have combined to form the International Jewish Relief Society, aiming to encourage the migration of European Jews suffering persecution to Britain, the Dominions and US. Seeking to further the aims of the Zionist movement, Theodor Herzl attempts to convince the IJRS to focus on encouraging Jewish migration to Palestine. However the IJRS rejects these overtures due to Herzl's support for the Ottomans during the Armenian massacres of 1896 to 1898. This rejection will be a major blow to the growth of support for Zionism in the Empire and US.

January 1900: General Redvers Buller takes personal command in the field and launches a fresh attempt to relieve the Siege of Ladysmith. As the opening move, some 20,000 British troops under General Charles Warren attempt to force a crossing of the Tugela River. While they successfully cross the river, they encounter an entrenched force of some 8,000 Boers under General Louis Botha at Spion Kop. Despite some early success, the British attack will collapse due to poor communication between Buller and his subordinates, and the British are ultimately forced to withdraw. Buller will make another attempt shortly after, with similar results. These defeats will result in Buller's replacement by General Roberts, with General Lord Kitchener as his chief of staff.

January 1900: The Qing Grand Council, now firmly under Dowager Empress Cixi's control, votes that the Guangxu Emperor should abdicate. In his place Prince Duan, a prominent supporter of the Boxers, 14 year old son Pujun is selected as heir. Despite the Guangxu Emperor's refusal to agree, Pujun is declared to be the new Xuantong Emperor. This move incites considerable opposition amongst reformers, with a 50,000 signature petition presented to the Grand Council urging the Emperor's reinstatement. The Dowager Empress orders those responsible for the petition arrest, but they flee overseas to continue their opposition to Cixi's regime. Cixi will follow this move up with an edict banning western style education in China, ordering the closure of the many English style schools which have sprung up since the Guangxu Emperor's education in Britain.

February 1900: The new Conservative government of Lord Salisbury replaces Lord Elgin as Viceroy of India with Lord Curzon, the first Conservative to hold the post since Lord Lytton in 1874. However unlike Lytton, Curzon will pursue a paternalistic policy similar to the British 'Tory Democracy' of attempting to improve the lot of the Indian population, particularly by encouraging education. He will also seek to further the integration of the Princely States into the governmental structures of the Raj. He will also keep to the now well established policy of liaising closely with the Indian National Congress in his administration.

February 1900: With their acquisition of Hawai'i and the Philippines, the US has had to face the prospect of fighting a major war in the Pacific. The major issue facing them is that the vast majority of their shipbuilding industry and naval bases are located on the Atlantic coast. At present the only method of transferring ships from the Atlantic to Pacific is via a lengthy voyage around the tip of South America. Thus the issue of constructing a trans-oceanic canal through Central America has become pressing. One of the major impediments to such a canal is the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 which commits the US to equally sharing control of any canal with the British. In light of their improving relations with the US the new British government is more than willing to negotiate a new treaty, with the new Hay-Pauncefote Treaty based on the Suez Convention allowing the US sole control in return for guaranteeing the accepting any canal's neutrality in peace or war with equal access for all nations, with other nations encouraged to also guarantee the canal's neutrality and agreeing not to fortify the canal.

February 1900: The Schurman Commission established to determine how the newly acquired US colonies of Cuba, Guam, the Philippines and Puerto Rico delivers its final report. It claims the territories are totally unprepared for independence, and if it were granted they would soon lapse into anarchy leading to the intervention of other powers. Therefore it finds the US must retain control to prevent their annexation by other powers. While not stated specifically, it is clear the term 'other powers' is aimed primarily at Germany. In the longer term the report recommends establishing the institutions of democratic government such as bicameral legislature and an independent judiciary, with the aim of responsible local government and eventual independence.

February 1900: With over 200,000 British and Dominion troops now in South Africa, the new British Commander in Chief General Roberts launches an all out offensive to relieve Kimberley, Ladysmith and Mafeking. In addition to their now overwhelming strength, the British have learnt from their earlier defeats and their troops now advance in mutually small groups making maximum use of cover to negate Boer rifle fire. Additionally the Lee-Enfield cavalry carbine with its short 54cm barrel has proven totally inadequate for the ranges required, leading to the cavalry being reamed with standard infantry rifles with their 77cm barrel. Within a month the sieges of Kimberly, Ladysmith and Mafeking will be lifted and the Boers forced onto the defensive.

March 1900: The US Congress passes the Gold Standard Act, finally abandoning bimetalism. The new act defines the US dollar solely in terms of gold, though silver dollars will continue to be legal tender and minted for several years until the US Treasury's stock of silver bullion is exhausted in 1904. The abandonment of bimetalism will go a long way to stabilising the US economy and avoid the previous issue of a periodic boom and bust cycle.

March 1900: Since being deposed in 1893, former Khedive Abbas of Egypt has been attempting to gather support for an attempt to regain his throne. In the wake of the Ottoman victory over Greece in 1897, he has successfully convinced Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II, that with British having committed most of their available troops to South Africa, the time is right to strike and retake Egypt. With a force of some 35,000 Ottoman troops and 10,000 Arab loyalists recruited primarily from the Levant he crosses into the Sinai beginning the Anglo-Ottoman War.

March 1900: US President McKinley visits London for a summit meeting with Lord Salisbury over China. Both express continued deep concern over French, German and Russian territorial ambitions and agree maintain their joint approach. They are in accord that the best best long term solution is to encourage reform in China and its transformation into a democratic constitutional monarchy. Lord Salisbury suggests the best possible counter to Russia is to back the Japanese. While McKinley continues to have concerns regarding Japan's own ambitions in China, he accepts it may be the best approach in the short term. McKinley advances given the British influence in Southern China, they perhaps are best positioned to counter the French while the US could focus their efforts on containing Germany. A proposal to which Lord Salisbury agrees. McKinley also takes the opportunity to raise the issue of Britain's continued refusal to recognise the US annexation of Hawai'i, an issue on which Lord Salisbury is more than willing to concede to further improve relations with the US. At the end of the summit the two powers issue a joint communique declaring their commitment to an 'open door' policy in China giving all nations equal access to its markets and Britain's acceptance of the annexation of Hawai'i in return for a US commitment to fully respect native rights in the territory.

 

[Miss Construction]

~April-June 1900: Shifting tides

April 1900: With the situation in China deteriorating, the eight Great Powers of Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia and the US all dispatch extra troops and warships to reinforce their positions in the nation. In response the Dowager Empress orders the Boxers be armed with modern weapons from Chinese arsenals.

April 1900: Former Khedive Abbas attempts to force a crossing of the Suez Canal at Talata, intending to advance on Cairo. The invasion has sparked a rebellion by liberals dissatisfied at the corrupt regime of Khedive Hussein Kamel, leaving British commander General Archibald Hunter with only 6,500 British and Dominion troops, supported by 4,500 Egyptians and 2,000 Bluejackets from the Mediterranean Fleet to oppose him. However, Admiral John 'Jackie' Fisher, commanding the Mediterranean Fleet deploys several warships directly into the canal to support Hunter. Fisher's ships pour fire into the Ottoman army, causing it to break and rout.

April 1900: The success of the US armoured cruisers in the Spanish-American War results in the US 1900 naval program including six new large armoured cruisers and two battleships, repeats of the previous years Virginia class. The program also the purchase of the Holland IV as the USS Holland, their first modern operational submarine, which unlike the earlier French submarines features a petrol motor for surface propulsion and allowing her batteries to be recharged underway. Finally the program orders that surveying work begin for potential locations for major naval bases in Cuba and the Philippines.

April 1900: Seeking a new handgun to replace their M1882 revolver, the Swiss Army adopt the Luger M1900 semi automatic pistol firing the new bottleneck 7.65x21mm Parabellum cartridge from an eight round magazine. Developed by Austrian weapons engineer Georg Luger, the M1900 is technically a refinement of an earlier design, the Borchardt C93 designed by Hugo Borchardt in 1893. However other than retaining the Borchardt's general concept of a toggle lock, virtually nothing of Borchardt's weapons remains, with the Luger being a vast improvement. The adoption of the Luger will make the Swiss the first European nation to adopt a semi automatic service pistol.

May 1900: The Sherman-Pauncefote Treaty is modified to allow the California to Hawai'i telegraph cable to be extended from Hawai'i to Guam and then the Philippines. Once again the treaty is only narrowly ratified by the US Congress due to the acknowledgement of British excellence in undersea telegraphy and continuing guarantees the cables will remain under the control and ownership of the Anglo-American Telegraph Company.

May 1900: Now facing war in both South Africa and the Middle East along with the deteriorating situation in China, the British are facing a crisis of available manpower forcing them to mobilise the Militia and Volunteers. While their terms of service do not require them to serve overseas, they free up the remaining regulars in Britain and also many volunteer for foreign service. In addition the government appeals to the Dominions for further troops This allows the formation of an expeditionary force of 10,000 British regulars, 5,000 Volunteers, 3,000 Dominion and 15,000 Indian troops to be assembled in Egypt. Combined with the 5,000 British regular, 3,000 Egyptian and 7,000 Sudanese troops already available there, this places a force of 50,000 men under General Hunter's command.

May 1900: After the disaster at Talata, the Sultan dispatches Edhem Pasha, the best Ottoman commander in the Greco-Ottoman War to take over command against the British in the Levant and reinforces the area with 20,000 veteran troops armed with modern Mauser rifles. Edhem Pasha falls back from the Sinai and establishes defensive positions at Beersheba and Gaza.

May 1900: Claude MacDonald. Head of the British Legation in Beijing, speaking on behalf of the diplomatic community there, requests additional troops be deployed to protect the Legation Quarter. In response a multi-national force of some 500 troops and naval personnel is dispatched and the Great Powers issue an ultimatum demanding the Boxer be suppressed. The Qing court is deeply divided by this, particularly among the conservatives. The Dowager Empress continues to support the Boxers while other such as army commander in chief Ronglu order Chinese forces to suppress them. Still others stand neutral, taking no action.

May 1900: The Schruman Report has resulted in a split in the rebel movements in both Cuba and the Philippines, with many insurgents led by Tomás Palma in Cuba and Pedro Paterno in the Philippines, switching sides to support the US. These are organised into the Cuban Rifles and Philippines Scouts to support US operations.

May 1900: King Alexander of Serbia announces his engagement to Draga Mašin, the widow of an obscure Serbian engineer. Mašin is ten years older than the king and widely believed to be infertile, and the match provokes massive opposition in Serbian society. Both former King Milan and Serbian Prime Minister Vladan Đorđević resign and are exiled by the King. Despite this opposition, the marriage goes ahead in August.

June 1900: After having recovered from their initial setbacks, the British under Field Marshal Roberts moved over to the offensive in South Africa at the end end of February. The Transvaal capital of Bloemfontein was captured unopposed in March, and despite some supply issues, the Orange Free State capital of Pretoria was taken at the end of May, again without serious opposition. The overwhelming strength of the Imperial forces during this offensive greatly demoralised the Boers, and approximately 25,000 of their 50,000 strong army have surrendered. With both Boer capitals now in British hands and around half their army captured, the British formally annex both the Transvaal and Orange Free State as the Transvaal and Orange River Colonies.

June 1900: General Hunter begins work on constructing a railway across the Sinai Peninsula to support an offensive into the Ottoman Levant. At the same time planning is begun on an amphibious landing at Gaza to seize a base for further operations.

June 1900: German soldiers capture a young Boxer and their Minister to Beijing Clemens von Ketteler orders his execution. In response thousands of Boxers storm into Beijing, killing Christians and burning churches. Joined by regular Chinese troops, the begin a siege of the Legation Quarter. In response the Great Powers for the Eight Nation Alliance and organise a 2,000 strong multi-national force in Tianjin under British Admiral Edward Seymour to relieve the siege. Seymour's advance is initially virtually unopposed, with General Nie Shicheng's army, which has been brutally suppressing the Boxers under Ronglu's orders, standing aside. However The Dowager Empress orders General Dong Fuxiang's Muslim army of Kensu Braves to halt the expedition. Fuxiang, supported by large numbers of Boxers, attacks Seymour's force at Langfang. While the multi-national forces successfully holds off the Chinese assault, Seymour, facing the likelihood of further attacks, is forced to retreat due to lack of supplies. His retreat is seen as a humiliation and greatly encourages support for the Boxers. Perhaps mostly significantly it leads the Dowager Empress to issue a declaration of war against all eight Great Powers, along with Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain. This action results Zhang Zhidong, in Li Hongzhang, Liu Kunyi, Yu Yingkui and and Yuan Shikai, the Viceroys of Hunguang, Liangiang, Liangguang, Min-zhe, Shandong, form the Mutual Pact for the Defence of the Southeastern Provinces. They openly declare their refusal to implement the Dowager Empress instructions and call for the reinstatement of the Guangxu Emperor.

June 1900: The summer monsoon arrives in India, ending the ongoing famine. Despite expectations, only another £1,500,000 in famine relief has been required, with roughly two thirds provided by the Indian Provincial governments and the remainder from charitable donations. Against the worst predictions it estimated the famine has resulted in less than one million deaths, with virtually none in territory under direct British control. The fact the vast majority of deaths occurred in the effected Princely States will lead to the British taking a more active role in their administration to prevent such events in future.

June 1900: The Boer War has generated a great deal deal of sympathy for the Boers in Europe and corresponding hostility toward Britain. Taking advantage of this, Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz is able to get the Reichstag to pass a Second Naval Law calling for further expansion of the German Navy in line with his Risikoflotte strategy. The law calls for the German navy to be doubled from twenty to forty battleships over the next seventeen years, making Germany the second strongest naval power after the British. While the 1897 law caused no undue concern in Britain, this new law results in considerable alarm as it poses a direct threat to British security, and many in Britain calling for an immediate response to maintain the Royal Navy's dominance.