Why the Chinese play cricket (an Imperial Federation timeline)

Miss Construction · Apr 26, 2022

The Pax Imperialis (The Peace of the Emperor). Or why the Chinese play cricket
(For my beloved daughter Kwaryn)

This one of those "the sun never sets" British Empire timelines. However what comes out at the end will very definitely not be the British Empire. Neither is it the Indian Empire nor any other Empire. It's a defuse global federation called the Imperial Commonwealth. This Commonwealth grows to become the world's leading power, with a distributed economy spread over five continents. However while its global nature is its greatest strength, it is also its greatest weakness. Though it has immense power, it is extremely hard for it to focus its power.

All the critical core information required to understand this timeline is contained in a limited number of posts. I refer to these as Chapters. These contain the story of the timeline as a sequence of events. These are all threadmarked in sequential order, I try to wait at least 24 hours between posting updates to allow time for people to comment. For anyone coming in "late," I always update each entry if I make alterations. So all you need to do is simply follow the bouncing ball through the threadmarks to get a grip on the timeline. The Chapters start with the seventh threadmark. This post and the five index posts come first. HOWEVER, various circumstances mean, that seventh threadmark is physically directly below this post. So if you want to skip the indexes and dive right in, just read to the bottom of this and hey presto, the first Chapter should be right there. Also to help keep perspective all monetary values mentioned include a conversion to pounds sterling in 1900 in curly braces after the number. For those who wish to put the values in modern terms, one pound sterling in 1900 is very roughly worth 145 US dollars in 2022.

NOTE ON NAMES: The term used to refer to the British Empire throughout the timeline changes over time. From 1870 to 1909 Britain and British is used with individual parts of the Empire named as required. In 1909 there is a fundamental change in the constitutional structure of the Empire, with the Dominions given a binding voice in Imperial policy. Therefore from 1910 the the terms Empire and Imperial used, with Britain and British solely referring to the Home Islands. At some point in after that, the Empire will again change with its transformation into a formal federation known as the Imperial Commonwealth. From this point one, the term Commonwealth is used. At this point I'm not entire when that will happen, but it will happen.

Scattered through thread there are also other posts which expand on the raw information in these Chapters. These are design notes, lists of abbreviations used, data relating to alliances, navies, military affairs etc I regard as important. These are all indexed in the next five threadmarks, but I'll also link to them here.

- Maps and Graphics
- Design Notes
- Stories
- Naval Matters
- Military Matters
- Abbreviations and other terms

You may notice an index for stories. I always intended for this timeline to be a setting for storytelling. So they're exactly what it says on the box, pieces of fiction set in this timeline. One proviso, there are no guarantees I'll ever get round to writing any, but I've included the index just in case. I'll mention, if anyone else ever feels the urge to use the setting as a backdrop for their own writing, PLEASE FEEL FREE, I would love it in fact. Most of my own writing is set in shared universes and I feel they are so much richer than a single person's work. I'd also love to turn this into a shared universe, just have no idea how to go about it, or if anybody would be interested.

This is the fourth iteration of this timeline. I hadn't updated it here for two years but I didn't stop working on it. However I'd done a LOT more research over those two years and was no longer happy with it, especially the pre 20th century portion and the First Great War. Plus it was too much of a britwank in my opinion, so that needed to change as well. I originally posted this in the after 1900 forum since most of it is set post 1900. However this time I'm starting here. I'm planning on continuing it in the post 1900 forum when I hit 1900 (maybe, I'll see when I get there).

The point of divergence is Gladstone's Landlord and Tenant (Ireland) Act isn't diluted. This brings forward the split between the radical and Whig factions in the Liberal party, increasing the pace of reform. However the butterflies spread fairly quickly and start to reach outside the bounds of the Empire in odd ways. However significant changes don't start to show up until the 20th century. Throughout the timeline I use the term Britain to refer to the United Kingdom, it's just easier to type. When I need to refer to one or more of the specific Home Nations, I use England, Ireland, Scotland, Ulster (the OTL Northern Ireland) and Wales.

There are a lot of abbreviations and terms which may be hard to keep track of, certainly FAR too many to remember. I periodically post an updated list of them and index it. So if you run across an abbreviation or term you don't understand, all you have to do is look it up. The same applies to alliances. This is a multi polar world and it can be hard to keep track of whose allied with whom. Also past about 1920, do not assume ANYTHING is like the OTL. The timeline changes slowly, but it changes beyond all recognition. Some very important points to remember. NOTE: These are all based on the third iteration of the timeline, I'm hoping this one goes differently. So, while I think all of these will apply to this iteration, I could be wrong.

1) The Imperial Commonwealth (abbreviated CW throughout the timeline) is a vastly different state from the OTL British Empire. It has a totally different geopolitical outlook, focusing on the Far East not Europe. Its involvement in Europe is primarily to keep the European powers from interfering in the east, keeping them focused on Europe. It also abandons traditional imperialism, instead using soft power to create client states.

2) The relative power of the CW and US is basically reversed. By 1940 the CW economy is twice the size of the US.

3) By the mid 30s India has a modern industrialised economy and has thoroughly been integrated in the CW political structure.

4) Italy is also a very different place. By the 40s it has the fourth largest economy in the world and possesses one of the most efficient militaries.

5) Poland is also quite different. Not only does it include all of OTL Poland but all of Galicia, Silesia and half of East Prussia. It also received considerable CW investment in the 30s to build up as credible rival for the Franco-Russian Entente.

Constructive criticism is VERY welcome. This timeline has a lot of personal importance to me. I want it to be the best it can. I've even enlisted the help of one my clients who happens to be a history professor specialising in the late Victorian and Edwardian period (he was surprised but very happy to help lol).

So while I really love people telling me what I'm doing right. Feeds my ego no end and keeps me writing this. What I really want is people to tell me what I'm doing wrong, to rip it to shreds, point out my mistakes and where things don't make sense. I will listen and incorporate suggestions. So thank you for both the good and bad.

But if you think something can be done better, is poorly thought out, horrendously wrong or just plain sucks, please say so. I've been called more nasty names than you can probably imagine, I'm no delicate flower. But please also say why. I will listen.

I should point out while I am developing this as a serious timeline. I also keep in mind its use as an RPG setting and a setting for my writing. Hence the oddities such as airships, dual battalion British cavalry regiments, gyrodynes and domesticated zebras. These are intended never to move beyond novelties. The number of airships in this timeline is economically completely unsustainable, but well, what's an alternate history if you don't have airships? There will not be regiments of zebra cavalry. Gyrodynes however will achieve some limited military use in special forces operations, such as is suitable for RPGs. These things will exist on the fringes where they have no real effect on the timeline. Basically they're colour text to give a “We're not in Kansas any more” effect.

Also I mention this is the fourth iteration of the Timeline. The first two iterations I think are utter crap, I'm a little embarrassed by them actually. The third is okay, I've used it as a setting for thabletop RPGs and it is fun. But it also had some serious issues hence this fourth version. However you want to see the development of the TL, here are the first three attempts
Iteration One
Iteration Two
Iteration Three

Miss Construction · May 19, 2022

Miss Construction · May 19, 2022

Miss Construction · May 19, 2022

This is were links to any stories set in the timeline will be posted. As I said in the introduction, I really would like to turn this into a shared universe. So if anyone else is brave enough to try their hand, please really do feel free.

During my long break, I ran an online dieselpunk fantasy RPG using it as a setting. I even developed my own homebrew rule system for it. For me, that's a story. I still have all the files. If people are interested, I'll post them. Here's the introduction. Please let me know if you'd like more. I'll even try to contact the players and see if I can repost some characters and scenes.

* Pax Imperialis RPG: Introduction

Miss Construction · May 19, 2022

This is where you'll find links to things such as fleet list, ship data, ramblings on the development of naval warfare ITTL. If I get time, I'd love to include reports and maps of significant battles, but that would be time consuming, so probably not possible. However there are likely to be a fair number of links here eventually, even if there are none currently.

In the third iteration I actually wargamed out important naval battles, and the ship data is based on the rules I use (a homebrew modified version of a First World War quick play set I like). The ship data is based on what I need for those rules. For those interested in technical jiggery pokery stuff. Displacement is based on Washington Treaty standard displacement and rounded to the nearest 100 tons. Speed and armour are rounded to the nearest half inch or knot. Armour is classic pattern Krupps Cemented unless otherwise stated, with deck armour based on the flat. For those who are interest the values I use are: Iron = 0.3, Steel = 0.4, Compound = 0.5 Nickel = 0.65, Harvey = 0.75, KC = 1.0, AdvArm (Advanced armours) = 1.05. AoN (All or nothing) armour schemes are also noted when they crop up, as are armoured flight decks (AFD). I use Conways as my standard reference.

Engine Data features three details, type of engine, type of boiler and fuel
Engines: SE = simple expansion, CE = compound expansion, TE = triple expansion, Tu = turbine, GeTu = geared turbine, TuE = turboelectric, MS= diesel, GsTu = gas turbine, Nu = nuclear, El = electric, S/E = steam/electric (submarines), P/E = petrol/electric (submarines), D/E = diesel/electric (submarines)
Boilers: FT = fire tube, WT = water tube, SW = small water tube, HP = high pressure, VP = very high pressure, UP = ultra high pressure
Fuel: Coal, Oil, Petrol, Diesel, AvGas, Nuclear

Torpedo tubes (TT) may be aw (above water), uw (under water) or dk (deck mounted)

- Naval strength at the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War
- Battle of Yalu River 1894
- Royal Navy 1870 to 1904: Battleships and Monitors
- Royal Navy 1870 to 1904: 1st Class Cruisers
- Royal Navy 1870 to 1904: Other Cruisers
- Qing Chinese Navy 1870 to 1904
- Navies of the Spanish-American War
- US "new" Navy: 1883 to 1904
- Imperial Japanese Navy 1870 to 1904
- South American Navies 1870 to 1904
- Imperial Russian Navy 1870 to 1904
- Imperial German Navy 1870 to 1904
- French Navy 1870 to 1904 - Battleships and Monitors
- French Navy 1870 to 1904 - Cruisers
- Royal Italian Navy 1870 to 1904
- Naval Programs 1905
- Naval Programs 1906
- Naval Programs 1907
- Greek and Ottoman Navies 1870 to 1904
- Naval Programs 1908
- Naval Programs 1909

Miss Construction · May 19, 2022

This is where you'll find links to things such as army lists, weapons data, ramblings on the development of land and aerial warfare ITTL. If I get time, I'd love to include reports and maps of significant battles, but that would be time consuming, so probably not possible. There are likely to be nowhere near as many links here compared with Naval Matters, but there will be some.

- The Smith & Wesson Model 3 Revolver
- British Army regiments after 1881 Cardwell Reforms
- Indian Army after the 1895 Roberts Reforms
- Chinese Civil War (Start of Hostilities August 1901 to Fall of Nanjing April 1903)
- Chinese Civil War ( Fall of Nanjing April 1903 to Armistice September 1904)
- Ground Combat Rules

Miss Construction · Apr 26, 2022

~1870-1871: One tiny step

15th February 1870: British Prime Minister William Gladstone presents his Landlord and Tenant (Ireland) Bill to parliament. The bill, heavily influenced by the radical faction of the Liberal Party, extends the 'Ulster Custom' of guaranteeing tenants compensation from landlords for any improvements made to land, to all tenancies in Ireland. More importantly, the bill provides governments loans form tenants to purchase their land, along with protection from excessive rents.

17th February 1870: The Elementary Education Bill is introduced to Parliament. The bill, drafted by William Forster, would require all local body authorities in England and Wales to set up an education board to provide schools for elementary education within their territory. However the bill does not make such education free or compulsory, though it does provide provision for local school boards to pay the fees for 'needy' children. The last provision also covers the fees for children in church schools, outside local board's control.

March 1870: Radical Liberal MP for Birmingham, George Dixon, introduces an amendment to the Elementary Education Bill requiring education in local board schools to be non-religious and removing the provision for local boards to pay the fees of children attending church schools. Gladstone makes the rejection of this amendment a matter of confidence. As a result the amendment is withdrawn.

March 1870: With demand for rubber growing dramatically in Europe, US entrepreneur George Church proposes a railway in the Amazon jungle to improve access to the rubber producing regions. The railway will be completed in 1879, allowing for far greater extraction to meet the European demand for rubber.

April 1870: A captive breeding program is begun aimed at domesticating the Plains Zebra.

June 1870: As an attempt at compromise between the radical and moderate factions within the Liberal Party, an amendment to the Elementary Education Bill proposed by Liberal MP William Cowper-Temple is adopted by the cabinet. This amendment requires any religious education in board schools to be non-denominational.

June 1870: Radical Liberal MP John Bright introduces another amendment to the Elementary Education Bill again attempting to remove the provision for local boards to pay the fees of children attending church schools. Despite opposition from Gladstone, the amendment is narrowly passed by parliament after radical activists such as self made Birmingham businessman Joseph Chamberlain successfully pack the house for the vote.

July 1870: William Forster is appointed as Colonial Secretary. He pursues a program actively advocating for the formation of an Imperial Federation of Britain and it's Dominions.

July 1870: After years of growing tensions between the Second French Empire and the Prussian controlled North German Confederation, Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismark, releases a modified summary of a telegram from Prussian King Wilhelm in an attempt to provoke the French into war. The telegram concerns Wilhelm's response to the French ambassador presenting a demand regarding a potential Hohenzollern candidate for the Spanish throne. The telegram is edited to give the impression Wilhelm was being insulting toward the ambassador. It causes massive outrage with the French public when published, having the desired effect of provoking Emperor Napoleon III to declare war.

July 1870: Gladstone's Landlord and Tenant (Ireland) Act is finally passed. Despite attempts by Conservatives to restrict its effect, it passes House of Commons basically without modification. However the Conservative dominated House of Lords alter the wording in the rent protection section from 'excessive rents' to 'exorbitant rents,' effectively rendering the section ineffective.

August 1870: The Elementary Education Act is passed, introducing a structured system of state education in England and Wales. This, and the earlier Landlords and Tenants (Ireland) Act polarises the Liberal Party between the radical and moderate Whig factions. An additional effect of the act is to accelerate the decline of the Welsh language as the act requires the sole use of the English language in schools. The act brings businessman Joseph Chamberlain to public attention for the first time.

September 1870: The Prussians decisively defeat the French Army at the Battle of Sedan, all but guaranteeing victory in the war. However while Emperor Napoleon III is captured and the Empire overthrown, the Provisional Government of the newly proclaimed Third French Republic totally refuses to contemplate any peace settlement which includes ceding Metropolitan French territorial. A feature of this second phase of the war are the Francs-tireurs. Irregular French volunteers, they operate without uniform, conducting a guerilla war against Prussian forces. The Francs-tireurs have an impact out of all proportion to their numbers or actual effect. Their activities terrify the Prussians, effectively paralysing entire units. They create outrage among the Prussian army and wider German public as murders and bandits. Captured Francs-tireurs are summarily executed and brutal reprisals launched against the nearest French town or village in response to their attacks, resulting in many civilians being murdered. This creates a lasting legacy of enmity between the French and Germans.

November 1870: The remaining independent states in Southern Germany join the war against France alongside Prussia.

January 1871: King Wilhelm of Prussia is proclaimed Emperor of Germany in Versailles.

January 1871: The British and US government agree to attempt to settle a number of outstanding grievances over fishing rights, the Canadian border and outstanding issues from the American Civil War. A joint commission is established to resolve these disputes, meeting in Washington. The British delegation is headed by Colonial Secretary Forster and includes Canadian Premier John MacDonald, recognising Canada's status a partner rather than colony. The US delegation is headed by Secretary of State Hamilton Fish. However the bulk of the commission consists of respected Jurists from Britain and The US. The negotiations initially proceed well, but become deadlocked over the US claims for damage over the Confederate raider Alabama, built in Britain and Canadian demands for compensation due to the post Civil War Fenian Raids launched from the US in 1866 and new raids currently ongoing. Fish is adamant the raids should not be included in any settlement. However Forster, mindful of Canadian sensibilities due to his belief in an Imperial Federation, refuses to discuss the Alabama Claims unless the Fenian Raids are also Included.

February 1871: After the fall of Paris, an armistice is signed bringing an end to the fighting in the Franco-Prussian War.

February 1871: Tsar Alexander II of Russia gifts the Zoological Society of London with three male and seven female of wild Tarpans. Francis Russell, heir to the Duchy of Bedford offers Woburn Abbey as a home for the herd.

March 1871: Radical left wing revolutionaries declare the formation of a people's Commune along anarchist principles, rejecting the authority of the French government and seizing control of Paris.

April 1871: Under pressure from the increasingly influential radical faction in his party, Gladstone openly expresses the British government's opposition to any French territorial losses without the approval of the local population in the wake of their defeat by Prussia in the House. While this declaration will have little effect on the eventual treaty ending the war, it does lead to considerable hostility toward Britain from the new German Empire.

May 1871: The Treaty of Frankfurt is signed ending the Franco-Prussian War. France is forced to cede Alsace-Lorraine and pay an unprecedented indemnity of five billion gold francs {£204,317,897}. German troops are to remain on French soil until the indemnity is paid. The Treaty also formally establishes the German Empire, combining the independent Southern German states with the North German Confederation

May 1871: After tense and difficult negotiations, the Treaty of Washington is signed settling many of the disputes between Britain, Canada and the US. Most matters have been settled easily. A joint US Canadian Fisheries Commission is to be established to regulate the Halifax fisheries and the US will make an annual payment of $500,000 {£95,306} directly to Canada for twenty years, in return US vessels will be granted access to Canadian waters. The Vancouver border dispute is to be sent for arbitration. Despite this apparent goodwill, the issues of the Alabama Claims and Fenian Raids proved far more difficult to resolve. Eventually, while admitting no liability, the US agrees to pay the Canadian government $2,000,000 {£381,224} as 'assistance' in repairing the damage done in the Raids and act to prevent its citizen participating in any future such raids. In return the British agree to also send the Alabama Claims for arbitration. The initial proposal for Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany as arbiter is rejected by the British due to the possibility of hostility generated by Gladstone's statement regarding Alsace-Lorraine in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War. King Christian IX of Denmark is selected as an alternative. Canadian public opposition to the Treaty is high due to US access to their fishing grounds and the token level of compensation for the Fenian Raids. However, it is assuaged to a large degree by a supposedly unrelated British loan to finance the construction of a Trans-Canadian railway. Despite disquiet, the otherwise generally favourable outcome of the Treaty does much to strengthen pro Imperial feeling in Canada.

May 1871: French troops brutally crush the Paris Commune, with many of it's leaders being summary executed, This finally restores peace to France in the aftermath of the war. Despite the Commune's failure, it will encourage the growth of the far left in Europe and be a factor in it's radicalisation.

June 1871: Since the early the 1860s, Europeans have been settling in Fiji, often obtaining land fraudulently or through violence, This has been greatly eased by the lack of effective government in the Islands. In an effort to control the situation a group of European settlers and Fijian chiefs form the Kingdom of Fiji, with prominent chief Ratu Seru Epenise Cakobau as King. The new Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislative body, though Europeans effectively control this body. Over the next year, courts, police and taxation will be established.

June 1871: The Trade Union Act is passed, legalising trade unions in Britain for the first time. Due to pressure from radical Liberals, the associated Criminal Law Amendment Bill, which would have made peaceful picketing illegal is dropped. However the radicals are unable to get the Masters and Servants Acts, which criminalised breaches of contract by workers repealed.

November 1871: In the wake of the French defeat by Prussia, British Secretary of State for War, Edward Cardwell begins pushing to expand his ongoing reforms to the British army. These reforms have been vigorously opposed by the Duke of Cambridge, commander in chief of the British army. Nevertheless, Cardwell achieves a major success by abolishing the purchase of commissions in the army, resulting in a significant increase in efficiency.

Miss Construction · Apr 28, 2022

~1872-1873: That's depressing

February 1872: A small breeding heard of three males and ten female Quagga are established by the London Zoological Society in an attempt to ensure the sub species survival. The Quagga will join the Tarpans at Woburn Abbey.

February 1872: Lord Mayo, Viceroy of India is assassinated by an Afghan convict during a visit to a convict settlement in the Andaman Islands. His death sends shock-waves throughout Britain and India, even raising fears of another rebellion. However an investigation proves the assassin acted alone and from religious motivations. The radical members of the Liberal Party prompt Gladstone to appoint a committee under senior Indian civil servant John Strachey to investigate social conditions in India.

March 1872: In a major step forwards in conversation, US president Ulysses Grant signs the Act of Declaration creating Yellowstone as the world's first national park. Despite local opposition, the act sets aside nearly 9,000km² as a natural reserve.

April 1872: Since the mid 1840s, a trade in pacific Islanders for labour in the US and Pacific Dominions has developed, usually referred to as Blackbirding. While technically called 'Indentured labour' the practice amounts to slavery, with the victims obtained by deception, coercion or violence. As many as one third of the victims die with three years of being taken. Several attempts have been made to curb the worse excesses through licensing. In the latest effort, the Pacific Islanders Protection Act is passed, yet again tightening up licensing of ships transporting labourers and enabling the Royal Navy to intercept and inspect vessels suspected of engaging in the practice. However Blackbirding will continue, only finally being stamped out in the 20th century.

May 1872: Māori leader and founder of the Ringatū religious movement of the Rongowhakaata, Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki, crosses the Waikato river to seek sanctuary in the King County. King Matutaera Tāwhiao grants him asylum, finally bringing an end to the New Zealand Land Wars, restoring peace to the Dominion. However the King Country in the central North Island remains closed to Europeans.

May 1872: Gladstone appoints Thomas Baring to replace the assassinated Lord Mayo as Viceroy of India. Baring embarks on an ambitious program of reform in India, seeking to reduce taxation and improve the distribution of food to tackle widespread starvation.

May 1872: In response to their defeat by the Prussians, the French begin an extensive program of reform in banking and education, coupled with massive investment in infrastructure and industry. This program is funded by heavy government borrowing, primarily from Britain and will transform the nation.

August 1872: The Education (Scotland) Act is passed. Very similar to the 1870 act covering England and Wales. However it makes elementary education compulsory and includes provision for secondary education, though no provision for funding of such education is included. The act however requires the sole use of the English language in schools, leading to a similar effect on Scots Gaelic to the 1870 act's on Welsh.

September 1872: The Fifth Congress of the International Workingmen's Association will see a bitter fight between the anarchist headed by Mikhail Bakunin and the communists led by Karl Marx. After the failure of the Paris Commune the communists argue for the necessity to create a socialist state before a true socialist society can be established. The anarchist reject this, arguing the leaders of such a state would end up being just as bad as the previous capitalist ruling class. This dispute will result in the anarchist leaving the IWA setting up the rival International Working People's Association, or Black International in 1881. The IWA itself will eventually disband in 1876.

September 1872: After two and a half years work, the Australian Overland Telegraph Line from Adelaide to Darwin is completed. Stretching 3,200km across desert and barren grassland, the line is a triumph of engineering. At Darwin the line joins with the British Australian Telegraph Company's undersea cable to Java, thus connecting Australia with the rest of the world. The improvement in communications will lead to a significant and lasting increase in the Australian economy.

October 1872: The game of Cricket has been steadily losing popularity in North America in favour of the faster paced US game of baseball. In an effort to revive the game, English cricketer William Gilbert Grace organises an All England team to tour Canada and the US. The team includes many of England's top players, including John Lillywhite and Edgar Willsher. In an effort to increase public interest in the game, Lillywhite comes up with a radical new format to take advantage of the still new overarm style of bowling. Two 'six day' matches of two innings will be played, one in Canada and one in the US. While the All England team defeats the US by four wickets, the Canadians will win a nail biting match by just four runs, dismissing the final English batsman late on the sixth day. Lillywhite's new format will become increasingly popular, later being termed test matches due to their gruelling nature. The new format will be repeated in a return tour of England by the Canadians next year. While the game's popularity in the US continues to decline in favour of baseball, the tour at least slows the spread of baseball in Canada.

October 1872: The arbitration tribunal of Swedish, Swiss, and Chilean jurists established by King Christian of Denmark after the Treaty of Washington releases it decisions. Regarding the Alabama Claims it finds by at two to one majority Britain was in error regarding international law covering the conduct of neutrals when it failed to prevent the delivery of the Alabama, due to the fact the US had presented evidence it was probably destined for the Confederacy. As a result they award the US $15,5000,000 {£2,835,330} in damages. Against this, the British are awarded $2,000,000 {£365,849} damages for illegal blockade practices during the Civil War. While neither side is required to 'apologise,' both choose to express 'regret.' On the matter of the San Juan border dispute, the tribunal finds in favour of the Canadians, establishing the Rosario Strait as the border. This immediately raises concerns in the US regarding Seattle's access to the sea, leading to their ambassador in Britain, Robert Schenk, raising the matter with Lord Granville, British Foreign Secretary. Lord Granville defers the matter until he has consulted with Canadian Premier, John MacDonald. MacDonald clearly states his very strong opinion that any course of action other than guaranteeing the US unrestricted access to the seaway would be an extremely grave mistake. The matter is initially settle by an exchange of notes between the three governments, but the agreement will be formalised in the Treaty of Ottawa the next year which additionally permanently demilitarises the San Juan Islands.

December 1872: After years of agitation, the Cape Colony achieves responsible government. The new government continues the policies of not restricting the franchise along racial lines and avoiding Imperial involvement in the Cape.

May 1873: The Canadian government forms the North-West Mounted Police to maintain order in the newly acquired Rupert's Land territories, purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870.

May 1873: The Vienna stock market crashes, triggering the first wave of the Long Depression. The crash will rapidly spread to Germany, causing the collapse of a speculative investment bubble in industry and transportation created in the wake of the the influx of capital due to the French war indemnity. The collapse results in substantial contraction the German economy and fall in industrial output, which spreads throughout most of Europe. However in Britain, the effects of the crash are muted, as experience with financial crises in the 1840s and 50s had prepared the British banking system for such events. As result, British industrial output does not decline, but rather stagnates.

July 1873: The Strachey report into social conditions in India is released. The report finds many Indians are dissatisfied with their participation in the administration of the sub continent. The report recommends increased Indian representation on the provincial legislative councils, opening the senior levels of the Imperial Civil Service to 'suitable' Indian candidates, reforming the Indian Imperial Police and allowing Indian officers to advance to senior levels, the inclusion of an Indian representative on the Council of India in London.

June 1873: The Irish University Bill that would remove the requirement for faculty members of Trinity College in Dublin to be Anglicans passes it's second reading by two votes. The bill will eventually be defeated at it's third reading. The lengthy struggle over the bill further deepens the rift between the radical and Whig factions in the Liberal Party.

August 1873: Chancellor Bismarck of Germany negotiates the League of Three Emperors with Austro-Hungary and Russia to ensure France's diplomatic isolation.

September 1873: France repays its war indemnity to Germany two years early, adding to the ongoing deterioration of the German economy.

September 1873: A drought in the Indian region of Bihar lead to crop failures. Richard Temple, Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, fearing the possibility of widespread famine quickly organises an effective relief program, importing and distributing large quantities of rice from Burma as well as extensive public works programs to provide employment. Temple's program is a huge success, with virtually no excess mortality due to the famine, plus major improvements to infrastructure as a result of the public works program. The ration provided also allows all workers to remain sufficiently healthy to immediately return to the fields when the rains finally arrive. Despite his success, Temple is heavily criticised for the expense involved, with the relief efforts costing over 36 million rupee {£2,201,066} though his timely actions are praised by the radicals in parliament.

September 1873: The demonetisation of silver in the US, following a similar move by Germany in 1871, leads to a collapse in the price of silver. Coupled with major losses in the Chicago fire of 1871 and Boston fire of 1872, this leads to a financial crisis in the US. Jay Cooke & Co, one of the major US banks is unable to market a large bond issue, resulting in it's collapse. This collapse sets off a cascade of bank failures causing the New York stock market to crash. There has been massive speculative investment in the US following the Civil War, primarily in railways. Thus the impact of this collapse on the US economy is devastating, with the global flow on effects significantly worsening the worldwide impact of the Long Depression.

October 1873: The first concrete measure from the Strachey report is passed into law with the Indian Councils Act. The act is an attempt to increase the scope of the legislative bodies in India. The act increases each of the councils from twelve to twenty members and requires that all legislative bodies in India “include suitable representatives of native opinion.” Despite the vague wording, the act will ensure that between 35-45% of the members of Indian provincial legislative councils are in fact, Indians. It also for the first time allows the councils to discuss, though not vote on, budgetary matters and transfers authority over labour affairs to the councils.

November 1873: Radical Liberal Joseph Chamberlain is elected Mayor of Birmingham. He will embark on a radical campaign of reform to the city, bringing the city's gas and water supplies under council control via compulsory purchase, resulting in major improvements in both quality and efficiency. Chamberlain's model of 'gas and water' municipal socialism will be widely admired and copied throughout the world.

December 1873: Vishvanath Mandlik becomes the first Indian appointed to the Council of India in London. Highly conservative in outlook, he only supports limited and gradual reform in India.

Miss Construction · Apr 28, 2022

~1874-1875: A Tory democracy

January 1874: Colonial Secretary William Forster proposes abandoning free trade in favour of encouraging the development of the Dominions and colonies as alternative trade partners and markets. While Gladstone rejects the proposal, it greatly alarms the free trade Whigs within the Liberal Party. The proposal however does find significant support in the Conservative Party.

February 1874: With the highly effective response to the Bihar Famine in India ongoing, radical Liberal MP John Bright introduces the Famine Relief (India) Bill into parliament. The bill proposes setting a dedicated commission in India to oversee famine relief and finds widespread support in the house, especially with radial members, but is suspended when Gladstone calls a general elections.

March 1874: With the Liberal Party deeply divided over social reform and Irish land rights, Benjamin Disraeli's Conservative Party decisively wins the scheduled general election. The scale of the defeat leads to Gladstone's resignation as leader of the Liberal Party, with William Forster selected as his successor. The election also sees the Irish Home Rule League under Isaac Butt gain 60 of the 101 seats in Ireland.

March 1874: The new Disraeli government adopts a policy of “One nation conservatism,” committed to social reforms in labour relations, housing and public health. This is both a philosophical position of Disraeli and an attempt to undermine the Liberal Party's support base in amongst the working and middle classes. This form of paternalistic conservatism will continue to dominate Tory domestic policy into the future.

April 1874: At the urging of Viceroy Thomas Baring, the Indian Legislative Council in Calcutta passes the Provincial Civil Service Act increasing Indian representation in the uncovenanted Imperial Civil Service at the provincial level. While Indians are still bared from entering the covenanted Imperial Civil which controls the higher level of Indian administration, the act does increase Indian participation in the running of the sub continent.

May 1874: Attempts to reintroduce Bright's Famine Relief (India) Bill are blocked by the new Conservative government, citing the excessive costs of the Bihar relief program. This will lead to the resignation of Thomas Barring as Viceroy of India and his replacement by the highly conservative Lord Lytton. Lord Lytton will abandon Baring's reformist policies in India, instead adopting a ruthless policy in line with his belief in social Darwinism.

June 1874: An All England cricket team led by John Lillywhite tours the Australian Dominions and New Zealand. A match using Lillywhite's new 'test match' format is played in Sydney, attracting huge crowds. The tour will significantly increase the popularity of the new test match format in the Empire.

July 1874: As part of Disraeli's one nation conservatism policy, the Factory Act (Health of Women, &c) Act is passed. This act reduces the maximum working hours for women and young people in the textile industry to ten hours per day. It is shortly followed by the Working Men's Dwellings Act which enables local authorities to build 'healthy' housing for workers and provide them via long term leases.

August 1874: Alarmed by Forster's selection as leader of the Liberal Party and discontent with the growing influence of the radicals, 48 Whig Liberals, led by George Goschen and Lord Landsdowne, split to form the Progressive Liberal Party, more commonly known as the Progressive Party or simply Progressives.

September 1874: As part of his policy of furthering the integration of India into the Empire, Viceroy Lord Lytton enacts the Indian Gold Currency Act moving India from the silver to the gold standard. Under its terms, the silver Indian rupee is to be replaced by the gold Indian pound, at a rate of fifteen rupee to one pound. While this will have a beneficial impact on the Indian economy in time, it will provoke fierce resentment among the Indian population and cause considerable short term disruption.

October 1874: With the new Kingdom of Fiji struggling to control both European settlers and indigenous Fijians, the government appeals to Britain to annex the islands. Disraeli's new Conservative government, anxious to expand the Empire, agrees and the Islands formally come under Imperial control.

November 1874: Forster, along with Colonial Secretary Lord Carnarvon form the Imperial Federation League to advance the concept of a union between Britain and it's Dominions. The league is cross-party including Conservative MPs such as Edward Stanthorpe alongside Liberals such as Lord Rosebery. It also includes public figures such as businessman Joseph Chamberlain, poet Lord Tennyson, and academic John Steeley. The league rapidly gains support, with chapters being established in the Dominions within a few years.

January 1875: The Tongzhi Emperor of Qing China unexpectedly dies at age 18 without an heir. Dowager Empresses Cixi and Ci'an, the Emperor's former regents, clash over who should succeed him, Ci'an favours Prince Gong, uncle to the Tongzhi Emperor, seventeen year old son Zaicheng. However Cixi prefers Prince Chun, another uncle, infant son Zaitian. Eventually, Cixi is able to prevail and Zaitian is installed as the Guangxu Emperor.

February 1875: Junior British diplomat Augustus Margary and his four Chinese staff are murdered en route to Tengchong. The incident creates a diplomatic crisis between Britain and China, with the British taking the opportunity to exert pressure on a number of unrelated issues.

April 1875: Charles Parnell is elected to Parliament in a by-election as a member of the Irish Home Rule League. He will go on to be a leading figure in the policy of 'obstructionism,' using procedural matters to delay the business of the House to draw attention to Irish issues,

May 1875: Hawaiian king Kalākaua signs the Reciprocity Treaty with the US. Under the terms of the treaty Hawaii grants the US access to Pearl Harbour as naval base in return for free access to the US for their sugar exports. The treaty will lead to a major economic boom in Hawaii and expansion of its sugar industry, primarily under the control of US owners.

June 1875: As a keynote part of Disraeli's one nation conservatism program the Artisans and Labourers Dwellings Improvement Act is passed. This act allows for local councils to clear slums to build modern healthy homes for the working classes. The act and its sponsor, Home Secretary Richard Cross, are subjected to a stinging attack by newly elected Conservative back bencher Randolph Churchill for failing to provide sufficient funding for local councils to undertake such programs. While Churchill's attack brings the ire of the Conservative Party establishment, it also brings him to national attention. Joseph Chamberlain will be one of the first to take advantage of the act, clearing vast areas of Birmingham slums. However, Churchill's criticism will prove to be correct, with the vast majority of councils deterred by the costs involved.

June 1875: Arthur Hamilton takes over as Governor of Fiji. He institutes a policy of 'Fiji for the Fijians' devolving much of the day to day administration of the Colony to local chiefs and prohibiting the sale of land by individuals, effectively placing 83% of land Fiji under communal ownership by indigenous Fijians.

July 1875: Simmering discontent at Ottoman rule, particularly the practice of tax farming, leads to an uprising in Herzegovina which quickly spreads to Bosnia. This marks the start of the Great Eastern War. Disraeli, following a pro Ottoman foreign policy to counter Russian expansion, firmly supports the Ottoman government. Regardless of this support, the Ottomans are unable to suppress these uprisings.

August 1875: Five more key elements of Disraeli's social reform program are passed in quick succession. The Chimney Sweepers Act finally bans the use of boys to climb chimneys to clean them. The Friendly Societies Act encouraged friendly societies to register with the Registrar of Friendly Societies and gain the legal right to own property and take out legal proceedings. In return they are subjected to regular auditing to ensure sound management. The Employers and Workmen Act finally repeals the Masters and Servant Acts criminalising breach of contract by workers, placing employers and employees on the same legal footing. The Public Health Act introduces a comprehensive health code for water and sewage ensuring all new houses have running water and internal drainage to combat slums. The act leads to a major improvement in the quality of housing. Finally the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act goes further than Gladstone's Trade Union Act by specifically enshrining the right to peaceful picketing in law and giving them protection from strike breakers.

September 1875: Indian nationalists Sisir Ghosh and Sambhu Mukherjee found the the India League in Calcutta. The league aims to foster the growth of pan Indian nationalist sentiment and attracts a number of prominent members of the previously unrepresented middle class in Bombay,

October 1875: A severe drought in Anatolia followed by flooding over the previous two years has created a famine, leading to unrest within the heart of the Ottoman Empire, This has prevented the collection of regular taxes in the region. Consequently the Ottoman's have reached the point of bankruptcy, leading to them defaulting on loans taken out during the Crimean War. In an attempt to improve their finances, they significantly increase in the outlying provinces including the Balkans.

November 1875: The British purchase a 44% share in the Suez canal for £19.2 million {£17,710,820}. Despite the purchase being carried out in secret, it's popularity in Britain prevents widespread criticism of Disraeli.

Miss Construction · Apr 28, 2022

~1876: Damn foolish things in the Balkans

January 1876: Large numbers of British immigrants begin to arrive in Argentina and Chile to exploit the plains of Patagonia for sheep farming. The farming industry will grow, greatly increasing the prosperity of both nations and lead to further development of Patagonia in Argentina, further encouraging economic growth.

February 1876: Concerned by increasing nationalist sentiment in Indian controlled newspapers, Viceroy Lord Lytton introduces the Vernacular Press Act. The act effectively bans any indigenous paper from criticising the actions of the Indian government and allows for the imprisonment of journalists and seizure of printing machinery to enforce censorship.

March 1876: The Long Depression has resulted in a sharp rise in protectionism in Europe and the US. Lord Carnarvon, British Colonial Secretary, proposes a policy of developing and expanding the Empire to provide an alternative market for British goods. The proposal is similar to that proposed by Forster in 1874. The proposal finds considerable support in Disraeli's cabinet.

March 1876: The Great Council of Chiefs is established in Fiji to advise the Governor on indigenous affairs. It consists of all those indigenous Fijians of chiefly rank.

April 1876: Outraged by the increased Ottoman taxes and emboldened by their apparent weakness after failing to suppress the Bosnian and Herzegovinan uprisings leads to a further uprising in Bulgaria. The Ottoman response is immediate. The uprising is brutally suppressed within a matter of weeks. During the suppression, the Ottoman forces commit numerous atrocities against Bulgarian civilians, with between 12-15,000 civilians are massacred.

May 1876: With Queen Victoria desiring an imperial title the Royal Titles Act making her Empress of India, The act creates considerable controversy but greatly pleases the Queen. As a reward she offers to grant Disraeli a peerage. This is the third time she has made such an offer, however he yet again declines. However he does consent to being made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George.

May 1876: As another reform, the Medical Act allows women to be registered as doctors. The act is only signed into law by the Queen with great reluctance.

June 1876: The continuing unrest in the Ottoman Empire results in Sultan Abdulaziz being deposed by reformists known as the Young Ottomans in favour of his nephew Murad V. Taking advantage of the situation, Serbia and Montenegro proclaim their independence and declare war. The poorly trained and equipped Serbian and Montenegrin troops are unable to make and progress at the Ottoman regulars, but are able to resist Ottoman attacks despite heavy casualties.

June 1876: Radical Liberal MP George Dixon resigns from Parliament due to his wife's ill health. His protégé, Joseph Chamberlain is returned unopposed in his place,

June 1876: A severe drought on the Deccan plateau has led to a serious famine in southern India. Unlike the earlier Bihar famine, Viceroy Lord Lytton has adopted a strictly laissez-faire approach believing market forces will resolve the issue. He has not only greatly tightened the eligibility criteria for relief, he has reduced it too near starvation levels. Consequently, the death toll is rising rapidly. After a series of editorials in Sisir Ghosh's paper, Amrita Bazar Patrika, rioting breaks out in Calcutta. Despite there being no direct link between the editorials and the rioting, the Vernacular Press Act is used to shut down the paper and arrest Ghosh. Far from calming the situation, this will lead to further rioting and unrest, spread throughout much of the Bombay Presidency. The British will respond with a harsh crackdown, however this will only worsen the situation. Lord Lytton's response is to pass the Arms Act, essentially prohibiting Indians from possessing firearms.

June 1876: Dowager Empress Cixi appoints Weng Tonghe, responsible for the disastrous upbringing of the Tongzhi Emperor, as tutor for the Guangxu Emperor. Fearful of a similar outcome, the decision deeply concerns Li Hongzhang, Viceroy of Beijing. During negotiations over the Margary Affair, he mentions the matter to British ambassador Thomas Wade. Wade suggests the possibility of the Emperor being educated in Britain, exposing him to current western ideas, while a suitable classical Chinese education from a prominent sinologist such as James Legge could also be arranged. Li is intrigued by idea and requests Wade investigate the possibility while taking it up with Prince Gong, head of the Qing Grand Council. Prince Gong, still wishing to see his son as Emperor, supports the concept, seeing a greater potential to place his own son on the throne with the Emperor out of China. Wade meanwhile consults with the Foreign Office. Disraeli, sensing an unprecedented opportunity is highly enthusiastic. He instructs Wade to pursue the matter and be more “flexible” on the Margary affair if it can be arranged. Li and Prince Gong return to Wade, who is able to confirm a number highly respected European sinologists such as Legge, Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denis and Wilhelm Schott have offered their services to provide instruction in Classic Chinese matters. Despite it being a massive departure from tradition and protocol, Li and Prince Gong are able to convince the normally self-effacing senior co-regent, Dowager Empress Ci'an, to overrule Cixi. Finally in August the young Emperor departs for Britain accompanied by Wang Tao, editor and founder of the Hong Kong newspaper Tsun-wan yat-po, who is to assist in his tutoring. Wang Tao is highly respected by Li and other reformers, as well as being a close friend of William Legge, Europe's most respected sinologist, who will act as his primary tutor.

July 1876: The pan Indian nationalist Indian League founders due to its leaders Sisir Ghosh being perceived as too extremist. However two more moderate supporters, Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Bose, found the Indian National Association to replace it. The INA will strive to challenge the older British Indian Association for leadership of the Indian rights movement. The BIA, an all Indian groups founded in 1851, has long avoided direct involvement in politics, and predominantly represents the interests of the established Indian elites.

July 1876: Stories about the Ottoman atrocities in Bulgaria begin to appear in the British press. A particularly detailed account by American Consul General in Constantinople Eugene Schuyler is reported in the radical Daily News, leading to questions in the House and demands for an investigation. Faced with public outcry, Disraeli promises a full investigation into the situation.

August 1876: The Chinese region of Xinjiang has been beyond Qing control since the Dungan Revolt of 1862. In 1865, Yaqub Beg, an Uzbek chieftain, declared the primarily Muslim Turkic region independent as Yettishar with support from Russia and Britain. With the Dungan Revolt finally suppressed elsewhere, Chinese General Zuo Zongtang launches a campaign to reconquer Xinjiang. He has assembled an army of 50,000 men equipped with at least 10,000 breach loading rifles and modern Krupp artillery, trained by German and French advisers. His forces advances rapidly as Yaqub Beg's rule has proven unpopular with the local population. While Zuo shows mercy to those who have not joined the rebellion or those who surrender, a number of the Qing commanders under him are far harsher, and many massacres do occur.

August 1876: The British entrepreneur Henry Wickham smuggles the seeds from rubber trees out of Brazil to establish rubber plantations in India and Malaya. The Netherlands will also take advantage of this, establishing large plantations in the Dutch East Indies.

August 1876: Li Hongzhang and Thomas Wade sign the Chefoo Convention resolving the Margary Affair. In light of the decision to educate the Guangxu Emperor in Britain, the demands have been significantly reduced. The compensation demanded has been reduced from 700,000 taels of silver {£185,906} to 300,000 {£132,790}, the demand for an apology has been changed to an expression of deep regret, while the demand that no internal tariffs be imposed on treaty ports has been dropped entirely. However the Chinese are still required to open four new treaty ports and British citizens extraterritoriality is confirmed. As a result of the Convention a permanent Chinese diplomatic mission, initial headed by Guo Songtao, will be established. For some time, this mission will actually represent Chinese interests throughout Europe.

August 1876: The new Ottoman Sultan Murad V has proven to be totally unsuitable for the role. An alcoholic, the stress of the position leads to a mental breakdown, and increasingly erratic behaviour. Realising it is essential to have a mentally stable Sultan in order to bring about reform, the Young Ottomans depose Murad V in favour of Abdul Hamid II who agrees to implement a European style constitution. The constitution creates a parliament consisting of an elected Chamber of Deputies and a Senate appointed by the Sultan. This parliament is to include representation by members of all ethnic and religious groups within the Empire, while the constitution guarantees freedom of religion and speech.

September 1876: With reports of the Ottoman atrocities in Bulgaria continuing to appear, Public opinion moves against the Ottomans. A series of Lurid articles in the Daily News by American Januarius MacGahan, provoke outrage. Similar reactions are occurring throughout Europe, with Russia particularly incensed. Gladstone, though still officially retired from politics, launches a string attack on the Conservative government's pro Ottoman policy. However Gladstone takes pains to make clear his attack is on the Ottomans rather than the Muslim faith. Disraeli attempts to minimise the situation, claiming the Bulgarians also committed atrocities. However the official report by British diplomat Walter Baring, confirms the reports and dismisses any claims of Bulgarian massacres of Turks.

October 1876: With the death toll now into the millions, stories of the scale of the famine in India and resulting unrest begin to appear in the British press. These stories include prominently the fact that the Viceroy is orchestrating the export of hundreds of thousands of tons of foodstuffs from India the face of this tragedy. The Liberals are quick to seize upon this as another path to attack Disraeli's government. Despite the unrest, the famine provokes widespread sympathy with charitable donations pouring in. Queen Victoria herself donates an unprecedented £10,000 {£9,210}, in line with her recent elevation to Empress of India. The size of the Queen's donation is widely and favourably reported in the Indian press, though comparisons with her £1,000 {£917} donation to the 1873 Bihar famine are scrupulously avoided.

November 1876: Competition from cheep US grain and foodstuffs from other nations, along the general economic down turn due to the Long Depression has led to severe hardship in the British agricultural sector. With most other nations adopting protectionism in response to the Long Depression, there are growing calls to abandon free trade and introduce tariffs to protect British agriculture. Colonial Secretary Lord Carnarvon suggests restricting free trade to goods originating with the British Empire and Dominions. As a result the Tariffs Act is passed by a majority of two votes. Despite the agricultural depression, the tariffs on agricultural products remains low, with significantly higher tariffs on manufactured goods. Uncharacteristically, many radical Liberals including Joseph Chamberlain previously fierce supporters of free trade, vote in favour of the act due to its lower tariffs on Imperial goods, further increasing tensions between the free trade Whigs and radicals in the Liberal Party.

December 1876: In an attempt to find a political solution to the ongoing Great Eastern War, the Great Powers of Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Russia call a conference in Constantinople. The Great Powers propose a solution whereby Bosnia, Bulgaria and Herzegovina are granted some autonomy within the Empire. The conference lasts well into January 1877, but ultimately, the Ottomans reject all proposals, allowing the war to continue. Throughout the conference, British Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Elliot takes a pro Ottoman line, stating the massacres in Bulgaria should no impact on British interests. The resulting criticism at home, forces his replacement with the outspoken former Liberal politician Austen Layard.

Miss Construction · Apr 28, 2022

~1877: Sacrificing morality for expediency

January 1877: During the Constantinople Conference, Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary and Tsar Alexander II of Russia held secret talks regarding the fate of declining Ottoman Empire, reaching a tentative agreement to divide the Balkans between themselves. Further secret talks are held in Budapest to formalise the agreement. In the resulting Budapest Convention, Austria-Hungary agrees to a benevolent neutrality in the event of a war between the Russians and Ottomans, and that Austria-Hungary would be allowed to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina “at a time of its choosing,” but not Sandžak. The two Emperors also agree that in the event of a total collapse of the Ottoman Empire, they will work together to prevent the rise of a powerful Slavic state which they believe would “threaten the balance of power,” instead creating a number of small nations which would fall into the sphere of one or the other of them. Both agree that in this event, Constantinople should be a “Free City” and Greece should receive Crete, Thessaly and parts of Epirus.

January 1877: Former samurai in the Satsuma Domain of Japan, disaffected by the modernisations of the Meiji Restoration, stage a rebellion seeking to reverse the reforms. The uprising is headed by Saigō Takamori, a former prominent supporter of the Restoration. The rebellion will eventually be suppressed in September, securing the Meiji Restoration, but the cost will nearly bankrupt the Japanese government. Consequently, the government will be forced forced to sell off any state assets at bargain prices, leading to the creation of powerful and influential industrial concerns known as zaibatsu.

February 1877: Former Viceroys of India Thomas Baring, Lord Northbrook and John Lawrence, Lord Lawrence speak out against the handling of the ongoing famine in India. With public pressure mounting over both this and the Great Eastern War, Disraeli forms a commission under Lord Lawrence to investigate the situation in India.

March 1877: With the test match format continuing to grow in popularity, a test is held in Auckland between a touring Canadian team and a representative New Zealand team. This will first test not to include and English side. The Canadians will go on to play another in Sydney in three weeks time. This tour solidly cements the test match as the top level of international cricket.

March 1877: The draconian nature of the Vernacular Press Act has incited widespread criticism amongst Indian reformists, even extending into the Anglo-Indian community. James Metcalfe, illegitimate Anglo-Indian son of Baron Charles Metcalfe, responds by founding the Bengal Herald in an effort to circumvent the act. While the paper is entirely owned by British and Anglo-Indian interests and its senior staff are all liberal Anglo-Indians, the majority of its journalists are Indians. The paper will continually maintain an editorial policy highly critical of Lord Lytton's administration, but is able to narrowly avoid direct censorship. The paper will come to be the mouthpiece of the Indian nationalist British Indian Association, leading to considerable numbers of Anglo-Indians joining the previously entirely Indian group.

May 1877: Yettishar leader Yaqub Beg dies in mysterious circumstance. The Russians and his supporters claim he was poisoned, while the Qing maintain he committed suicide. Regardless of the cause, his death fragments and demoralises his supporters, greatly reducing the Qing are facing in their reconquest of Xinjiang.

May 1877: The ongoing unrest in India, is creating a split in the newly formed Indian National Association between those calling for restraint and non-violence and those advocating a more direct approach. This conflict will lead to founder Surendranath Banerjee quitting the INA and throwing in with the British Indian Association. Many activists will follow him, for the first time bringing middle class representation to the BIA and weakening the INA.

April 1877: With the failure of the Constantinople Conference, Russia enters the Great Eastern War after gaining permission from Romania for it's troops to cross their territory. With the Russian entry into the war, the Romanians declare independence and join with the Russians in their attack on on the Ottomans. In response to the Russian entry into the war, the Ottomans appeal to Britain for assistance. But with Public opinion so firmly set against them, Disraeli has no option but to refuse.

April 1877: With criticism of his administration now having spread to the Anglo-Indian community, Viceroy Lord Lytton is forced to increase the level of famine relief being provided in southern India. Most critically, the rations provided are increased, though still at a level well below relief provided in the Bihar Famine.

July 1877: In the face of the Russian invasion, the Ottoman command badly misjudges the Russian strategy and are forced to fall back, withdrawing to the fortress town of Plevna when the Russians cross the Danube. However the Russians have committed too few troops to the invasion. The initial Russian attempt to seize the town is repulsed with heavy casualties, forcing the Russians to besiege the position while they await reinforcements.

July 1877: As party of his ongoing program of Imperial development, Colonial Secretary Lord Carnarvon's Colonial Capital Act is passed. The act provides for loans to invest in infrastructure and industry in the Dominions, along with incentives for private investment. While take up in Britain itself is slow at first, residents of the Dominions are quick to take advantage of the act. However within a few years, those in Britain itself are also making good use of it. The effect is to gradually diversify the economies Dominions away from their traditional agricultural and resource extraction base toward manufacturing and industry. Combined with the lower tariffs on Imperial goods, a thriving internal Imperial market will develop over the long term.

August 1877: The Lawrence report into the situation in India is scathing in regards to Lord Lytton's administration. The report is limited by its terms of reference, only addressing the ongoing famine and unrest, but it finds Lytton has utterly ignored Indian sensibilities, grossly mismanaged the southern Indian famine, and brought India to a point of nearing an uprising. It recommends Lytton be replaced and a full inquiry into the administration of India be made. As a result of the report, Lord Lytton is recalled and replaced by Richard Temple, with instructions to “provide adequate relief for the on going famine and restore order.” Temple immediately increases relief efforts, expending eligibility and increasing support. Despite this late intervention, it is estimated between four and six millions Indians die as a result of the famine. Temple also immediately repeals the Vernacular Press and Arms Acts in an effort to quiet unrest. The government also forms a Royal Commission under Lord Northbrook to investigate how the administration of India may be improved.

November 1877: Since a large diamond field on the boarder of Natal Colony and the Boer republic of Transvaal in 1867, British Colonial Secretary Lord Carnarvon has been trying with little success to negotiate a union between the Cape Colony, Natal and the Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State. However the Transvaal is now nearly bankrupt, engaged in an unsuccessful war against the Biedi and threatened by Zulus. The British use this as a pretext to annex Transvaal. Despite strong opposition to the annexation, Boer leaders call for calm and urge no violent actions be taken. With the annexation, British troops rapidly defeat the Bipedi, incorporating them into Transvaal, creating an uneasy peace with the Boers which will last several years.

December 1877: The Ottoman defenders of Plevna are equipped with a mix of conventional single shot breach loading riles and magazine fed Winchester repeaters. The rapid mass fire of these repeating rifles has allowed the defenders to hold out for 145 days, beating off three assaults, inflicting heavy casualties on the Russians. However with their supplies becoming critical, the defenders attempt to abandon the town and break out. However they are now now massively outnumbered and the result is their inevitable surrender. The siege has a profound affect on the world's militaries, with the Ottomans having clearly demonstrated the value of magazine fed repeating riles. Virtually every army in the world beings the search for an effective magazine fed repeating rifle. The major exception is the United States, which retains their single shot breach loading conversion of the Civil War era Springfield rifled musket.

December 1877: With the collapse of opposition after Yaqub Beg's death, general Zuo Zongtang completes the reconquest of Xinjiang, returning all areas lost during the Dungan Revolt to Qing control. However in 1871, the Russians had sent troops into the Ila Valley on the border in northern Xinjiang. This move was supposedly just to protect Russian citizens, but they have built up considerable infrastructure and refuse to withdraw. Zuo, commanding an experienced and well equipped army well in excess of the Russians number pushes strongly for an attack to force the Russians out. However the Qing government opts for diplomacy and dispatches negotiators to Russia in an attempt to resolve the situation. Despite this remaining issue, the highly effective performance of Zuo's army during the campaign has deeply impressed British observers. This will lead to a change in British foreign policy as they move to supporting the Chinese in an effort to halt Russian expansion in Asia.

December 1877: The Australian East-West Telegraph Line between Adelaide and Perth is completed. Stretching 3.600km the line line will complete the connection of all major centres in Australia. With this, the Australian governments will cooperate to use the Colonial Capital Act to construct an undersea cable linking Perth with Bombay via the Cocos-Keeling Islands.

Miss Construction · Apr 30, 2022

~1878: How to block a Great Power

January 1878: With the fall of Plevna, the Russians have been able to continue their advancing in the Balkans, eventually defeating the Ottomans in Bulgaria. With the outcome of the war now beyond doubt, Disraeli pressures the Russians into accepting a Ottoman offer of a cease fire.

February 1878: Citing civil unrest, Sultan Abdul Hamid II dismisses the Ottoman parliament and refuses to call new elections, effectively suspending the constitution of 1876 and beginning an increasingly conservative personal rule. In order to cement his control Abdul Hamid exiles the leaders of the Young Ottoman Movement, effectively preventing any organised resistance.

February 1878: The Ottoman defeat has left the way way open for an advance on Constantinople. Despite the cease fire, the Russians continue their advance toward the city. Fearing the possibility of the Russians gaining control of the Turkish Straits, Disraeli dispatches a Royal Navy squadron to the Black Sea in an effort to dissuade them. The plan is successful and the Russians halt their advance short of the city. However the radicals in the Liberal Party capitalise on public hostility toward the Ottomans to fiercely criticise Disraeli's actions.

February 1878: With the ongoing Long Depression, there have been widespread calls in the US to resume the minting of silver dollars and adopt bimetalism once more, despite the inflationary effects which this would bring. In response to this pressure Congress passes the Bland-Allison Act requiring the US Treasury to resume minting silver dollars. While the act is vetoed by President Rutherford Hayes, Congress votes to override the veto and bring the act into law. While Hayes does attempt to limit the effect of the act by restricting the purchase of silver to the minimum legally required and all but preventing the minting of silver coins of less than a dollar, the act does increase the money supply in the US, easing the economic depression, albeit at the cost of increased inflation.

February 1878: Since his appointment as Colonial Secretary, Lord Carnarvon has been trying to impose British control over Southern Africa. His indention is to united the British Colonies, Boer Republics and Indigenous African states in a single large confederation, the annexation of Transvaal the previous year being one part of this plan. In another, he has appointed Henry Frere as High Commissioner for Southern Africa and Governor of Cape Colony to implement his plan. However the government of Cape Colony has fiercely opposed Lord Carnarvon's plan from its inception, fearing, probably correctly, any union with the illiberal and racist Boers would destroy their non-racially based electoral system and that the entire project is likely to result in war with the Boers. The Cape governments opposition has been continually frustrating Frere's attempts to annex the local African states. In order to overcome this obstacle, Frere appeals for and is granted permission to suspend responsible government in the Cape and assume direct control of the colony. Frere acts immediately to remove the elected government of John Molteno and replace it with an appointed government under his local ally, Gordon Sprigg. Sprigg immediately begins attempting to undermine indigenous rights in the colony and expanding its borders by conquering the African states.

March 1878: With the war now over, the Russians impose the Treaty of San Stefano. This treaty creates an independent Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia and Romania. Bulgaria is rewarded with huge territorial gains, including access to the Aegean Sea. Montenegro and Serbia also gain significant additional territory. Romania is required to cede Southern Bessarabia to Russia in return for Northern Dobruja from the Ottomans. The Ottomans are also required to make considerable concessions to the Russians in the Caucasus. While most of the victors are satisfied with the treaty, the Romanians are deeply disappointed, feeling betrayed by the Russians.

March 1878: Disraeli's program of social reform has faltered for a number of years as he has focused on the Great Eastern War. However after years of agitation, the laws regarding factory workers are consolidated into the Factories and Workshops Act, replacing all previous legislation regulating factories. Unlike previous acts which only covered certain industries and certain groups of workers, this act covers all industries and all workers in the entire United Kingdom. There is considerable opposition to the act, especially over its inclusion of men and the limits on working hours imposed. However it narrowly passes with support from the Liberals and Irish Home Rule League, The act limits working hours to 60 per week with no more than 10 per day. It also guarantees workers certain public holidays, amounting to two full days and eight half days. Finally it prohibits the employment of children under 13. Despite the opposition, it proves highly effective, increasing both productivity and efficiency, greatly improving Britain's overall economic situation in the Long Depression.

April 1878: British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Austen Layard, witnesses the plight of thousands of impoverished Balkans Jews who have fled pogroms committed by the victorious Russians and their Balkan allies in the wake of the Turkish defeat. He writes a number of articles highlighting their desperate situation. The articles create significant sympathy. This will lead to the foundation of the Interfaith Jewish Relief Society to provide aid. The charity is supported by a number of prominent members of the Anglican, Catholic and Jewish faiths. The Conservative peer Lord Shaftesbury, noted social reformer and long time supporter of Zionism, agrees to act as patron.

May 1878: In what will come to be considered the last witchcraft trial in the US, Christian Scientist Lucretia Brown sues fellow Christian Scientist Daniel Spofford for attempting to harm her via “mesmeric mental powers.” The case, held in Salem Massachusetts, is dismissed by the judge, as are Brown's later attempts to appeal.

May 1878: British Colonial Secretary Lord Carnarvon resigns over disagreement with Disraeli regarding his policies in the Great Eastern War. He is replaced by Lord Derby, who's position as Foreign Secretary has become untenable after it being revealed he has passed Cabinet secrets to the Russians in an attempt to avoid war. He is replaced as Foreign Secretary by Lord Salisbury.

June 1878: The Great Powers are greatly concerned by terms of the Treaty of San Stefano. Consequently German Chancellor, Otto von Bismark calls a Congress of the Great Powers in Berlin to review the situation. The participants are the six Great Powers and the Ottomans. The Balkans states, including Greece, are allowed to attend sessions effecting them. The British delegation attempts to moderate the Congress in regard to the Ottomans, Having signed a secret agreement giving them control of Cyprus in return for this support. Unfortunately their freedom of action was limited by fear of creating further domestic opposition after Disraeli's dispatch of the squadron the the Black Sea, In the subsequent Treaty of Berlin, Serbia and Montenegro are forced to relinquish control of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Sandžak to the Austro-Hungarian occupation. The Ottomans are allowed to retain Thrace, Macedonia, and Albania. However, due to the considerable domestic opposition to the government's support for the Ottomans, the British are unable to prevent Serbia from retaining Kosovo or Bulgaria Eastern Rumelia. Despite their limited success, the British insist on Ottomans honouring their secret agreement, and take control of Cyprus. During the negotiations, the Greeks press their claims in Thessaly and Crete. However, they are only supported by France and the Treaty merely contains a vague clause calling for the Ottomans and Greeks to settle issues over Thessaly via negotiation.

July 1878: With the Treaty of Berlin settling affairs in the Balkans, the Russians turn their attention to The Great Game and rivalries with the British over influence in central Asia. In an effort to exert greater influence in the vital border nation, the Russians dispatch an uninvited diplomatic mission to Afghanistan. Despite repeated appeals over the years by Emir Sher Ali Khan, successive British governments have refuse to guarantee support for Afghanistan against Russia. The last such refusal being against the recommendation of the then Viceroy of India, Lord Northbrook. Consequently, despite his efforts, the Emir is unable to prevent the Russian missions arrival.

July 1878: With it felt inappropriate and uneconomic to have indigenous Fijians working in Fiji's sugar plantations, a policy of importing indentured Indian labours is instituted. The first will arrive next year and over the next four decades, tens of thousands will be transported, with many remaining in Fiji.

August 1878: The Public Health (Ireland) Act extends the terms of the 1875 Act to Ireland. However this act goes further after Randolph Churchill, Joseph Chamberlain and William Shaw of the Irish Home Rule League force through an amendment allowing councils to require the demolition and replacement of older homes which fail to meet the new requirements. This amendment has been forced through against government opposition as the three men combined were able to gather enough support to force it through. This marks the start of cooperation between the three men.

September 1878: In an effort to reduce the continuing unrest in India left the wake of Lord Lytton's administration, Viceroy Richard Temple reduces many of the more stringent taxes imposed by the Raj. However the despised Salt Tax is not included. Nevertheless, the measure, along with Temple's massive increase in famine relief and repeal of some of Lord Lytton's more hated laws, does improve the situation and relative calm returns to much of India.

November 1878: In response to the arrival of the Russian mission in Kabul, the British have demanded the Emir accept a permanent British mission under General Neville Chamberlain. Emir Sher Ali Khan not only refuses, he orders the mission turned back in the Khyber Pass. This convinces the British the Emir has fallen under Russian influence. Therefore an invasion is launched, starting the Second Anglo-Afghan War.

December 1878: Despite his supposed retirement after his defeat in 1874, Gladstone has remained extremely active in politics, In a surprise move he announces his official return by joining the Progressive Party, The effect is to immediately split the Liberal Party with another 57 Liberals defecting to the Progressives, This leaves 127 Liberal MPs as against 115 in the Gladstone's Progressive Party. George Goschen steps aside as leader in the Commons. Gladstone embarks on a US style electioneering campaign, with speaking events throughout the country. These speeches attack Disraeli's record, focussing on his foreign policy, but also covering the abandonment of free trade and the general poor economic condition due to the Long Depression. The campaign starts in the Edinburghshire or Midlothian constituency, where Gladstone intends to stand in addition to his Leeds seat. Thus his campaign is referred to as the Midlothian Campaign.

Miss Construction · May 3, 2022

~1879: Playing the Great Game

January 1879: The Species Redemption Act comes into effect in the US. The act is an attempt to reduce inflation by move the US closer toward the Gold Standard by fixing the value of the paper US dollar, or Greenback, to the value of gold. However the act, as with all previous US attempts to move to the gold standard, will be hobbled by political pressure from the Free Silver Movement forcing the over issuance of silver certificates and dollars. The ongoing US adherence to bimetalism will continue to create inflationary pressure, further hampering the US recovery from the Long Depression.

January 1879: Despite the Disraeli government wishing to avoid war with the Zulus, Cape Colony Governor Henry Frere take advantage of a boundary dispute to launch an invasion of Zululand without the British government's authorisation. The initial invasion will prove disastrous, with substantial British force wiped out at the Battle of Isandlwana. In the face of such a humiliating defeat, the government are left with no choice but to continue the war.

February 1879: Isaac Butt's influence in the Irish Home Rule League has been waning for a number of years. Realising his position has become untenable, he resigns and dies two months later. Despite a spirited challenge by Charles Parnell, William Shaw is elected to replace him.

February 1879: In 1866, motivated partly by strong support for protectionism and partly by anger over Britain's perceived support for the Confederates in the Civil War, the US unilaterally abrogated the Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 which instituted a system of free trade between the two. Successive Canadian attempts to reinstate the treaty having failed, the recently re-elected Conservative government of John MacDonald bring in the National Policy to protect Canadian manufacturers, encourage growth and settle the sparely populated western regions of Canada. Much focus is given to the tariffs imposed on imports, especially on US goods. But the policy also includes massive investment in industry, infrastructure and railways, often financed by the Colonial Capital Act. The policy also includes stricter enforcement of US access to Canadian fisheries. This, along with the high tariffs imposed on US goods will cause considerable resentment in the US, particularly in New England, Washington Territory and Oregon. US Secretary of State raises the matter with the British Foreign Office. However Foreign Secretary Lord Salisbury refuses to interfere in what he regards as domestic Canadian affairs, pointing out the Canadians are still abiding by the terms of all relevant treaties and agreements.

March 1879: After an extremely lengthy inquiry, the Northbrook Commission on India finally reports its findings to Parliament. The report is quite radical in its recommendations and provokes a storm of controversy and criticism. Its most controversial recommendation is that Indians should form at least two thirds of the members of all provincial legislative councils, with at least half of these being directly elected. It also recommends at least one third of the members of the Council of India be Indians. Other contentious recommendations include requiring the British Parliament to approve any legislation by the central Indian Legislative Council, that local legislative councils should be allowed to vote on budgetary matters, that restrictions on Indian participation in the Imperial Civil Service and Imperial Indian Police be removed, a reduction of the Salt Tax, allowing Indians to attend the Royal Military Academies at Sandhurst and Woolwich so as they can serve in the Indian Army as officers, that examinations for entry into the Imperial Civil Service be held in India as well as Britain, and the adoption of a policy of encouraging reform and democracy within the Indian Princely States. Less controversial are things such as setting up a permanent commission to deal with famine relief, with ongoing funding to build up a cash reserve to deal with famines when they arise, encouraging participation of the growing Indian middle class in the administration of the Raj, and reducing press censorship. The report finds support in the Liberal Party and Irish Home Rule League, but is widely dismissed by the Conservatives and Progressives. Despite this, the report will be exceptionally well received by Indians, being essential adopted by both the British Indian Association and Indian National Association as their platform for reform.

March 1879: Disputes over the Atacama desert between Bolivia, Chile and Peru explode into war when Bolivia and Peru ally to gain control of this resource rich region, beginning the War of the Pacific. Both sides recognise the importance of control of the sea to allow supply in the desolate Atacama Desert and the early stages of the war will be primarily naval in nature.

March 1879: In a move to protect the elephant population in India. Viceroy Temple brings the Elephant Preservation Act in India. The act bans the killing of wild elephants without a licence, imposing steep fines and imprisonment for such acts, While this does not halt the decline, it does slow it.

April 1879: After considerable pressure for action on the Northbrook Report by reformist Conservative backbenchers led by Randolph Churchill, Lal Behari Day is appointed to the Council of India as a second Indian member. However Disraeli is forced by the more conservative members of his part to commission a new inquiry headed by Lord Buckingham.

20th April 1879: After years of lobbying by the Imperial Federation League, Disraeli announces an Imperial Conference of Britain and the Dominions will be held in 1880. The conference is to mark the 40th anniversary of the passing of the British North America Act which established the Province of Canada and set the path to responsible government. The conference will be held in Montreal to recognise the proclamation of the Province of Canada.

May 1879: After several early British victories have left the way to Kabul open, Emir Sher Ali travels to St Petersburg to ask Tsar Alexander II for aid in defending his country. The Russians refuse to offer assistance, instead insisting he seek terms of surrender from the British. However Sher Ali will die on the way back to Kabul, leaving the throne to his son Mohammad Yaqub Khan. With the British occupying over half of Afghanistan, the new Emir attempts to negotiate a settlement to prevent a complete British conquest. Under the terms of the resulting Treaty of Gandamak, the Emir turns over control of Afghanistan's foreign affairs to the British and the presence of a permanent Resident in Kabul. In return the British promise an annual subsidy and give assurances of support in the event of a foreign threat. The Treaty effectively reduces Afghanistan to a British protectorate, with General Samuel Browne installed as the first resident. His tactful handling of Afghan sensibilities in the wake of the humiliating terms of the treaty, does much to restore order to the country and allows the bulk of British troops to be withdrawn.

June 1879: After the fall of the Second French Empire, the Imperial family went into exile in Britain. Emperor Napoleon III's only child, Louis Napoleon has achieved the rank of lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. Despite petitions from his mother, the Empress Eugénie and Queen Victoria herself, the government refuses to allow him to Join Lord Chelmsford's expedition into Zululand. Instead he is dispatched as a military observer, joining the Chilean forces in the War of the Pacific.

July 1879: The Chinese navy currently consists of a few composite gunboats built at either Jiangnan or Fuzhou shipyards, supplemented by armed junks. In an effort to strengthen their navy the Qing, two protected cruisers are order from British yards.

July 1879: A second, larger and better prepared, invasion of Zululand crushes the Zulu army at the Battle of Ulandi. With this victory, the British burn the Zulus Royal Kraal and divide the kingdom into a number of smaller chieftainships.

August 1879: A report into the state of the Royal Navy by Lord Carnarvon find its strength is insufficient to carry out its duties in regard to the defence of the Empire and protection of seaborne trade, vital to the Empires economy. The report also finds serious deficiencies in equipment, training and inflexibility in leadership. Cabinet regard the report as highly politically undesirable and it is suppressed, with no publication. However despite the damning report, no action is taken.

September 1879: In a move more widely supported in the Conservative Party, the Famine Relief (India) Act is passed with support from all Parties in both Houses. Closely modelled on John Bright's 1874 Famine Relief Bill, the act establishes a permanent Indian Famine Relief Commission to deal with future events. The Commission is to be jointly funded by Indian taxation, charitable donations and a large annual contribution from the British government, with the aim of creating a reserve of funds to deal with any crisis before it happens. However in one respect the act differs radically from Bright's proposal. The Commission will be directly under the control of the Council of India in London, not the Viceroy. The Commission will be solely answerable to the Secretary of State for India and the British government.

October 1879: In an effort to resolve the ongoing stand off between the Russians and Chinese in the Ila Valley in Xinjiang, the Zongli Yamen or Qing foreign ministry dispatch a team of negotiators headed by Wanjan Chonghou in an effort to find a diplomatic solution. The Chinese are in an extremely strong position. The Russian treasury has been heavily depleted by the Great Eastern War and their forces in the region as vastly outnumbered by Zuo Zongtang's experienced and well equipped army. Despite all these advantages the resulting Treaty of Livadia is exceptionally one sided toward the Russians. Under its terms Russia will retain much of the Ila Valley, the Qing will pay a five million rouble {£512,613} indemnity and Russia will be given unprecedented access to the trade in the interior of China, along with a large number of other favourable commercial concessions. There is an uproar in China when these terms become known and Choughou is condemned as incompetent and sentenced to death. In the meantime, another diplomatic mission under Zeng Jize is dispatched in an effort to renegotiate the terms. In line with their new policy of supporting the Qing, the British offer to send senior diplomat, Lord Dufferin to assist in the renegotiation.

October 1879: The Chilean navy destroys the Peruvian fleet in the Battle of Angamos. The overwhelming Chilean victory ensures naval superiority, allowing them to supply their army in the Atacama, giving them a decisive advantage in the War of the Pacific.

November 1879: Chilean forces under General Erasmo Escala launch an opposed amphibious assault on the Peruvian port of Pisagua. The attack is successful, giving Chile a vital port to support its operations and launch a land campaign in the arid interior. Though widely ignored by European powers, the assault will be the beginning of a new era in amphibious warfare.

November 1879: Afghan Pashtun tribesmen led by Mohammad Jan Khan denounce Emir Yaqub Khan as British puppet and declare Musa Jan Khan Emir in his place. A large number of Afghan soldiers defect to the rebels and being a march on Kabul. General Browne, warned of the advancing Afghan forces by a Rissalder-Major of the Corps of Guides, organises a defence with the single squadron of Guides and few loyal Afghan regiments at his disposal, disarming the remaining Afghan troops in the city. Meanwhile a relief force under General Frederick Roberts is organised in India.

Miss Construction · May 9, 2022

~1880: Strange bedfellows

January 1880: General Samuel Browne, with only around 250 Indian troops, 80 European civilians hastily drafted into service and some 2,000 loyal Afghans has been successfully holding off an Afghan army which now numbers around 20,000. With news of the approach of General Frederick Roberts Kabul Field Force, Mohammad Jan Khan takes approximately 12,000 men in an attempt to prevent the relief of the city. In the Battle of Jalalabad, Roberts will scatter Jan's force, clearing the was relieve Browne. However Kabul is far from secure and Roberts will establish an encampment at Sherpur, pending the arrival of reinforcements under General Charles Gough. Jan regroups and attempts and attempts to storm the encampment before Gough's arrival. After a ferocious battle Jan's forces are repulsed with heavy losses, securing Kabul. With the immediate situation secure, the British move to pacify the country,

January 1880: Since the the Guangxu Emperor beginning his education in Britain, a trend amongst reform minded middle and upper class Chinese has emerged toward having their children educated in Britain. This has led to the emergence of Zhǔnbèi xuéxiào, or readying schools in China. These are intended to prepare children for education in Britain. Along side them are the Yīngyǔ xuéxiào or English schools, which attempt to replicate an English Public School type education in China.

February 1880: The sailing ship Strathleven arrives in London from Sydney. Included in her cargo is 40 tons of frozen beef and mutton. While the spoilage rate of the meat is somewhat high, the voyage proves the viability of refrigerated shipping over long distances.

March 1880: Since 1877 British officer Charles Gordon has been employed by the Khedive of Egypt as Governor General of Sudan. Since his appointment he has been struggling to reform the region and put an end to slavery, the basis of the Sudanese economy. His every effort has been thwarted by local officials. Finally he resigns in frustration leaving the administration of Sudan to the Egyptian Muhammed Rauf Pasha.

April 1880: With the Liberals split between the radicals and Whigs, Disraeli calls an election. While Gladstone's Midlothian Campaign, combined with the economic downturn due to the Long Depression, has been very successful in undermining the Conservatives support, the split Liberal vote mutes its effect, The result is a hung parliament, with the Conservatives having 252 seats, the Liberals 189, Gladstone's Progressives 148 and the Irish Home Rule League 63. Disraeli considers calling a new election immediately will only yield a similar result, leading to several weeks of frantic negotiations in an attempt to form some kind of stable government. Eventual a deal is worked out. Gladstone agrees to enter a coalition with his former rival in exchange for four cabinet posts, including Chancellor of the Exchequer for himself, along with a return to free trade and a commitment to further social reform. After his ferocious attacks on Disraeli during the Midlothian Campaign, the Liberals are not slow to criticise Gladstone's about face, with Chamberlain being particularly biting with his comments.

April 1880: The Japanese introduce the Murata rifle, their first indigenously produced and designed rifle as the Type 13 rifle. An 11mm single shot bolt action rifle designed by Murata Tsuneyoshi, the weapon is the equal of those in use by European powers.

April 1880: As a result of the University Education Act (Ireland) Act passed as part of Disraeli's policies of reform, the former Catholic University of Ireland is refounded as University College in Dublin. Not only is it open to anyone regardless of religion, it is also the first university in Ireland open to women.

May 1880: The new Buckingham Report into the administration of India commissioned in the wake of the radical and highly contentious Northbrook Report is released. As expected. It is far less extreme in it's recommendations and consequently incites less controversy. While like the Northbrook report does recommend increased Indian representation at the Presidency and Provincial level, the level it suggests fall far short of Lord Northbrook's suggestion and there is no mention of elected representatives. Lord Buckingham does agree that press censorship should be relaxed, but emphasises the risk of 'radicals' taking advantage to incite unrest. The report is highly critical of Lord Lytton's administration, suggesting greater Imperial government supervision, specifically that any legislation enacted by the central Indian Legislative Council should be reviewed by the Council of India and the Secretary of State for India before coming into effect. The reports most radical recommendation is that as far possible, most of the administration of India should be handled at the provincial level, with the central Indian controlling only things such as defence, railways and communications, economic development, maintenance of public order and the like. The Buckingham Report is Better received by the Conservative members of the coalition government than the earlier Northbrook Report and Disraeli begins work on drafting a new Government of India Bill to implement its recommendations.

June 1880: As part of Disraeli's agreement with Gladstone, a new Tariff Act is passed. The act returns to free trade regarding agricultural goods, but while reduced tariffs are retained on other good, as are the Imperial preference provisions. While disappointed at the partial nature of the act, Gladstone accepts it, regarding as simply the first step in a full return to free trade.

June 1880: The Chileans destroy the remnants of the regular Bolivian and Peruvian armies at the Battle of Arica, all but assuring victory in the War of the Pacific. While the Bolivian will essentially withdraw from the war at this point, the Peruvians however continue fighting.

July 1880: After their victories at Jalalabad and Kabul the British have been expanding their control over Afghanistan and order has been restored to much of the country, with it expected it will be finally pacified within a few months. The problem however has arisen as to Afghanistan's fate when war is finally over. The Progressives in the new coalition government are heavily pushing for Imperial forces to be withdrawn as soon as possible. Emir Mohammad Yaqub Khan is no longer regarded as a reliable or effective ruler. Considerable consideration is given to either partitioning the nation a number of smaller states or effectively bringing it under British colonial administration. Gladstone's Progressives utterly reject the later option and the former is eventually abandoned in favour of installing Mohammad Yaqub's younger brother Mohammad Ayub Khan as the new Emir. However the Treaty of Gandamak is replaced by the new Treaty of Kabul. Under its terms the Afghan Army is severely restricted in size, a new British resident will be installed to supervise the Emir's administration and an Imperial garrison will remain until such time as “full order has been restored.”

July 1880: The Imperial Conference is held in Montreal. The conference is attended by the Australian, Canadian, South African, and New Zealand colonies and Dominions along with the British. While the conference achieves little, it is hailed as a great success. The only practical outcomes are the Australian Dominions and New Zealand agree to pay £126,000 {£126,085} annually toward the Royal Navy in return for the British agreeing not to reduce the Pacific Squadron without their consent, along with that Queen Victoria's title should change to “Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, Ireland, the Colonies and dependencies, and Empress of India.” There is much discussion about if another Imperial Conference should be held. Eventually it is decided another should be held in 1882 in Cape Town.

August 1880: After the debacles of the Zulu and First Boer War, Cape Colony Governor Henry Frere of Cape colony is recalled at Gladstone's demand to face investigation. The investigation will result in Frere's censure and the repudiation of Lord Carnarvon's policies of a confederation in southern Africa. His replacement, Hercules Robinson, will restore responsible government to the Cape Colony an attempt to re-establish peaceful relations with Transvaal.

August 1880: A new Elementary Education Act makes education compulsory until the age of 13 in England and Wales. The act retains the structure of the 1870 act, including school fees, but requires local councils to implement a by-law making attendance compulsory. However the controversial provision of the Blunt Amendment preventing school boards paying the fees of children attending church schools is defeated.

September 1880: During the Great Eastern War, Disraeli's decision to concentrate the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean significantly reduced the naval presence in Canadian waters. In order to ensure adequate enforcement of their territorial waters, particularly given the governments new focus on US intrusions into Canadian fisheries, MacDonald's government orders the formation of the Canadian Maritime Patrol Service under Department of Fisheries and Oceans. British offer two Amazon class sloops and four Beacon class gunboats to provide a foundation for the new service and dispatch a naval mission to train personnel.

October 1880: Julio Roca becomes president of Argentina. This begins the domination of Argentina by the National Autonomy Party which will last for decades. President Roca embarks a program of development of Argentina's agricultural and mining industries which will greatly increase the countries prosperity.

December 1880: Since the British victory in the Anglo-Zulu war ended the Zulu threat to Transvaal, the local Boers have become increasingly resentful of the British annexation. A minor incident between a Boer and British police sparks an uprising starting the First Boer War. The British garrison has been reduced to just two infantry battalions spread throughout the country which are quickly besieged.

Miss Construction · May 28, 2022

~1881: Little wars

January 1881: Chilean troops occupy the Peruvian capital of Lima, demonstrating their military domination of the war, Despite this defeat, the Peruvians will keep up a guerilla war against Chilean occupation.

January 1881: Chief Secretary for Ireland, James Lowther, introduces a Coercion Bill suspending habeas corpus in Ireland. Chamberlain, Shaw and Churchill attempt to rally sufficient support to defeat it, but it is enacted as the Protection of Persons and Property (Ireland) Act. The act will greatly increase land reform agitation in Ireland.

January 1881: In order to implement the Buckingham Report, Disraeli introduces the Government of India Bill. In accord with Lord Buckingham's recommendations, the bill aims to devolve much of the routine administration of India to the provinces, with increased Indian participation at that level, while retaining the core functions under the Viceroy and British. Under the bill, defence, the maintenance of public order, industrial development, communications and railways, and the court system would remain under the central Indian government, while all other matters would be devolved to the provinces. Control over finances would be split, with provincial legislatures able to directly control the financing of matters under their control, including a degree of control over taxation. The bill also includes provision for legislation passed in India, both at the central and provincial level, to be reviewed by the Secretary of State for India and for him to require modification if felt necessary. Despite being far less radical than Lord Northbrook's earlier proposals, the bill nonetheless generates fierce opposition, especially in the Lords.

February 1881: Chinese ambassador to Russia, Zeng Jize, with the backing of British Ambassador Lord Dufferin, is able to successfully renegotiate the Treaty of Livadia. Under the terms of the new Treaty of St Petersburg, Russia agrees to return virtual all the disputed territory in the Ila valley to China, and despite Russian demand for a massive increase in the indemnity, Zeng is able to hold the increase to just six million roubles {£605,573} against the nine million {£908,359} demanded due to Lord Dufferin's support. However this support, along with the recent Second Anglo-Afghan War and Treaty of Berlin, leads to a significant deterioration in Anglo-Russian relations.

March 1881: James Garfield is inaugurated as President of the United States. His Anglophobic US Secretary of State James Blaine adopts a policy of trying to remove British influence from Latin America. Convinced the British instigated the War of the Pacific, he throws the US firmly behind Bolivia and Peru, seeking to end the war without any Chilean territorial gains.

March 1881: Disraeli. Who's health has been deteriorating for some time falls ill and is not expected to recover. The Queen is distraught at the possibility of his loss. She insists on granting him a peerage as Earl of Beaconsfield. The title has a remainder allowing it to pass to Disraeli's brother and an annual pension attached. Disraeli will eventually pass in April and Lord Salisbury will be chosen as Prime Minister in his place.

March 1881: Tsar Alexander II is assassinated by Russian radicals. He is succeeded by his son Alexander III who brings an end to his attempts to reform Russia and institutes a harsh crackdown on dissent. His assassination will also spark a series of anti Jewish pogroms throughout Russia,

March 1881: After a series of small actions with have resulted in sharp British defeats, cabinet discusses the situation in southern Africa. Gladstone argues defeating the Boers of Transvaal would be costly and time consuming, requiring considerable reinforcements and likely to bring Britain into conflict with the Orange Free State. Cabinet agrees with his assessment and agrees to end the conflict as quickly as possible. An armistice is arranged followed by a face saving peace settlement. Under the Pretoria Convention, the Transvaal's independence is restored, with the British retaining control over foreign and native affairs.

May 1881: In response to the ongoing pogroms in Russia have sparked a wave of intense criticism in Britain, especially in the more radical elements of society. Despite the government of Lord Salisbury taking no official action, the Interfaith Jewish Relief Society (IJRS) undertakes a program to encourage Russian Jews to migrate to Britain and the Empire. By 1889, some 150.000 Russian Jews have migrated to Britain, with another 80.000 settling in the Dominions.

May 1881: With the restoration of responsible government to the Cape Colony, Gordon Spragg's unelected government imposed by previous Governor Henry Frere falls. He is replaced by a compromise government under Thomas Scanlen. Scanlen will spend the next three years attempting to undo Spragg's divisive and racist policies. However he will be hampered in this by the rise of Boer nationalism in in the Cape under the newly formed Afrikaner Bond of Jan Hofmeyr.

April 1881: At Gladstone's insistence, the garrison in Afghanistan is reduced two just 3,000 men. With an undertaking to totally withdraw it by 1883.

June 1881: The 1878 Treaty of Berlin left the issue of Greek claims to Ottoman territory unsettled, with the Greeks claiming Epirus, Crete, Macedonia, Thessaly and Thrace, with the Treaty merely calling for the two states to negotiate a new border in Thessaly and Epirus. Since the Treaty however the Ottomans have refused to discuss the matter. Finally, with war seeming likely, the Great Power intervene and the Convention of Constantinople is signed, ceding the majority of Thessaly to Greece,

June 1881: With Disraeli's death Lord Salisbury is able to muster sufficient support to pass his Government of India Bill into law, albeit in a somewhat watered down form. While the new act does allow for the entry examinations for the Indian Civil Service to be held in India as well as Britain, only those who passed the exam in Britain will be eligible to service in the civil service of the central Indian government, effectively barring Indian participation. However, the act does establish separate police forces for each province, open to Indians at most levels except the very highest, to enforce provincial laws.

June 1881: An attempt by Gladstone to introduce a second Irish land act which would ensure the 'three F's,' fixity of tenure, fair rents and free sale, is rejected by Lord Salisbury's cabinet. Instead the more limited new Landlords and Tenants Act (Ireland) Act is passed. This act improves the terms under which tenants may purchase land but does little to quiet unrest in Ireland.

June 1881: Gordon's attempts to reform Sudan have pushed it to the brink of rebellion. Rauf Pasha's attempt to calm the situation have proved ineffective. In this climate, Sufi religious leader Mudammand Ahmad declares himself to be Mahdi, proclaiming the Mahdiyya to prepare the way for the second coming of the prophet Isa, or Jesus. Governor of Sudan Rauf Pasha fails to give the matter much weight, simply offering him a pension. Expecting that would satisfy him. Ahmad rejects the offer stating “He who does not believe in me will be purified by the sword.”

July 1881: President Garfield of the US is shot by a deranged officer seeker. He will eventually die due to infection in September. His Vice President Chester Arthur will replace Secretary of State Blaine with Frederick Frelinghuysen, who will abandon Blaine's anti British policies.

July 1881: A congress of international anarchists is held in London. Attended by prominent anarchist leaders such as Peter Kroptkin, Louise Miheal, Saveio Merlino, Marie Le Compte and Nikolai Tchaikovsky. The Congress agrees that while each individual anarchist group is completely autonomous, certain common policies they term 'propaganda by the deed' are necessary to bring about social revolution. These include targeted violent actions as well as political agitation to incite revolution. The congress will lead to the formation of the International Working People's Association or Black International.

July 1881: The Treaty of Buenos Aires settles the boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile, awarding control of the Straits of Magellan to Chile but guarantees the permanent freedom of navigation and their demilitarisation.

July 1881: As part of the government's coalition agreement the Technical and Scientific Scholarships Act establishes government scholarships for "worthy candidates of sober morals and modest means" to foster scientific and technical education amongst the working and middle classes. This act will noticeably increase the number of graduates in these fields.

July 1881: Secretary for War Hugh Childers, one of Gladstone's ministers, continues the earlier Cardwell reforms of the British Army by grouping cavalry and infantry into new 'county' regiments. These new regiments will be assigned a recruiting district from which they will usually take their name. Each line regiment will consist of two regular battalions and two militia or three yeomanry battalions, with the volunteer battalions attached to regiments associated with their county. It is intended one of the regular battalions will be deployed overseas, while the other will provide drafts to keep that unit up to strength. The reforms are not applied entirely strictly. The allocation of militia and yeomanry is uneven and some regiments only consist of a single battalion. The reforms result in the creation of three regiments of foot guards, two regiments of horse guards, seventy of numbered line infantry and fifteen of numbered line cavalry. As before, the changes are fiercely opposed by the head of the army, the Duke of Cambridge, preventing the further reform.

August 1881: Muhammad Ahmad's proclamation of the Mahdiyya with himself as the Mahdi has gathered considerable support. Rauf Pasha sends a small force of 200 men to arrest him. This force is quickly overwhelmed. Rauf Pasha downplays the incident to Khedive and sends a larger force of 1,000 men to deal with the situation. However they find he has fled to the Nuba Mountains, raising a Jihad there. This begins the First Mahdist War.

August 1881: The Second Anglo-Afghan War has expose a number of serious short comings in the Indian Amy and a Commission of Inquiry under General Garnet Wolseley recommends substantial changes to improve its performance. Most important is the abolition of the separate Presidential armies and the establishment of a centralised system of supply and intendance. Wolseley also recommends that the policy of equipping Indian units with obsolete British arms and equipment be abandoned, with Indian troops being armed with the most modern weapons available. He further recommends Indians regiments be linked along the lines of the recent reforms to the British army and that training be improved. Most controversially he suggests the Indian army should once again have its own corps of artillery. Despite fierce resistance within the Indian army the bulk of Wolseley's recommendations are accepted. The only major exception being the rejection of the expansion of Indian artillery.

September 1881: The Chinese order two battleships and a protected class cruiser from Britain in an effort to further strengthen their fleet. These are the largest and most powerful warship thus far ordered by the Chinese, The two battleships will be named Chen Yuan and Ting Yuen, with the cruiser named Chi Yuan. The original Chinese intention was to order twelve such ships, but even with generous British terms for financing, only three vessels can be afforded. A small naval mission under Rear Admiral Nowell Salmon is also dispatched to assist in reforming the Chinese Navy.

November 1881: The Dowager Empress Ci'an dies unexpectedly. Her co-regent, Dowager Empress Cixi begins pressing for the Guangxu Emperor to return from his education in Britain, in a renewed attempt to bring him under her control. Prince Gong, now realising the importance of British support, abandons his efforts to place his own son on the throne and allies with Li Hongzhang to mobilise support in the Qing Grand Council and ensure he remains in Britain.

December 1881: A larger force of Egyptian soldiers is dispatched to deal with the expanding Mahdist revolt. This force will be slaughtered to a man, further increasing the Mahdi's support.

Miss Construction · May 29, 2022

~1882: Ashes

January 1882: For years, criticism of the monopolistic practices of US businessmen known as 'robber barons' has been growing. While the US government itself has consistently failed to take action, many states have enacted laws to restrict these monopolies. In an effort to evade these laws, oil magnate John Rockefeller, organises the Standard Oil Trust. In a secret agreement the shareholders of a number of separate corporations, convey their shareholding to a single trust, thus avoiding state based anti monopoly laws. This model will rapidly be adopted by other 'robber barons' for the same purpose.

January 1882: After years of mismanagement and corruption by successive Khedive's, a revolt by Egyptian army officers led by Ahmed Urabi forces Khedive Tewfik Pasha to appoint Urabi Minister of War. The British and French respond with a diplomatic note asserting their support for the Khedive's primacy. The note infuriates the revolutionaries who expand their control and embark on a program of reform.

February 1882: With electrical lighting gradually becoming more common in Britain, the Electrical Lighting Act is passed allowing local authorities to regulate and licence the industry. The act is followed by the opening of the worlds first commercial coal powered electricity generating station in London.

March 1882: After a 98 day voyage the sailing ship Dunedin arrives in London from Port Chalmers in New Zealand with cargo of frozen beef, pork, lamb and mutton. Unlike earlier attempts the Dunedin is fitted with latest refrigeration machinery and only a single carcass is condemned. This markers the beginning of large scale refrigerated shipping, with the Dunedin being the first first recognised reefer ship. This trade will rapidly be dominated by Australian and New Zealand interests, contributing to their economic development.

April 1882: With the new Government of India Act in effect and increased opportunities now open to Indians in the civil service, Viceroy Richard Temple begins encouraging the provincial governments to establish an English public school style education system available to the middle classes in order to provide sufficient Indian candidates of a 'suitable background' to fill these roles. This will begin the creation of a highly Anglicised Indian middle class who will eventually come to replace the British in large parts of the administration of India.

May 1882: British and French warships begin arriving off Alexandria to 'protect' European civilians. Their arrival further increases tensions in the city. However the fleet takes no immediate action, though warships continue to arrive, reinforcing the fleet. In response Urabi's forces begin fortifying Alexandria.

May 1882: Radical Irish Nationalists assassinate the new Chief Secretary for Ireland Lord Frederick Cavendish. Irish Home Rule League leader William Shaw publicly condemns the attack in the house, greatly increasing his support both in England and Ireland. However as a result the Conservatives introduce the Criminal Law and Procedure (Ireland) Bill which will allow for the unlimited suspension of habeas corpus and right to jury trial in Ireland by proclamation of the Lord Lieutenant. Despite opposition from the Liberals, Irish Home Rule and many within Gladstone's Progressive Party the Bill will be narrowly passed in early August. Despite the Bill being opposed by the vast majority of Liberals, party leader William Forster speaks in favour of it, costing him the support of nearly a third of the radicals in the party. This, combined with the 50 remaining Whig Liberals, is sufficient to cost him his leadership. Henry Campbell-Bannerman is widely mentioned as his replacement. However his outspoken support for reforms such women's suffrage, abolition of the Lords, the disestablishment of the Church of England and Irish Home Rule are seen as too extreme given the current political climate. Joseph Chamberlain is also suggested but it is felt he lacks the necessary ministerial experience. Eventually the moderate radical, George Trevelyan is selected as a compromise.

June 1882: Rioting breaks out in Alexandria resulting in the death of at least 50 Europeans. The Anglo-French fleet begins and evacuation. Within a few days the European community has been safely evacuated and the French squadron departs. However the British under Admiral Beauchamp Seymour remains. With the British still off Alexandria, the fortification of the city continues.

June 1882: Under further pressure from Gladstone, Lord Salisbury agrees to reduce the Afghanistan garrison to permanent level of a single Indian infantry battalion, supported by a squadron of Indian cavalry, one British Infantry company and an Indian mountain artillery battery.

July 1882: The Cape Town Imperial Conference is discuses the matter of Imperial trade. The British propose a common system of Imperial preference be adopted on tariffs. The proposal finds support among the Australian and New Zealand delegates, but it is fiercely opposed by the Canadians, looking to preserve their National Policy of protectionism instituted after the US reneged on the Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 guaranteeing free trade in 1866. However agreement is reached on a submarine telegraph cable between Vancouver and Australia, with the British government agreeing to contribute half of the cost. The situation in Egypt is discussed, with the Australians and New Zealanders greatly concerned by the threat to the security of the Suez Canal. At the conference's close, it is agreed the next Imperial conference should be held in Sydney in 1884.

July 1882: In a major improvement of women's rights, the Married Women's Property Act is passed. This act allows married women to own property in their own right and prevents the automatic transfer of their possessions to their husbands upon marriage. The act establishes a wife's legal identity as separate from their husband.

July 1882: Throughout the Egyptian crisis, Admiral Seymour has been sending overly alarming reports of the progress of the Egyptian fortification work. As a result the Conservatives in cabinet have been pushing for action to protect British interests. Gladstone has continually rejected this, as many in his party is not in favour of such action. Lord Salisbury returns from the Cape Town Imperial Conference reporting the Australian and New Zealand Dominions concerns. Face with this development, Gladstone relents and the cabinet authorises Seymour to act to secure the Canal.

August 1882: Admiral Seymour commences a bombardment of Alexandria. The bombardment successfully silences the Egyptian forts. Two days latter Seymour lands sailors and marine to secure the city and eventually order is restored. Urabi responds by declaring war on Britain and obtaining a fatwa against the Khedive and British. However the Liberal Party seizes on this to call a vote of no confidence, savagely attacking Gladstone, comparing this to his outrage of Disraeli's handling of the Great Eastern War. Over the two years since the 1880 election 18 Progressive MP's have returned to the Liberal Party and now many vote in favour of the motion, leading to it narrowly passing. Consequently a new election is scheduled for September, with Lord Salisbury remaining as a caretaker government.

August 1882: Liberal Party leader George Trevelyan begins try to convince William Shaw to re-frame calls for Irish home rule within the larger Imperial Federation Movement. Shaw is initially dismissive of this approach, believing establishing an Imperial federation is unrealistic. However he does agree to postpone actively calling for home rule in the interim.

August 1882: The touring Australian cricket team comprehensively defeats the England team at the Oval in London. In a low scoring match on a difficult wicket, the Australians stun the crowd by making 55 runs off only 60 deliveries and taking four wickets for only two runs. The shocked British is full of praise for the “plucky colonials” and the “dismal luck” of the English side. The next day a group of supporter swill ceremonially burn at set of stumps on the ground to mark the “death of English cricket.” The ashes of this action will be stored in an urn and give the name “'the Ashes' to test competitions between England and Australia going forward.

September 1882: The Pearl Street coal powered station is the first power station to begin operation in the US. However, as with the earlier Holburn Viaduct station in London, its reliance on DC transmission limits it to only being able to supply power within a one mile radius. It will be followed by the Vulcan Street Plant in Appelton, Wisconsin, the world's first commercial hydroelectric power station.

September 1882: Since the occupation of Alexandria, a substantial force of British and India Indian troops under General Garnet Wolseley has been landed. These forces crush Urabi's rebels in the Battle of Tel El Kebir, capturing Cairo and largely restoring order to Egypt. This also leaves the British effectively in control of Egypt.

September 1882: The general election held after the fall of the Salisbury government again results in hung parliament, though support for Gladstone's Progressives has plummeted in favour of the Liberals. The election leaves the Liberals with 294 seats, the Conservatives 225. Progressives with 70 and Irish Home Rule League 63. Notably only 28 Whigs remain in the Liberal Party. Trevelyan eschews a formal coalition and forms a minority government with William Shaw's Irish Home Rule League, guaranteeing legislation furthering Irish land reform. The new government is immediately faced with the issue of the occupation of Egypt, having based its vote of no confidence around the situation. Trevelyan declares the occupation will be strictly limited and British forces will be withdrawn as soon as order is fully restored.

October 1882: Trevelyan appoints Lord Ripon as the new Viceroy of India with a mandate to continue reform to improve Indian participation in the administration of the Raj. One of his first acts will be to launch a comprehensive review of press censorship in India. Ripon's new Indian Press Act will noticeably reduce restrictions on freedom of the press in India. Lord Ripon also expands his predecessor Temple's unintentional Anglicisation policies by encouraging the establishment of scholarships for “worthy Indians from professional families” to be educated in Britain.

November 1882: Premier of New Zealand Frederick Whitaker uses the Colonial Capital Act to obtain a loan to complete the North Island Main Trunk Line railway. This will require putting the line through the King County and negotiations are begun with the Kīngitanga Movement in the Waikato. With the Kīngitanga Movement's influence among Māori waning an agreement is finally reached. The main sticking point was a pardon for Te Kooti, but finally the government agrees to enable the completion of the Main Trunk Line to go ahead.

December 1882: The submarine telegraph cable link from Perth, Australia to Bombay in India via the Cocos-Keeling Islands is completed. With this the sole remaining link in the hope for “All Red Line” circumnavigating the globe is a link from Canada to Australia. However this would require an almost 12,000km undersea cable, presenting formidable technical challenges.

Miss Construction · May 30, 2022

~1883: The unpredictable results of radicalism

January 1883: After the Ottoman defeat in the Great Eastern War, Sultan Abdul Hamid II has been attempting to reform the Ottoman army to avoid another such loss. As part of this program he has appealed to the Germans for assistance. Eager to Increase their influence in the Empire the Germans dispatch a military mission under General Colmar von der Goltz to Constantinople.

February 1883: After seven years of private tutoring, focusing on languages and history, the Guangxu Emperor enters Aberdeen Grammar School, despite having been offered a place in all the leading Public Schools in England. During his time there, he will show a high aptitude for science and technology.

March 1883: British physicist Joseph Swan who has developed and patented an incandescent light bulb in Britain sues US inventor Thomas Edison, who has also developed and patented a similar light bulb in the US . The London courts find for Swan. Edison retaliates by suing Swan in the US. However Swan is able to prior publication winning the case, To avoid further, likely drawn out and expensive litigation, the two men agree to form a combined company to market their inventions. The company will be known as the Edison and Swan Electric Light Company and go on to successfully market light bulbs throughout the Empire and Europe. As part of the merger, Edison's close confidant and representative in Paris, Charles Batchelor will move to London to be part of the management of the new company. He will bring with him Nikola Tesla, a brilliant and promising Serbian engineer. There Tesla will suggest numerous improvements to the arc lighting system popular at the time. While these are forwarded to Edison, he rejects them. However they do attract the interest of Swan, who places Tesla in charge of a workshop dedicated to improving the entire electrical system.

April 1883: Since the Civil War, the US navy has been subject to gross neglect, having fallen to 18th place in the world rankings above only China. It does not possess even a single warship capable of facing a modern ironclad. Several attempts have been made to rectify the situation, including the construction of new ships under the guise of the 'repair' of existing vessels. However all have foundered on the refusal of funding by Congress. A series of articles in the New York Times revealing the shocking state of the navy causes a national scandal, Congress is reluctantly forced to authorise the construction of four new cruisers, two modern gunboats and the completion of 'repairs' to five existing armoured monitors. This will mark the beginning of what will be come to be known as the US “New Navy.”

June 1883: Since conquering southern Vietnam and establishing the Colony of Cochinchina in 1862, the French have been content to leave the remainder of the Empire of Vietnam largely in peace. However local French commander Henri Rivière, acting on his own initiative has been attempting to extend French Control. The Vietnamese Emperor, Tự Đức has been unable to deal with his incursions with his own resources and thus at the recommendation of the Chinese enlists the Black Flag Army, a large force of Chinese brigands under Liu Yongfu to deal with the situation. The black Flag Army is able to decisively defeat Rivière at the Battle of Paper Bridge, resulting in Rivière's death. In response, the French organise an expedition under General Alexandre-Eugène Bouët to take control of the remainder of Vietnam.

July 1883: With the Imperial markets now growing in importance and the British now well out of the Long Depression, the Imperial Development Act is passed to extend the Colonial Capital Act of 1877. It extends the older act, increasing the funds available and improving the terms of loans taken out under the act.

July 1883: As part of Trevelyan's commitment to land reform in Ireland, the Land Law (Ireland) Act is passed with the aim of giving Irish tenants the 'three F's' they had been demanding since Gladstone's failed attempt in 1881. The act introduces the Irish Land Court and Land Commission. The Land Court is empowered to establish fair rents, fixed for 15 years. While the Land Commission is intended to encourage the sale of land to tenants. The act also permits the Land Court to waive rent arrears of less the £30 {£30}. While the act is immensely popular in Ireland it is overall a failure in its intent. Tenants use the act to reduce and give surety to their rents, discouraging them from purchasing their land. The act also maintains the inefficiency of Irish farming, leading to a re-emergence of unrest within a few years. It does however cement cooperation between the Liberals and Irish Home Rule League. In addition the act repeals the Criminal Law and Procedure (Ireland) Act, restoring civil rights to Ireland.

August 1883: Vietnamese Emperor Tự Đức dies in July and is succeeded by his cousin Hiệp Hòa. Initially General Bouët's small expeditionary force is unable to advance, but with the arrival of significant French reinforcements under Admiral Amédée Courbet, the French are finally in a position to defeat Liu Yongfu's Black Flag Army. However to ensure a political settlement in addition to any military victory, Admiral Courbet storms the forts protecting Hue, enabling him to dictate a Treaty forcing the Vietnamese to accept a French Protectorate over Annam and Tonkin.

August 1883: Courtenay Ilbert, legal advisor to Viceroy of India, Lord Ripon, introduces the Criminal Code Procedure Amendment Bill aimed at increasing Indian participation in the Indian legal system to the central Indian Legislative Council. The bill proposes to allow Indian judges to try cases involving Europeans. While the bill finds wide support in the Liberal government in London, it provokes outrage amongst the British community in India, where the spectre of the humiliation with European women appearing before Indian Judges in rape cases is raised. Many solutions involving restrictions on Indians hearing cases or requiring Europeans to cases to be held in front of European juries are proposed, but the radical dominated Liberal government in London invokes its powers under the Government of India Act 1881 to reject them all. Eventually compromise is worked out whereby the woman involved a rape case may request a jury consisting of at least 50% “members of her race.”

September 1883: The pro Austro-Hungarian and authoritarian policies of King Milan have brought about widespread popular opposition in Serbia. The radical socialist Narodna Radikalna Stranka, or People's Radical Party, led by Nikola Pašić and Aca Stanojević incite a peasant uprising in the Timok Valley in an attempts to spark a wider rebellion. King Milan, fearing his troops will be unwilling to fire on their countrymen, is initial reluctant to use force to deal with the situation. However the rebellion rapidly spreads, covering nearly one third of Serbia, leaving him no choice. Once committed, the Serbian Army rapidly crushes the uprising, forcing its leaders to flee to Bulgaria. Though the rebellion is put down, dissatisfaction at Milan's rule will continue to simmer.

October 1883: The Chileans victory at the Battle of Huamachuco in July has finally ended Peruvian resistance, leading to the Treaty of Ancòn bringing the War of the Pacific to a close. Under the terms of the Treaty the province of Tarapaca is ceded to Chile, while they to continue to occupy the provinces of Arica and Tacna with their ultimate fate to be decided by plebiscite in ten years time. While the fighting has come to a close the war will not official end until the Treaty of Valparaiso between Chile and Bolivia in April 1884 which will recognise Chilean control of Bolivia's littoral province.

October 1883: In a further attempt to reform British electoral law the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act is passed. The act aims to prevent the bribery and intimidation of voters by requiring all parliamentary candidates to publish a detailed account of their election spending and imposing caps on such spending. While not entirely successful in stamping out such practices, the act goes a long way to reforming the franchise. An additional effect is to allow poorer candidates, primarily radicals, to stand for election.

November 1883: An Egyptian force of approximately 9,000 troops under British officer William Hicks is dispatched by the Governor of Sudan Rauf Pasha in a renewed effort to deal with the Mahdist uprising. This force is composed primarily of soldiers imprisoned after the Urabi revolt, with extremely poor moral and training. This force is wiped out with less than 500 men escaping at the Battle of El Obied.

November 1883: A convention of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and Fiji, the major British possessions in the Pacific, is held in Sydney. The convention is concerned by the expansion of the French and Germans in the Pacific and believes common action needs to be taken to represent Pacific interests to the Imperial government. It calls for the creation of a Federal Council of Australasia to represent these interests. However it is felt it would require an act of the Westminster Parliament to create such a body.

December 1883: Concerned about growing Anglophobia in the US, and seeking to reduce Canadian dependence on British forces, the first permanent standing military units in Canada are formed as the single squadron Cavalry School Corps in Quebec and three infantry companies as the Infantry School Corps in London, Ontario. While the primary intention is to improve the training of the Canadian Militia, these units will eventually form the core of a regular army.

December 1883: Admiral Courbet is placed in overall command of the French forces in Vietnam. To defeat the Black Flag Army, decides to assault the city of Sơn Tây, despite being aware this may bring him into direct conflict with the Chinese who have been quietly backing the Vietnamese throughout the campaign. The Battle of Sơn Tây is the most fiercely fought action in the campaign thus far. Nonetheless the French eventually prevail, though suffering heavy casualties. However the Battle will break the Black Flag Army as a fighting force, and Liu Yongfu will not assist the Chinese in the subsequent Sino-French conflict.

December 1883: Since the occupation of Egypt the British have been attempting to reform the extremely corrupt and inefficient Egyptian finances so to allow their withdrawal. In the wake of the destruction of the Hicks Expedition, they decided the cost of maintaining Egyptian forces in Sudan is too great for the Egyptians to bear. In order to reduce these costs, they order the abandonment of Sudan and complete withdrawal of Egyptian forces, leaving the province to the Mahdists.

Miss Construction · May 31, 2022

~Jan-June 1884: Kings, queens and parliaments

January 1884: Despite it having a number of revolutionary features such as a five round detachable box magazine and rapid short throw rear locking cock on closing bolt action, the Remington-Lee rifle first introduced in 1879 has yet to find customers, even in its improved 1882 version. The only significant order so far has been for 6,000 ordered by the Qing in 0.43” Spanish (11.15x58mmR) for their Guangxi Army in 1883. The Chinese are greatly impressed with the rifle and begin domestic manufacture of an unlicensed version at the Jiangnan Arsenal, though these rifles are much inferior in quality and production is limited to only around 150 per month.

January 1884: Emperor Napoleon III's son Prince Louis-Napoleon, now serving as a captain in the Royal Artillery, marries Queen Victoria's daughter Princess Beatrice. Despite his marriage into the British royal family, he is allowed to continue his military career.

February 1884: The Pretoria Convention of 1881 is amended in an effort to improve relations between the Boers of Transvaal and the British. The London Convention limits British control over Transvaal to requiring British approval for Transvaal to enter into treaties other than with the Orange Free State. Transvaal President Paul Kruger immediately attempts to open negotiations with the Orange Free State regarding a union of the two Boer republics. However the Orange Free State's moderate president, Johannes Brand, rejects the advances. Brand who has long pursued a policy of maintaining good relations with the British is fearful the Transvaal's militancy could lead to war.

February 1884: Rangatira Wahanui Huatare of the Ngāti Maniapoto and one of leaders of the Kīngitanga Movement, turns the first sod starting work on the completion of the Main Trunk Line. Crossing the North Island Volcanic Plateau will prove to be a formidable engineering challenge, with many deep ravines to be crossed and the seemingly impassible slopes of the descent from the plateau to the Whanganui River to be overcome.

February 1884: The Liberals introduce the Representation of the People Bill, a major plank of their reform program intended to increase the franchise to around 60% of the adult male population. But Conservative leader Lord Salisbury, seeking to force an election before the bill goes into effect, mobilises the Conservative majority in the Lords to send the bill back to the Commons. This incites massive outrage amongst the Liberals, with calls to disband the Lords if it is rejected a second time.

March 1884: After their victory at Sơn Tây, the French resume their offensive against the Black Flag Army. This for he first time brings them into direct conflict with Chinese troops from the Guangxi Army. The French hope that a rapid victorious campaign will avoid widening the conflict by presenting the Chinese with a fait accompli. Fortunately the Chinese troops suffer from extremely poor morale and Liu Yongfu keeps his his forces out the combat. As a result the Bắc Ninh campaign results in a rapid and complete victory for the French as they hoped.

March 1884: With the decision to remove Egyptian forces from Sudan, preparations are made to enable the garrisons to be withdrawn safely. As Trevelyan's government is unwilling to commit British troops to cover the evacuation, a force of some 7,000 Egyptian soldiers are organised to facilitate the withdrawal. Despite objections from the local British commanders, public pressure forces the appointment of Charles Gordon as commander. Gordon disregards the intent to evacuate, believing he can successfully crush the Mahdists. However these efforts prove futile and Gordon's force is soon besieged by a much larger Mahdist army in Khartoum. Fortunately Khartoum is a formidable defensive position and he is able to resist the initial Mahdist attempts to seize the city.

April 1884: With the situation in in Vietnam deteriorating and fearing war, the Chinese order 15,000 modern Martini-Henry rifles, 40 Ordinance 12pdr breach loading field guns and 10 Nordenfelt manual machine guns from Britain.

May 1884: Their defeat at Bắc Ninh has strengthened the hand of the moderates in the Chinese government, who convince Dowager Empress Cixi of the need to reach terms with the French in Vietnam. Li Hongzhang negotiates the Tianjin Accord with French representative Captain François-Ernest Fournier. Under the accord the Chinese recognise the French Protectorate over Annam and Tonkin, while agreeing to withdraw their troops from Vietnam. In return the French will negotiate a comprehensive treaty covering Sino-French trade and clearly determining the border of Vietnam and China.

May 1884: The Fuzhou shipyard which has up till now only built unarmoured warships lays down its first armoured vessel, the armoured cruiser Ping Yuen. While the ship is to be constructed in China, the armament and armour have to be purchased from Britain and Germany. The ship will see a protracted construction, only being completed in 1890.

May 1884: Māori King Matutaera Tāwhiao, seeking to restore the mana and influence of the Kīngitanga Movement, travels to London in an attempt to present a petition to the Queen regarding the Treaty of Waitangi. Unlike previous petitions, this one requests nothing less than full Māori self government. Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, while sympathetic to the issue of Māori land rights, regards it as an issue for the New Zealand government and refuses to allow the petition to be presented. Nonetheless he commits to raising the issue of indigenous rights at the upcoming Imperial Conference.

June 1884: Despite continued government reluctance to commit British troops to Sudan, the intercession of Queen Victoria herself forces Trevelyan's government to act. A British relief force under General Garnet Wolseley is organised, with the expedition setting off in August.

June 1884: Concerned by the growing constitutional crisis over the Representation of the People Bill, the Queen personally intervenes in an attempt to force the Liberals and Conservatives to reach a compromise. Over several days the Liberals and Conservatives hammer out a deal whereby the bill will be passed, but in return another bill will be introduced redistributing parliamentary seats in what the Conservatives believe is their favour.

June 1884: The Occupation of Egypt Act is passed. Under the terms of the act, British occupation of Egypt is only to be maintained until such time as the country has returned to 'responsible local government,' with a Maximum duration of seven years.

June 1884: Despite the Tianjin Accord seemingly settling matters in Vietnam, the agreement is vague about the timetable for the Chinese withdrawal. Expecting the Chinese to withdraw immediately, the French move to occupy a number of positions on the border. The result is a clash between the two sides at Bắc Lệ. The French are furious, claiming Chinese betrayal, while the Chinese extremists demand war. In response to the “ambush” the French demand an indemnity and apology. While the Chinese are willing to negotiate, they are unwilling to either pay an indemnity or apologise. The Chinese position is strengthen by the British refusing to bow to French pressure and cut off arms supplies to the Chinese.

Miss Construction · Jun 1, 2022

~July- Dec 1884: The triumph and fragility of imperial dreams

July 1884: The Third Imperial Conference opens in Sydney. After the success of the 1880 and 1882 Conferences, Chamberlain, heading the British delegation is hopeful further substantial movement toward an Imperial Federation can be achieved. He is intending to propose an Imperial customs union to strengthen the Dominions integration into the Empire's economy. Initial discussion focuses on the lack of progress with the laying of a telegraph cable from Vancouver to Australia, completing the so call All Red Line of cables linking the Empire. Chamberlain counters that, for security reasons, all landfalls of such a cable would need to be on Imperial territory, and no suitable location for a mid Pacific repeater station is currently in Imperial hands. It is decided this should be resolved by negotiating an agreement with Germany to allow the annexation of the Gilbert and Ellis Islands. There is also disquiet over the Occupation of Egypt Act, with many Dominions believing British control of the Suez Canal vital to Imperial defence. But again Chamberlain reassures the Conference, British forces will only be withdrawn after a suitably "friendly" Egyptian government has been firmly established.

July 1884: Regardless of the early promising signs, the Sydney Imperial Conference soon becomes mired in controversy. Keeping his promise to Māori King Matutaera Tāwhiao, Chamberlain raises the issue of indigenous rights. This initially provokes a hostile response from the Dominions, regarding it as an unprecedented and unwarranted intrusion on their domestic affairs. In response Chamberlain mentions Tāwhiao's petition and the calls for the British government to intervene. New Zealand Premier Harry Atkinson, noted for his conservative views and support for the aggressive acquisition of Māori land, counters the resolution of all such issues prior to the granting of responsible government in 1863 are the responsibility of the Imperial government. This presents a dilemma for the Dominions, unwilling to surrender any autonomy, but equally unwilling to accept responsibility for indigenous rights. Eventually a compromise is reached whereby the Imperial government may be involved with the resolution of Dominion internal matters, but only if they arise from events prior to the establishment of responsible government. This will become known as the Sydney Doctrine, the first unwritten constitutional provision governing relations between the Imperial government and the Dominions. Despite this new Doctrine, the Dominions leaders are completely unwilling to make any commitments on indigenous rights and Chamberlain tactfully agrees such matters are solely in the Dominions purview. He also quietly shelves raising a customs union to avoid risking further discord. At the close of the conference, agreement is reached to hold the next conference in London in 1886. Despite being publicly hailed as equally as successful as the two previous Imperial Concurrences, Chamberlain's raising of indigenous rights causes significant mistrust in the Dominions toward British willingness to respect the Dominions autonomy.

August 1884: Returning home from the Sydney Imperial Conference, New Zealand Premier Atkinson almost immediately loses a vote of no confidence. He is replaced by the liberal leaning Robert Stout. But within a matter of days, Atkinson is successful in moving a no confidence motion against Stout, Regardless, Atkinson is unable to form a government and Stout, in conjunction with former New Zealand Premier Julius Vogel are able to finally form a stable government. During this political crisis Māori King Matutaera Tāwhiao attempts to raise the matter of Māori grievances over land. Atkinson outright refuses to even contemplate discussing the matter, however Stout is able to stall until the political crisis is resolved. With his government secure, Stout informs Tāwhiao he is unwilling to discuss any confiscations under the New Zealand Settlements Act of 1863, but in light of the new Sydney Doctrine, it may be possible to look at issues arising from before then in conjunction with the British. While Tāwhiao is deeply disappointed by this response, his failed trip to London has completely drained the Kīngitanga Movement's financial resources for no gain, significantly harming his mana in the movement. In an effort to salvage something he agrees to Stout's extremely limited proposal.

August 1884: With negotiations between the French and Chinese dragging on, Admiral Courbet is ordered to take the French Far East Squadron to attack the Fujian Fleet at Fuzhou. The Battle of Fuzhou will see the Fujian Fleet destroyed, with nine of its elven ships sunk with no serous damage inflicted on the French. Courbet will then proceed down the Min River and bombard the Fuzhou naval yard, inflicting severe damage.

September 1884: Stout informs the Colonial Office in London of his proposal regarding Māori grievances. Chamberlain, anxious to undo some of the damage done to relations with the Dominions at the recent Imperial Conference, responds positively. He raises the matter in Cabinet. Unsurprisingly, Cabinet are most reluctant to assume any liability over grievances resulting from the New Zealand government's own actions, but eventually do agree to cooperate with New Zealand in the interests of Imperial unity. However British involvement is to be strictly limited to grievances originating before 1863. The deliberately vague final response to the New Zealanders is, that the British government is willing to send a delegation to any such talks to “assist New Zealand as requested, within the bounds of the Sydney Doctrine.” Stout, satisfied with the response, arranges for talks to be held early in 1885.

October 1884: The French land a 2,000 strong expeditionary force at Keeling in Formosa with the aim of capturing the island. However the French advance is checked by the Chinese at the Battle of Tamsui, confining the French to Keeling. As a result the French will resort to blockading Formosa. However in Tonkin, the French are successful in forcing the Lang Son. Despite their success the French are unable to pursue due to severe logistical difficulties.

November 1884: In extremely closely fought election Republican presidential candidate James Blaine takes New York state by under 400 votes to win over his Democrat opponent Grover Cleveland. The campaign is notable for its focus on the character of the candidates and brutal personal attacks. Blaine particularly accuses Cleveland of wanting to introduce 'British Hebrew radicalism' to the US, focusing on meetings between Cleveland and British Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Nathan Rothschild and the IJRS's encouragement of Jewish migration from Russia, many of whom are relocating to the US.

November 1884: German Chancellor Otto von Bismark calls a conference of all the European colonial powers including the United States in Berlin, with the aim of avoiding conflict over rival claims in Africa. The conference divides Africa into European spheres of influence and establishes the principle of 'effective occupation,' whereby a state can only claim control of an African territory if they established an administration to govern it with a police force to maintain order. During the conference King Leopold II of Belgium is able to establish a claim to the Congo basin, claiming philanthropic and humanitarian motives, as the Congo Free State, his personal domain.

December 1884: The Chinese victory at Tamsui has massively strengthened the war faction in the Qing court, who have greatly exaggerated its significance in an effort to prevent negotiations. The war party is successful in gaining the ear of Dowager Empress Cixi, leading her to remove Prince Gong as head of the Qing Grand Council. However British Foreign Secretary Henry Campbell-Bannerman, attempting to mediate a settlement, threatens to cut off British support for the Chinese forcing them to moderate their position. Campbell-Bannerman successfully negotiates a peace treaty where the Chinese agree to withdraw from Tonkin and recognise the French Protectorate in return for the French dropping their demands for an indemnity and apology, The inclusive nature of the war will undermine French support for colonial expansionism for some time.

December 1884: In an effort to secure a landfall for the final link of the All Red Line, and resolve imperial rivalries, Britain begins negotiations with Germany over spheres of influence in the Pacific.

Miss Construction · Jun 3, 2022

~Jan-June 1885: Gordon's alive

January 1885: Wolseley's relief force finally arrives at Khartoum, finding the situation desperate, with the city wracked by cholera and supplies nearly exhausted after over 300 days of siege. Despite a desperate attempt by the Mahdists to storm the city before Wolseley's arrival, he is successful in breaking the siege. Notwithstanding Gordon's fervent demands to continue the campaign against the Mahdists, Wolseley forcefully insists on a withdrawal to Egypt. Over the next several months British forces will launch several expeditions to evacuate the remaining Egyptian garrisons, leaving Sudan to the Mahdists. The successful rescue of Gordon's forces will be hailed as a triumph in Britain, massively increasing support for the Liberal government.

February 1885: In accordance with the British cabinet's agreement to “assist New Zealand resolving Māori land grievances, within the bounds of the Sydney Doctrine,” a three man delegation, arrives in Wellington. The delegation is headed by Conservative politician John Gorst, chosen for his familiarity with New Zealand, and has very strict, though secret, instructions to under no circumstances accept any liability, guilt or responsibility regarding land claims in New Zealand, nor are they to directly talk with Māori. The New Zealand government on the other hand wishes the British to take sole and entire responsibility for settling these matters. Naturally, the resulting talks are extremely tense. Eventually a mutually acceptable compromise position, known as the Gorst-Stout Agreement, is thrashed out after several days. The Governor of New Zealand, in his capacity as representative of the Queen, will appoint a panel of legal experts to gather evidence regarding Māori grievances. This panel will then report back to the Judicial Committee of Privy Council, who will review the evidence presented to ensure no injustices have occurred. The Privy Council may, at its discretion, make recommendations regarding any injustice discovered. The panel will consist of one British, one New Zealand, and one international member. The panel's is only to consider grievances occurring prior to 1863, with no provision for consideration of issues arising after that date, even if caused by an event occurring before 1863. This last provision will eventually result in the Gorst-Stout Extension to the Sydney Doctrine, stating that the Imperial government may not be held liable or accountable for domestic matters in the Dominions after responsible government is granted.

March 1885: With the Russians finally establishing effective control over most of Turkmenistan in 1881, the British began talks over establishing a firm border between Afghanistan and Russia, and in 1884 a joint Anglo-Russian Afghan Boundary Commission is established. As a result the Russians have been trying to push their south as far south as possible. In line with this, the Russians begin establishing garrisons deep in disputed territory in the Panjdeh region. In response the British dispatch a 500 strong force, supported by Afghan troops, to the region. The situation remains tense but peaceful until ,500 Russian troops attack an Afghan garrison at Ak Tepe, seizing the fort. Emir Mohammad Ayub Khan calls upon the British for assistance under the Treaty of Kabul. Prime Minister Trevelyan however hesitates, electing to attempt to resolve the situation through informal diplomacy.

March 1885: James Blaine is inaugurated as the 22nd President of the United States. Blaine retains the 'spoils' system whereby most government posts are awarded by political patronage rather than merit. Thus the US bureaucracy will continue to suffer from serious corruption and inefficiency.

March 1885: The francophone Metis people, along with Native American Cree under Louis Riel stage an uprising in Saskatchewan. While the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) are initially able to contain the uprising, allowing the Militia to mobilised the east. However this response is slow and in April the rebels score a victory over government forces. However the nearly completed Canadian Pacific Railway enables reinforcements to be brought in and the uprising is crushed by early June, with Riel and its other leaders captured.

March 1885: With militant Boers from Transvaal still trying to expand their territory at the expense of African States, the British establish the Bechuanaland Protectorate, completing the Republics encirclement, preventing any future territorial gains by the Boers. Transvaal President Paul Kruger views this as an extremely hostile act, redoubling his efforts to negotiate a defensive alliance with the Orange Free State and beginning the purchase of modern artillery for defence.

April 1885: Despite continued Congressional opposition, two new cruisers, a new monitor in the guise of repairs to a Civil War era vessel and an additional pair of steel gunboats are ordered for the US Navy. President Blaine is heavily critical of the limited size of the program, openly calling for a navy capable of challenging the British. Given the very limited size of the US building programs to date, these calls do not cause undue alarm in Britain.

April 1885: Faced with a revolt in Cartagena, the Colombians have been forced to reduce their forces in the rebellious province of Panama, which has allowed an insurgency to spring up. Claiming the terms of their 1846 Mallarino-Bidlack Treaty with Colombia allow them to intervene, US President Blaine sends the sloop USS Shenandoah to restore order, landing marines, who quickly bring the rebels under control with little fighting. These are rapidly reinforced by US army troops, while President Blaine expresses support for Panamanian independence and voices are raised in Congress in favour its eventual annexation. In response the Chileans dispatch the protected cruiser Esmeralda with orders to “prevent the US annexation of Panama by any means necessary.” As the US do not currently possess a single ship which could challenge the Esmeralda, let alone the rest of the Chilean navy, the US allows the Colombians to reoccupy Panama. However the affair is deeply humiliating for the US, and Blaine adopts a policy of attempting to isolate Chile, cutting them off from US markets and investment while building a South American bloc to oppose them and the British, who he believes are responsible the Chileans actions ever since the outbreak of the War of the Pacific.

April 1885: The British and Germans sign a joint declaration on influence in the Pacific. Germany recognises the Gilbert and Ellis Islands, the Solomon Islands, Tonga and Niue as falling in the British sphere. While New Guinea, Bougainville, Samoa, Nauru and the Caroline Islands fall into the German sphere. Britain immediately annexes the Gilbert and Ellis Islands to allow the start of work on the Vancouver to Australia telegraph cable.

April 1885: One hundred men of the New South Wales Volunteer Infantry Regiment depart Sydney for service in the expected was in Afghanistan. This is the first time colonial forces have been deployed on Imperial service. While the unit will not see active service, the regiment will be awarded the battle honour of Afghanistan 1885 as a result.

April 1885: Newly inaugurated US President James Blaine authorises the capture of several breeding pairs of New England Sea Mink in an attempt to preserve the species. Despite an extensive hunt, only two males and three females are found. Nevertheless, this will enable the species to survive in captivity.

May 1885: The Representation of the People Bill introduced in 1884 is passed once more by the Commons and returned to the Lords unmodified. In line with the compromise worked out the previous year, the Lords pass the bill into law.

May 1885: Trevelyan's attempts to defuse the Panjdeh Crisis through diplomacy are proving fruitless, with the Russians using the pause to reinforce their positions and the situation worsening. With it now clear the situation will not be resolved through negotiation, Henry Campbell-Bannerman, supported by Joseph Chamberlain and Charles Dilke organises a leadership challenge and replaces Trevelyan as Prime Minister. Campbell-Bannerman immediately begin preparations for war, requesting £16,000,000 {£17,725,513} credit from Parliament, ordering an expeditionary force be dispatched from India, the fleet be concentrated in the Mediterranean and the reserves be prepared for mobilisation. Faced with this new display of British resolve, Tsar Alexander III suggests arbitration. Eventually the matter will be returned to the Boundary Commission, who will establish a final border.

June 1885: With Britain having become Chile's largest single trade partner and British interests taking an increasingly dominant position in its domestic economy, Chile ties the Chilean peso to the British pound sterling, rather than its previous link to the French franc and a rate of one Chilean peso to one and a half British shillings. Though this move is driven purely by economic concerns, it serves to further convince US President Blaine of the existence of a secret Anglo-Chilean alliance and a hidden British plot to replace US influence in South America.

June 1885: Upon becoming Prime Minister, Campbell-Bannerman relinquishes his position as Foreign Secretary, appointing Joseph Chamberlain in his place. In a surprise move, he offers Chamberlain's former position as Colonial Secretary to Conservative MP Randolph Churchill. After considerable thought, and consulting with his Party leader Lord Salisbury, he accepts the post.

June 1885: Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad dies unexpectedly of typhus. He is succeeded by Abdullah Ibn-Mohammed, taking the title of Khalifa. However he is challenged by unrest and revolts, requiring several years to fully establish his control.

Why the Chinese play cricket (an Imperial Federation timeline)

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