Why the Chinese play cricket (an Imperial Federation timeline)

[Miss Construction]

~July-Dec 1885: Canadian club

July 1885: Using the Canadian National Policy as a justification, US President Blaine unilaterally abrogates the fishery clauses of the 1871 Treaty of Washington, banning Canadian access to US fisheries. Canadian Premier MacDonald retaliates by banning the US from Canadian fisheries. British First Lord of the Admiralty Herbert Asquith immediately agrees to deploy additional Royal Navy vessels to enforce this ban. The dire state of the US navy makes US enforcement of their ban on Canadians less effective however. Consequently, Congress will approval the immediate acquisition of an additional four gunboats to patrol US waters. Thus four obsolete small wooden gunboats on the disposal list are purchased from France.

July 1885: With their powerful new ships under construction in Britain nearing completion and seeking to make up their losses in the Sino-French War, the Chinese order four new cruisers. Two protected cruisers are ordered in Britain while two more armoured cruisers are ordered in Germany.

July 1885: As part of the compromise over the Representation of the People Act, the Redistribution of Seats Act is passed. The act establishes the principle of single member electorates of roughly equal size. This, along with the Representation of the People Act are the two most significant reforms to the British franchise to date.

July 1885: With the US public outraged at the Chileans actions in the Panama Crisis, President Blaine is successful in getting the Scott Hostile Nations Act passed. Under its terms the President is given the power to increase tariffs on goods from any nation deemed to have “committed acts hostile to the interests of the United States” and to prohibit any new investments by US citizens or companies in such states, provided he gains Congressional approval within 60 days of imposing such measures, whereupon the sanctions will come into effect. The sanctions are to remain in effect until Congress votes them down. Blaine immediately uses the act to impose sanctions on Chile, with Congress approving the action eight days later.

August 1885: Hoping to broaden its base of support and acceptance in Britain outside Ireland, the Irish Home Rule League renames itself the Irish Reform Party. While the change is accepted by the majority of its MPs and supporters, a small group under Charles Parnell see it as an abandonment of the commitment to Irish home rule. Parnell and eleven other Irish MPs split to form the Irish Home Rule Party.

August 1885: In response to petitions by the Pacific Dominions the Federal Council of Australasia Act is passed. This creates a limited common legislation body for the six Australian Dominions, New Zealand and Fiji. Representatives will be appointed by the respective governments and Council will only have limited powers over matters of common concern such as fisheries, extradition, intellectual property and the like. However it will have no executive powers, permanent secretariat or revenue gathering powers of its own.

August 1885: Greatly disappointing by the high cost, poor quality and limited numbers of weapons their own arsenals are producing, the Chinese approach the European powers for assistance in reforming their system. Most refuse, unwilling to assist in strengthening the Qing. The British however do agree to allow the Chinese to send representatives to Britain to learn the skills which necessary. This will improve the Chinese arsenals performance to degree, though they are still extremely hampered by corruption, bureaucratic inefficiency, nepotism and the poor quality of Chinese steel production.

August 1885: The three man panel created under the Gorst-Stout Agreement begins holding hearings throughout New Zealand regarding Māori land grievances. The panel is headed by prominent US jurist and former Solicitor General, Benjamin Bristow. It is hoped that Bristow, noted for his advocacy of African-American civil rights, will considerably add to panel's legitimacy. The British member is former Attorney General Henry James, while Walter Reid, New Zealand's Solicitor General completes the panel. While only six weeks is allowed for the gathering of evidence, many Māori have taken the time since the Gorst-Stout Agreement to prepare, allowing for an unexpectedly high number of submissions. There are frequent attempts by Māori to raise matters originating after 1863. These consistently rebuffed by the panel, basically leaving only the activities of the defunct New Zealand Company and the events of the First Taranaki War for consideration. The panel will delivery it's report to the Privy Council in February 1886.

September 1885: An All Ireland cricket team tours Canada, playing a full test match in Montreal. This will be the debut of an Irish side on the international circuit.

September 1885: In the wake of the Panama Crisis and subsequent isolation from the US, the Chileans recognise the need to strengthen their forces and improve their diplomatic situation by seeking closer relations with the British. As a first step a new naval law is passed authorising the purchase of a battleship and two new protected cruisers from abroad. Additionally they British to dispatch a naval and military mission. Seeking to capitalise on the valuable experience the Chileans have gained during the War of the Pacific, Admiral Michael Culme-Seymour and General Gerald Graham are dispatched to assist the Chileans. The Culme-Seymour and Graham missions will greatly increase the non-political professionalism of the Chilean military, however they will also contribute to a significant deterioration in Anglo-American relations.

October 1885: Hiram Maxim demonstrates the first working prototype of the first practical machine gun. Despite being successful, most military officials are somewhat cautious due to fears of excessive ammunition expenditure.

October 1885: Louis Riel is placed on trial for his role in the North-West Uprising. While he is found guilty and sentenced to death, there a widespread calls for clemency especially amongst French Canadians, including one from US president Blaine. In light of this, Canadian Premier John MacDonald relents and commutes the sentence to life with hard labour. This act of mercy noticeably increases MacDonald's support with the francophone population in Canada.

November 1885: In the wake of the Russian war scare and the realisation the French and Russian navies are significantly increasing the strength of their torpedo boat arm, the Royal Navy lays down a class of four fast torpedo gunboats. While these do mount torpedo tubes, they far larger than normal torpedo boats and also feature a heavy gun armament. They are essentially small cruisers, intended as 'chasers' to catch and destroy enemy torpedo boats, with a secondary role of torpedo attack if desired. While good sea boats, capable of ocean going operations and working with the fleet, they are heavily criticised as it is felt they lack the speed necessary to catch torpedo boats. This will eventually lead to the concept being abandoned in favour of torpedo boat destroyers, or simply destroyers, smaller and faster vessels, though still with a heavy gun armament intended for the same purpose.

November 1885: After their success in establishing a protectorate over Vietnam and concerned at the increased British influence in China, the French have been endeavouring to expand their own influence in Burma to protect against British encroachment into Indochina. In 1884 the French signed a secret treaty with Burmese King Thibaw Min promising assistance if Burma is attacked by a third party. In mid 1885. they negotiate the establishment a French bank in Burma, a concession on a railway from Mandalay to the border of British Burma and a role in running ruining Burmese government controlled monopolies. However the British become aware of these agreements and become convinced of the necessity of bring Burma fully under British control. An ultimatum is issued demanding the King renounce the treaties an accept a new British resident and surrender control of Burmese foreign affairs. Expecting French support and any British advance to be slow due to the heavy jungle covering most of the country, the King rejects the ultimatum. The British invasion is launched five days later in the form of a fleet of steamers travelling directly up the Irrawaddy River toward the capital Mandalay. The Burmese are caught completely by surprise by this approach and unable to offer any effective resistance. Within two weeks the King surrenders and the British occupy Mandalay. The king is deposed and the British annex the entire country. The speed of the conquest gives the French no time to react other than to issue diplomatic protests. However guerilla resistance, supported by French arms, will continue and it will take the British several years to establish full control.

February 1885: Retired Indian civil servant Alan Hume obtains Viceroy Lord Rippon's permission to establish a new organisation to increase dialogue between the Imperial government and educated Indians. He will draw heavily upon the members of the moderate British Indian Association, with Surendranath Banerjee being appointed as chair of the new Indian National Congress. The more radical Indian National Association now lead by Bal Tilak, immediately claim the new organisation is simply a puppet of the British colonial administration. Nevertheless, the INC's quickly gains the ear of both the Viceroy and Secretary of State for India, with one of its members, Dadabhai Naorobji being the first Indian elected to the British House of Commons in 1886.

December 1885: Retired Indian civil servant Alan Hume obtains Viceroy Lord Rippon's permission to establish a new organisation to increase dialogue between the Imperial government and educated Indians. He will draw heavily upon the members of the moderate British Indian Association, with Surendranath Banerjee being appointed as chair of the new Indian National Congress. The more radical Indian National Association now lead by Bal Tilak, immediately claim the new organisation is simply a puppet of the British colonial administration. Nevertheless, the INC's quickly gains the ear of both the Viceroy and Secretary of State for India, with one of its members, Dadabhai Naorobji being the first Indian elected to the British House of Commons in 1886.

December 1885: US president Blaine violates the 1875 Reciprocity Treaty with Hawai'i, imposing high tariffs on Hawai'ian sugar imports. However, despite breaching the Treaty, the US does not relinquish control over Pearl Harbour. King Kalākaua of Hawai'i attempts to gain international support, primarily from Britain in an attempt to reinstate the full terms of the Treaty.

December 1885: With the completion of the transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railway, Premier MacDonald uses the Imperial Development Act to secure a large development loan for Canadian industry.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-June 1886: Achieving balance

January 1886: Since the Mahdist Uprising Emperor Yohannes IV of Abyssinia has been allowing Egyptian forces in Sudan to be evacuated through Abyssinian territory. This has resulted in fierce fighting between the Abyssinians and Mahdists. In retribution the Mahdists under Khalifa Abdullah Ibn-Mohammed launch an invasion of Abyssinia.

January 1886: The Federal Council of Australasia meets for the first time in Hobart. While its powers are limited and it has no mechanism for enforcing any decisions it reaches, it is hailed in the Pacific Dominions as the precursor to a full Imperial Federation.

January 1886: The Peruvian loss in the War of the Pacific has left a strong desire for revenge against the Chileans. The Peruvians have desired to rebuild their forces since their defeat, but the war has left their economy in ruins and such ideas have been well beyond their means. However, US President Blaine, seeking to build his anti Anglo-Chilean bloc in South America, offers US assistance. He proposes loans on exceptionally favourable terms to assist in rebuilding their army along with assistance in easing Peru's crippling debt from the war. The new Peruvian President Andrės Cáceres readily accepts Blaine's offer, ordering 12,000 surplus M1873 Springfield rifles in 0.45”-70 (11.6x53.5mmR) Government and several artillery pieces.

January 1886: Despite having only been in government for a little over three years, Campbell-Bannerman calls a new general election, hoping to capitalise on the enlarged franchise, favourable economic situation and goodwill generated by the relief of Khartoum to win an absolute majority. However the election once again results in a hung parliament, with the Liberals winning 320 seats, while the Conservatives take 219, Progressives 58, Irish Reform Party 51, and the Irish Home Rule Party 22 seats seats, leaving the Liberals 16 seats short of a majority. Campbell-Bannerman once again negotiates a confidence and supply agreement with Irish Reform Party. However its leader William Shaw, stung by the defection of the Parnellites, demands some firm commitment to movement on home rule. Campbell-Bannerman is able to satisfy Shaw's demands with a promise of effective Irish local government initially, with home rule to follow by the end of the parliamentary term. This agreement leads to another six Irish Reform MPs defecting to the Irish Home Rule Party. Campbell-Bannerman elects to retain Randolph Churchill as Colonial Secretary.

February 1886: Following the Guangxu Emperor's example, his three year old half brother Zaifeng is sent by his father Prince Chun to join the Emperor in Britain for his education.

February 1886: Prominent Liberal MP Charles Dilke is named as co-respondent in fellow Liberal MP Donald Crawford's divorce case. Crawford's wife Virginia does not appear in court and the only evidence is her husband's testimony reporting her alleged confession. The court finds there is no evidence to support Dilke as co-respondent but grants Crawford a decree nisi regardless, leaving Dilke's 'respectability' in question, with the journalist Thomas Stead questioning his ethics in a series of articles. Though he desires to attempt to clear his name by opposing the decree absolute, Charles Russell, his legal counsel, advises against it and he remains silent. While the scandal is temporarily damaging to his political career, it will recover within a few years.

March 1886: After requesting proposals from all major European shipbuilders, the Chileans eventually order the ships authorised in 1885 from Samuda Brothers in London, despite the French bid being lower. This results in considerable comment in the French press, with the British accused of unduly influencing the ordering process, biasing it in their favour. More significantly, the Chilean program causes alarm in Argentina and Brazil who, encouraged by the US, will order their own warships in response, sparking a South American Naval Arms Race,

April 1886: The new US administration of President Blaine, stung by the humiliation at the hands of Chile in the Panama Crisis and reiterating the intention to match the British in naval power, presents its first naval estimates. The estimates call for no less than six battleships, four monitors, again masquerading as repairs to Civil War era vessels, four armoured cruisers, six other cruisers and twenty torpedo boats, along with the establishment of a naval base in Puget Sound. Naturally this brings strong opposition in the economy minded Congress. However the humiliation at having to have backed down in the face of Chile proves vital in mustering support for the program. Eventually a revised program of two battleships and four armoured cruisers along with four monitors and eight torpedo boats, felt useful for protecting the coast. The provision for a naval base in Puget Sound is also retained, though scaled back. Ironically, the navy chooses to favour British designs for the ships, with the battleships directly designed by William John of Barrow Shipbuilding and the armoured cruisers patterned after the Brazilian ironclad Riachuelo built in Britain. While the program has been scaled back, Blaine's open declaration of his intent to challenge the dominance of the Royal Navy finally raises concerns in Britain, with many papers running articles decrying the state of the navy and calling for action.

May 1886: Since the formation of the International Working Peoples Association or Black International in 1881, the anarchist group has gained much influence in the US labour movement, agitating strongly for an eight hour work day and other reforms. In support of this goal a well organised general strike has been called. When police try to break up a rally at Heymarket Square in Chicago in support of the strike a bomb is thrown at the advancing police. In the resulting clash seven police and four demonstrators are killed. This act is portrayed as an example 'propaganda of the deed,' as advocated by the 1881 London International Anarchist Congress, leads to a massive crackdown on anarchist and labour groups in the US, with four leaders of the Black International executed for involvement in the bombing. This crackdown will all but destroy the anarchist movement in the US and much of Europe. However a number of prominent members, particularly Lucy Parsons and Johann Most will choose exile in Britain where they will continue the movement.

May 1886: In an initial attempt to keep his word to Shaw, Campbell-Bannerman introduces the Local Government (Ireland) Bill. The bill proposes to introduce directly elected local bodies throughout Ireland on the basis of the Parliamentary franchise, These new County, District and Town councils would have extensive powers, giving the Irish people a far greater say in decisions directly effecting them, ending the control of local bodies by absentee landlords. The bill is only opposed by the Conservatives and Irish Home Rule Party, thus passes easily through the Commons, as well as gathering widespread popular support at large. Fearing it is just the first step to Irish Home Rule, the Conservative dominated Lords return the bill to the Commons. The Liberals are outraged, calling for the reform or even abolition of the Lords. As with the constitutional crisis over Trevelyan's reform bill in 1884, Queen Victoria attempts to mediate a settlement. However Campbell-Bannerman is far less inclined to compromise than Trevelyan was. Eventually, with it clear Campbell-Bannerman is willing to go to the polls over the issue and likely to win, Lord Salisbury agrees to pass the bill, providing it applies to the entire United Kingdom, not only Ireland.

June 1886: In response to the Heymarket Bombing President Blaine arranges for the Mckenna Act to be passed, heavily restricting trade unions in the US. Though the act will eventually be struck down as an unconstitutional violation of free speech by the Supreme Court, it will greatly restrict the activities of the labour moment. The act prohibits strikes by workers outside a business directly involved in a dispute or strikes for 'political' reasons, allows the imprisonment of union leaders found to 'inciting violence, limits financial support for striking workers, allows for union leaders to be held directly responsible for violence which occurs during labour protests, and prohibits the involvement of anarchists in union activities or unions for exposing “anarchist principles.”

June 1886: The British begin reforming and retraining the Egyptian army. The new army is intended to include eight Egyptian and four Sudanese dual battalion infantry regiments, two dual battalion cavalry regiments, a single camel battalion, and eight artillery batteries. The new army is similar to the Indian with British officers in command of Egyptian troops. Like the Indian army however, the Egyptians will be equipped with obsolete British weapons.

 

[Miss Construction]

~July-Dec 1886: Planting the seed

July 1886: It has become common practice for Canadian vessels to take fur seals in the open water of the Baring Sea off Alaska. However, the behaviour of the seals during the breeding season results in most of these seals being nursing females. Consequently the practice is placing the viability of the seal population at risk, and the US government begins capturing Canadian vessels engaged in this practice. Three such vessels are taken by the US revenue cutter Corwin and condemned for sale for violating Alaska law. The Canadian government, through the British still technically responsible for Canadian foreign affairs, protest and the vessels are eventually released. However as a result the US government will claim exclusive jurisdiction over sealing in the entire Baring Sea, on the grounds of protecting the seal population.

July 1886: In response to Chile's naval program the Brazilians order two small battleships and two protected cruisers from French yards. These ships are simply slightly modified versions of the French proposal for the Chilean ships which were eventually ordered from British yards. Wishing to avoid the potential for a re-occurrence, the French builders resort to large bribes to ensure they do not lose the order again. Nevertheless, the use of an existing design allows the ships to be laid down early in 1887.

July 1886: After the Russian war scare of 1885 the first subject for discussion at the London Imperial Conference is defence. The Pacific Dominions, for the first time including a delegation from Fiji effectively making the first non while Dominion, are particularly concerned by the prospect of naval raiders attacking their coastal facilities and cities. The Pacific Dominions agree to fund the construction of an additional five cruisers to be deployed to the Australian Station. The Imperial government also agrees to assist the Dominions in upgrading their coastal fortifications, with Canada being particularly enthusiastic regarding this matter. Yet again the Dominions express their disappointment the final Vancouver to Brisbane link in the All Red Line has not yet begum. However Colonial Secretary Randolph Churchill emphasises the formidable technical challenge involved in laying a 12,000km undersea cable. However he is able to point to the annexation of the Gilbert and Ellis Islands as clear progress toward this goal. Jan Hofmeyr, one of the delegates from the Cape Colony suggests the possibility of establishing an All Red Route of solely Imperial shipping companies servicing Imperial ports to mirror the All Red Line of telegraph cables. The proposal attracts considerable support and it is agreed to establish a committee to investigate its viability. Near the end of the Conference, Churchill raises the possibility of an Imperial Custom Union. All the Dominions are extremely reluctant to establish a customs union, Canada in particular, suggesting instead a more limited Imperial Preference scheme. Eventually a decision is reached to create an Imperial Preference tariff scheme, whereby each Dominion and Britain will impose lower tariffs on Imperial goods, but the exact level of tariffs is to be left to each individual government. Though a legacy of mistrust between the Dominions and Imperial government from the Sydney Conference remains, it is agreed the results of the Forth Conference are far more productive. Finally it is decided the next conference should be held in Toronto during 1888.

August 1886: The Austro-Hungarians adopt the M1886 Mannlicher straight pull wedge locking bolt action magazine rifle as their standard infantry rifle. Chambered for the 11x58mmR. black powder round, it replaces the long obsolete drum action single shot 11.15x42mmR M1867 Wendl-Holub rifle. Unlike most magazine fed service rifles which use tubular magazines, the M1886 is loaded with a five round en-bloc clip inserted vertically below the action. This not only increases accuracy by allowing the rifle's balance to remain consistent, it results in a massive improvement in the rate of reloading over individual rounds,

August 1886: Land reform in Ireland has brought about a movement similar reform in Scotland, including growing calls for Scottish home rule. As a result the Crofters Holdings (Scotland) Act is passed, The act for the first time provides security of tenure for Scottish crofters and establishes a Land Commission to resolve disputes between tenants and landlords.

August 1886: The US and Peru follow up their earlier informal agreement with the Treaty of Boston. The treaty grants the Peruvians large loans on attractive terms to assist with the crippling debt they accumulated during the War of the Pacific and provides favourable access for Peruvian goods to the US. In return Peru gives US goods reciprocal access to its market and undertakes to restrict the access of other nations. US companies and individuals are also to be given preferential treatment in regards to investment in Peru. The treaty also includes military provisions, with US naval and army missions to be dispatched to assist in rebuilding the Peruvian forces and additionally Peru is granted access to US military procurement system, allowing Peruvian equipment orders to be added to US orders, reducing costs. This last provision will result in Peru purchasing virtually all its military hardware from the US.

August 1886: Privy Council deliver their findings on the Gorst-Stout panel. The findings are highly critical of the defunct New Zealand Company, highlighting many examples of 'dubious' practices in their land purchases. Their Lordships state liability might attach to these practices, but they stress such liability would be a civil matter attached to the New Zealand Company, not the Imperial government, with evidence of collusion between the Company and colonial officials being dismissed. Their Lordships acknowledge that since the New Zealand Company was wound up in 1850, there is no possibility of bringing civil suit, but offer no other potential remedy other than a passing mention the New Zealand Constitution Act of 1852 contains a mechanism to settle the company's outstanding debts. Regarding the First Taranaki War, the Council finds no fault on the Imperial government's part, either regarding its outbreak or conduct. However their Lordships do mildly criticise then Governor Thomas Browne, suggesting a more considered initial approach may have avoided war. In this context they also praise British General Thomas Pratt, who had expressed concerns over the Waitara Purchase which sparked the war. Though that he had in fact expressed serious doubts about its validity in entirety is not mentioned. Regardless having determined no injustice took place, their Lordships make no recommendations regarding the war. In short, their Lordships find Māori have suffered injustice, while at the same time finding there is no way this can be rectified. As a token gesture, Campbell-Bannerman convinces New Zealand Premier Stout to uses the provisions of the New Zealand Constitution Act to divert 25% of the sale of any remaining Crown Land purchased by the New Zealand Company to set up a fund for Māori welfare. However Stout caps this fund at a Maximum of £10,000 {£11,649}. The Gorst-Stout Report and the Privy Council decision will have a long lasting effect on Māori land claims well into the 20th century, as both the British and New Zealand governments will regard it as full and final settlement of any grievances dating from before 1863 for over a hundred years and refuse to reopen the matter.

September 1886: Recognising India's potential to be something other than simply a captive market and source of raw materials, Secretary of State for India Lord Northbrook successfully gets India included in the Imperial Development Act. This will spur the development of industry and manufacture in India itself, slowly leading to its eventual industrialisation.

October 1886: Though the Land Law (Ireland) Act of 1883 has on average resulted in a 25% reduction in rents for Irish tenant farmers, the ongoing agricultural depression along with the general inefficiency of Irish farming is continuing to create considerable hardship for Irish farmers, which is blamed on excessive rents by landlords. Radical Irish nationalists William O'Brien and John Dillon of the Irish Land League publish a Plan of Campaign calling for tenants to offer landlords a lower rent and if refused pay no rent at all. To provide financial support for those engaged in rent strikes, the proposed rents, along with donations from supporters, are to be collected and deposited into an account and then distributed as needed. The plan is initially relatively effective, with many landlords agreeing to further reduce rents, however some resist resulting in renewed civil unrest. The Conservatives call for a new Coercion Act to deal with the unrest, but Campbell-Bannerman rejects such calls, preferring to attempt to negotiate a solution with the radicals, hoping for support from the Irish parties in Parliament. However the campaign has further split those parties. Shaw's Irish Reform Party, while not having spoken against the campaign, has not publicly supported it either, but Parnell's Irish Home Rule Party openly backs the campaign. This support leads to large donations to the Land League account for the support of striking tenants, not only in Ireland, but abroad, particularly the US and France.

November 1886: Argentina join the South American Naval Arms Race, ordering a pair of small riverine battleships. Despite President Blaine offering considerable incentives to order the ships in the US, the vessels are ordered from Cammell Laird in Britain.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-June 1887: Walking a fine line

January 1887: The reorganisation of the Indian army under the Wolseley Report is completed. The Presidential army are combined into a single unified force consisting of the single cavalry battalion Viceroy's Bodyguard, 22 dual battalion cavalry regiments, 72 dual battalion infantry regiments, the existing ten dual battalion Gurkha regiments, eighteen mountain artillery batteries and the Corps of Guides consisting of two infantry and two cavalry battalions and a single mountain artillery battery. With it widely expected a new British service rifle will be adopted shortly, the upgrading of the Indian army's weapons is delayed until this matter is settled.

January 1887: Since Italian unification in 1861, the new kingdom has been seeking to establish its own colonial empire. As part of this plan, control of the port of Assab was established in 1869. With the Egyptian withdrawal from Sudan they have extended their control to the former Egyptian port of Nassawa with tacit British approval. However this territory is also claimed by the Abyssinians. An Abyssinian force under Ras Alula of some 14,000 men moves to secure the region. They encounter a small Italian force of some 500-600 men at Dogali. Though well armed with modern rifles and artillery the Italians are eventually overwhelmed by weight of number with only a handful escaping alive. However Ras Alula has acted without Emperor Yohannes IV's permission and is ordered to halt. This will allow the Italians time to reinforce their position and prepare a full expedition to secure Eritrea.

February 1887: The Abyssinians under Yohannes IV's vassal Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam launch a successful counter offensive which drives the Mahdists from Abyssinia. However this is halted by Yohannes IV, fearing Haymanot may become too powerful and threaten his position, along with his growing concerns about Italian encroachment on his territory. As a result the Mahdist army is able to escape without crippling losses.

February 1887: The Guangxu Emperor has reached the age of majority and returned to China to begin his reign, despite his desire to remain in Britain and continue his education. Seeking both to increase the influence of her maternal family at court and establish her control over the Emperor, Dowager Empress Cixi attempts to force him to take her niece Jingfen of the Yehe Nara clan as his Empress. The Emperor however immediately detests her and exercises his power as Emperor to simply refuse. Cixi, fearing loss of her own power and is convinced his exposure to Western ideas will lead him to introduce radical reform. She capitalised on his wishes to continue his education and suggests he should return to Britain. Consequently he is allowed to return and enter the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich while Cixi begins attempting to gain sufficient support in the Qing court to have him deposed and replaced with a more 'suitable' Emperor. A secondary result of his admission to Woolwich will be Britain allowing Chinese cadets to attend British naval and military academies.

March 1887: In accordance with the compromise worked out between Lord Salisbury and Prime Minister Campbell-Bannerman, the Local Government Bill is reintroduced, modified to extended representative local government to all of the United Kingdom. Despite some opposition in the Lords, the compromise holds and the bill is passed into law. The first elections under the new law are to be held in September.

March 1887: Allan Hume a retired member of the Indian Civil Servant and prominent member of the moderate nationalist British Indian Association, recognising the massive inefficiency involved with shipping Indian to British textile mills, uses the Imperial Development Act to finance the construction of a huge textile mill in Bombay. With the advantages of lower labour costs and proximity to raw materials, the mill rapidly becomes one of the most successful in the Empire. Hume makes a point of employing as many Indians as possible in senior positions, as well as paying his employees well and providing extensive social support for them. His success will encourage other British, Indian and Anglo-Indian to follow his example.

April 1887: US anarchist exiles Lucy Parsons and Johann Most begin working with British anarchists such as Frank Kitz, Thomas Cantwell, Charlotte Wilson, and Henry Seymour as well as émigrés such as Peter Kropotkin and Francesco Saverio, aiming to resurrect the International Working People's Association. The British anarchists, who have just taken control of the Socialist League agree reform the IWPA with the aim of building contacts with anarchist groups in Europe.

April 1887: An obscure French police inspector, Guillaume Schaebelé, is arrested by German secret police on the German border will travelling to attend a meeting at the invitation of a local German police official. The arrest provokes fury in France and the affair quickly escalates, with provocative and inflammatory language flying on both sides. A proposal by French War Minister Georges Boulanger to issue an ultimatum demanding his release and apology is defeated in the French cabinet by a single vote, as is a similar proposal by Boulanger to mobilise an army corps, either of which would have almost certainly resulted in a war France was ill prepared for. Thankfully Schaebelé is released a week later, with the Germans stating while his arrest was justified, he was released on the grounds meetings between frontier officials were protected by mutually assured safe conduct. The French public however believe the Germans backed down because of Boulanger's hard line stance, and he quickly becomes a national hero. However, fearful his extreme position might provoke war, he is removed as War Minister in July and dispatched to the provinces. This however only serves to increase his popularity.

April 1887: Strategic thinking in the US navy has been increasingly moving away from its previous doctrine of focus on coast defence and commerce raiding in favour of the traditional battle fleet as advocated by Admiral Alfred Mahan. In a continued effort to expand the US navy to world rank, US Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Harrison presents his naval estimates to Congress. Yet again his program is cut back but he is successful in obtaining another pair of armoured cruisers, a single monitor, yet again supposedly just a 'repair,' three cruisers and twelve additional torpedo boats. There is also criticism of the time being taken to construct these new ships as only one cruiser and a single gunboat ordered since 1883 have so far entered service. Comparison is made with the British who in the same time have added four battleships, eight cruisers and numerous smaller vessels to their fleet.

May 1887: The French introduce the Fusil d'Infanterie Modèle 1886 dit “Fusil Lebel” using revolutionary 8x50mmR Lebel small bore smokeless powder cartridge, instantly making all existing military rifles obsolete. Despite its radical new ammunition, the Lebel has been rushed into service at the insistence of War Minister Georges Boulanger and retains a number of obsolete features such as an eight round tubular magazine, heavily tapered rimmed cartridge which is simply a necked down version of the previous 11x59mmR cartridge, and action taken from the 1874 Gras rifle with the addition of two front locking lugs. Consequently the Mle 1886 Lebel will be very quickly outclassed by other designs. Despite his interference having seriously hampered the rifle, its revolutionary nature will be credited to Boulanger, even further increasing his support.

May 1887: Seeking to repeat his success with Peru, President Blaine attempts to negotiate a similar treaty with Argentina, hoping to capitalise on their growing rivalry with Chile to bring them into his anti Anglo-Chilean bloc. Though the Argentine President Julio Roca is warm to the idea, he is also acutely aware of the importance of Britain as a market for Argentine exports and especially continued British investment in the booming Argentine economy. With these matters in mind he politely declines the US approach.

June 1887: Despite his hopes that the promise of the introduction of representative local government would calm the situation, Campbell-Bannerman's attempts to negotiate an end to the Plan of Campaign land protests in Ireland have failed. While still rejecting calls for a new Coercion Act, he introduces the Public Order (Financial Accounts) Bill in an effort to end the unrest by starving it of money, The bill allows for the courts to freeze the accounts of any person or group in England, Ireland, Scotland or Wales found to be acting with the “intent to create public disorder.” The bill is opposed by both Irish parties and many within Campbell-Bannerman's own Liberal Party, however it is eventually passed in September with support from the Progressives and Conservatives. However the government holds off using its provisions, hoping the threat will be sufficient to restore order. In an effort to gather support with the Irish parties, he stresses to both William Shaw and Charles Parnell that their be no practical possibility of gaining sufficient support for further Irish reform as long as the unrest persists. While he is successful in convincing Shaw to speak against the Plan of Campaign, Parnell rejects this and the Irish Home Rule Party continues to publicly support it. However, Shaw's stand against the campaign will lead to another six MPs defecting from his Irish Reform Party to the Irish Home Rule Party.

June 1887: The breakup of Zululand into smaller chieftainships has led to continual fighting between the various chiefs. There have been several attempts to curb this bloodshed, including returning the Zulu king Cetshwayo to the throne in 1882, however none have proved successful. Cetshwayo's son Dinuzulu, who succeeded him in 1884, forms an alliance with the Transvaal Boers under Louis Botha to expand his territory. In return for their aid he grants them considerable territory. Concerned at the prospect of the Boers gaining access to the sea, the British formally annex Zululand as a colony.

 

[Miss Construction]

~July-Dec 1887: Power plays

July 1887: Simultaneously with his attempt to bring Argentina into his anti Anglo-Chilean bloc, President Blaine has been making overtures to the Brazilians. Brazilian Prime Minister João Correia de Oliveira, like the Argentine President Roca is well aware of the importance of Britain to Brazil. With the ongoing South American Naval Arms Race and a growing issue with ill-discipline in the Brazilian military he is willing to entertain some form of assistance in reforming the military, though unwilling to enter a formal treaty arrangement. While far less than Blaine had desired, he agrees to to dispatch US military mission, hoping it will be just the fist step in wooing Brazil over. When the US mission arrives they are shocked at the politicisation of the Brazilian army, along with the lack of discipline and professionalism, reaching all the way to the most senior levels. It is particularly noticeable given the reputation for professionalism the Brazilians had during the 1860s and 70s. The US advisers will immediately set about trying to rectify this, but are seriously hampered by the level to which it reaches.

July 1887: The poor initial British response to the Russian actions at Panjdeh has convinced Emir Mohammad Ayub Khan the British can not be relied upon and resolves to re-establish Afghan independence. After the Russian war scare the British garrison has been set at two battalions infantry, a squadron of cavalry, plus some support units, with around 200 troops in Kabul. Ayub has made extensive contacts with Afghan tribal leaders in preparation for his uprising, but also included his cousin Abdur Rahman Khan in his planning. Ayub launches his campaign by attempting to seize the British mission in Kabul and hold them as hostages, however Rahman forewarns the British who prepare a defence of the Residency. The assault on the Residency lasts twenty hours and results in the entire British garrison being wiped out. Meanwhile Brahman seizes the city of Herat and declares for the British. The British response is swift, with a field force under General Michael Biddulph organised to crush Ayab's revolt, while the remaining British forces concentrate on Khandahar.

August 1887: Campbell-Bannerman's government passes the Workplace Disputes Act. This act prohibits the firing or blacklisting of striking workers. The act is hailed as a major advance for workers rights, though attempts to include compulsory mediation is defeated by Conservative opposition in the Lords.

August 1887: At Italian instigation, Yohannes IV's vassals, Menelik of Shewa and Takle Haymanot of Gojjam, enter a defensive alliance. Fearing this is part of a plot to overthrow him, Yohannes IV crosses into Gojjam and devastates the region. This causes Haymanot to abandon the alliance and submit to the Emperor. However Menelik negotiates a secret treaty with the Italians who promise to supply him arms in return for his neutrality in any conflict with Yohannes IV.

August 1887: Since the end of the War of the Pacific, the Chileans have been attempting to strengthen their relationships with Colombia and Ecuador, both of whom have border disputes with Peru. These efforts were redoubled in the wake of the Panama Crisis and break with the US. These efforts are beginning to show signs of success. In the case of Ecuador, there has been an increase in military ties, with the Chileans sending instructors to train the Ecuadorian army and selling surplus military equipment. However, the Ecuadorians have adopted a cautious approach, mindful of the risks of antagonising the increasingly bellicose US government. On the other hand with the Colombians, grateful for Chilean intervention in the Panama Crisis and now highly suspicious of US intentions, these approaches have yielded far greater success. As a result a formal Treaty of Cooperation is signed, establishing a permanent Chilean military training mission in Colombia and the two countries agreeing to adopt a common policy in the event of “foreign threats.” This last being interpreted as meaning Peru and the US.

August 1887: Continued agitation in the press over the US naval building program finally forces the British to respond, albeit modestly. The 1887 program includes two new battleships, six 1st class protected cruisers and eight 3rd class cruisers. Additionally funds are provided to upgrade the defences and dockyard at Bermuda. The battleships are essentially repeats of the previous year's Trafalgar class with their main armament fitted in barbettes rather than turrets in an attempt to determine which approach is superior. It is found the reduction in weight will allow a higher free board, greatly improving sea keeping. As a result no further turret ships will be built for the Royal Navy.

September 1887: Emir Ayub Khan attempts to stop the British advance before they reach Jalalabad, However his forces are scattered at the Battle of Sangar, leaving the way to Kabul open. Ayub retreats toward Kandahar, to gather further reinforcements. Unfortunately he is hampered by the actions of his cousin, Rahman Khan and now secured much of western Afghanistan.

September 1887: Secretary of State for India Lord Northbrook attempts to begin the implementation of his 1879 report into the administration of India. He proposes to cabinet a bill reshaping the Indian Provincial Legislative Councils along the lines he recommended. Campbell-Bannerman is however aware such a bill would be fiercely opposed in Parliament and is unwilling to spark another constitutional crisis. He therefore arranges private discussions with Conservative leader Lord Salisbury and head of the Progressives Gladstone, as well as William Shaw and Charles Parnell of the Irish parties to determine what would possible. Eventually a deal is worked out, acceptable to all sides. The Indian Provincial Councils will be expanded to thirty six members, twenty of whom will be Indian. With eight of those directly elected. However the Provincial governors will retain a veto over all matters relating to law and order or finances, with the reserve power to act on these without Council approval if necessary. The requisite Indian Councils Bill will be introduced early in 1888 and passed into law near the end of the year. However, uncomfortable with the increasing radicalism of Campbell-Bannerman's government. Randolph Churchill resigns his position as Colonial Secretary. He is replaced by Charles Dilke.

October 1887: Despite the ships ordered from the French having already stretched their budget, continued US encouragement results in the Brazilians ordering two further protected cruisers from US yards. These ships are based on the USS San Francisco ordered in 1886 and currently under construction.

October 1887: With the backing of President Blaine, US settlers stage a coup in Hawai'i attempting to force King Kalākaua into signing a new constitution, disenfranchising the vast majority of Hawai'ians. The King however refuses to yield. At this point Blaine orders US sailors at the Pearl arbour naval base to assist the settlers and the Hawai'ian monarchy is overthrown and a settler controlled republic declared. In an act which greatly increases tensions with the US, British Foreign Secretary Joseph Chamberlain refuses to acknowledge the legitimacy of the new Hawai'ian Republic, instead calling for a restoration of the monarch with negotiations between the King and settlers to resolve the crisis.

November 1887: With the current Enfield revolver introduced in 1880 proving extremely unsatisfactory in service, the British adopt the top break double action Webley revolver in 0.455” (11.55x19.3mmR) Webley. With its heavy slow moving bullet going against the European trend for smaller faster rounds, the Webley quickly develops a reputation as an effective “man-stopper” in colonial conflicts.

November 1887: Working in London with the support of British physicist Joseph Swan, Nikola Tesla develops a radical new AC induction motor. Swan immediately recognises the potential of this device to solve one of the major hurdles to the implementation of an AC power grid and sells his shares in Edison and Swan Electric Light Company to Edison so he work on this project exclusively. He founds a new company, Swan Electrical to develop Tesla's device, immediately applying for a patent in Britain, Europe and the US in his and Tesla's names.

December 1887: Campbell-Bannerman's hope that the threat of having their financial assets frozen would lead to the Irish Land League being willing to negotiate an end to the Plan of Campaign have proven false and, while the introduction of representative local government has helped ease tensions to a degree, unrest in Ireland is still posing a considerable problem, with violence becoming far more common. Seeing no other option he reluctantly instructs the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to bring a case against the Irish Land League and its leaders under the new act.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-June 1888: A question of security

January 1888: Emir Ayub Khan's army of 4,000 Afghan regulars supported by some 12,000 tribesmen is finally defeated by General Michael Biddulph at the Battle of Kandahar, bringing the Third Anglo-Afghan War to an end. With the country secure once more, the British are left to decide Afghanistan's fate again. As in 1880, the are calls for the country to be partitioned or formally annexed as a colony. Eventually it is decided the best course is to annex large portions and leave a rump state as a buffer with the Russians. The Baluch region are added to the Indian province of Baluchistan while most of the Pashtun regions will be combined with the Pashtun regions of the Punjab to create a new Indian province of Pashtunistan. Rahman Khan is installed as the new Emir of the rump Afghanistan, but under the authority of a British resident. The existing Afghan army is disbanded with a new force of eight infantry and one cavalry battalion to be recruited and three infantry regiments raised from Pashtunistan as part of the Indian army.

January 1888: With Gojjam having been devastated by Yohannes IV, the Mahdists renew their invasion. Talke Haymanot's forces are defeated at the Battle of Sarweha, leaving north west Abyssinia open to invasion. The Mahdists then sack the city of Gondar, enslaving thousands of Christians. Unable to stop the Mahdists, Haymanot appeals to Yohannes IV for assistance.

January 1888: Since the very early 1870s the Germans have desired to build a railway linking Berlin Baghdad. This will not only give them access to a warm water port on the Persian Gulf, it will enable them to exploit the vast oil reserves suspected to lie in Mesopotamia. While a rail connection from Berlin to Constantinople already exists, there is no link from Constantinople to Baghdad. The Ottomans are also keen and willing to subsidise such a project as it will greatly improve communications within the Empire. Work, funded by Deutsches Bank, begins on the first stage, Constantinople to Ankara.

February 1888: The US settler controlled Republic of Hawai'i appeals to the US for annexation. President Blaine asks Congress for a resolution authorising the immediate incorporation of the islands The resolution is passed five days later and Blaine declares the creation of the Territory of Hawai'i. The annexation greatly alarms the Pacific Dominions, and the Federal Council of Australasia meets in Hobart to discuss the matter. The Council resolves they, along with the individual Dominion governments, should petition the Imperial government expressing their concerns in the strongest terms. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet discusses these petitions at length. The majority of cabinet are likewise concerned by the annexation and the increasingly hostile attitude of the Blaine administration. Nonetheless they are also mindful of the potential consequences of antagonising the US, especially regarding Canada. They resolve that a full response should only be made after consultations with the Dominions at the upcoming Imperial Conference. In the interim they issue a statement which neither accepts nor rejects the legitimacy of the US move, calling for the rights of the Hawai'ians to be respected and a speedy resolution of the fate of the Islands.

February 1888: Against expectations, the case under against the Irish Land League under Public Order (Financial Accounts) Act proves to be far less straight forward than thought. The case hinges on the precise wording of the act, specifically the phrase “intent to create public disorder.” The Land League's lead advocate, Charles Russell, argues while the Plan of Campaign may have created public disorder, this was not the Land League's intent. Their intent was to bring about peaceful negotiations. The case is heard by Lord Morris in the Court of Queen's Bench. In a lengthy decision Lord Morris finds Russell's argument on intent is highly persuasive. But while public unrest was likely not the original intent, the Land Leagues rejection of all attempts to reach a compromise as unrest grew is proof of intent as the campaign continued. Consequently he grants the government's petition to freeze the accounts frozen. While the Land League will try to evade the order by using proxies, the government will have the order extended to include these. With this, Campbell-Bannerman's response to Irish unrest will eventually prove successful, as the Land League unable to continue its campaign as finances become critical. The Plan of Campaign will be over by the end of the year. Despite the government's apparent victory, the affair will considerably increase support for the radical nationalists in Ireland.

March 1888: German Emperor Wilhelm I dies and is succeeded by his liberal son Frederick III. Many expect him to launch a program of reform, transforming Germany into a democratic constitutional monarchy like Britain. However he will himself die 99 days later, leaving the throne to his authoritarian son Wilhelm II.

March 1888: General Garnet Wolseley is appointed as Adjutant-General of the British army. In one of his first acts he orders the purchase of 240 Maxim machine guns chambered for the 0.45” (11.43x60mmR) Machine Gun cartridge. With no clear doctrine for using these new weapons, he order one attached to each infantry or cavalry battalion and the remaining 60 formed into ten batteries each of six guns with the Royal Artillery. It is hoped this will eventually determine whether the machine gun should be treated as an artillery piece or a small arm. The existing stocks of manually operated Gatling, Gadrner and Nordenfelt machine guns are to be issued on the same scale to the territorials and yeomanry.

March 1888: Faced with the difficulties of laying the undersea telegraph cable from Vancouver to Sydney required to complete the All Red Line, the Trans Pacific Cable Company is formed to deal with the challenge. The British government takes a 30% shareholding, Canada 15%, the Pacific Dominions and Fiji another 15%, with the remaining 40% floated for private investors. The new company orders the design of a class of two new cable ships. These ships are to be specifically designed for the task and fitted with the latest cable laying technology. While these vessels are being constructed, work begins on establishing a repeater station on uninhabited Fanning Island in the Gilbert and Ellis group.

March 1888: With some 20,000 troops now in Eritrea, the Italians have been slowly moving to occupy the region. Yohannes IV has been massing his forces to oppose them, ordering his vassal Menelik to guard against them while he gathers his army. But when word reaches him of the Mahdist invasion and he abandons his campaign against the Italians, ordering Menelik to contain them. However due to their secret alliance with Menelik, the Italians are able to occupy large parts of Eritrea virtually unopposed.

April 1888: With relations between the US and British continuing to deteriorate, the Blaine administration is able to gain authorisation for another two armoured cruisers and six other cruisers in the 1888 naval program. These vessels are heavily influenced by French practice, including prominent ram bows. However questions are beginning to be raised as to whether the rapid US naval build up is itself contributing to the worsening relations with the British.

April 1888: Italian physicist Galileo Farraris punishes a paper describing an AC induction motor very similar to Tesla's. Joseph Swan quickly obtains the patent rights to the device. With it a practical AC power distribution system is developed, Swan commissions Sebastian de Ferranti to oversee the construction of the worlds first central power station. Unlike DC power stations, the Deptford station will be able to supply power to large area without a significant voltage drop. This system will rapidly displace DC power systems in Britain and the Empire.

April 1888: Campbell-Bannerman has been a long time supporter of women's suffrage. Feeling he has sufficient backing in Parliament to implement it in at least some form, he introduces the Representation of the People (Women) Bill. The bill would enfranchise women who meet the same property qualifications as men, or who's husbands qualify for the vote. However, as Women's suffrage is highly controversial, it sets the age of eligibility for women at thirty. Though Campbell-Bannerman has underestimated the level of support, not anticipating the opposition of many Irish MPs, he is still able to get the bill narrowly passed by the Commons. However it is rejected by the Conservative dominated Lords. While the result is deeply disappointing for the Women's suffrage movement and Campbell-Bannerman personally, he is unwilling to trigger a constitutional crisis over the power of the Lords. Fortunately however, Lord Salisbury is equally as concerned by the prospect of such a crisis and assures the Prime Minister this power will be only used sparingly, on matters the Conservatives consider critical.

May 1888: Brazilian Minister of War Deodoro da Fonseca, after receiving a large bribe, orders 120,000 Lebel rifles for the Brazilian army for 150 francs {£6.91}, well over their regular price. The contract stipulates delivery should be made within the year.

June 1888: Despite the 1881 boundary treaty theoretically having resolved the issue of control of the Straits of Magellan, the dispute has reignited. The Argentines, supported by the US, have adopted an interpretation of the treaty which places the approaches to the Atlantic end of the the Straits in their territorial waters. Consequently tensions between Argentina and Chile are again increasing, fueling the ongoing South American Naval Arm Race, In a continued effort to strengthen their fleet, Argentina orders two more cruisers. Despite President Blaine's continuing efforts to have orders placed in US yards, the ships are to be built at Armstrong Mitchell in Britain. The Veinticinco de Mayo class are based on the cruiser Piedmonte under construction by Armstrong Mitchell for the Italians and featuring an armament entirely of quick firing guns.

 

[Miss Construction]

~July-Dec 1888: Unpleasant surprises

July 1888: The Toronto Imperial Conference is dominated by the Hawai'ian situation. The hostile and expansionist policies of the US and Germany, combined with the recent Russian war scare have left the Pacific Dominions deeply concerned by matters of security. They call for a firm stand against US and German expansionism plus a substantial increase in the Australian Squadron. The Canadians are also concerned by security. However they argue strongly against any actions which might be perceived as hostile by the US, instead suggesting a far more conciliatory approach, seeking to improve relations. They claim the proposed increase in naval strength in the Pacific would in fact only worsen the situation. Queensland Premier Samuel Griffith has obtained a copy of the suppressed 1879 Carnarvon report into the navy. The revelations of the report spark outrage in every Dominion delegations, will allegations the Imperial government has betrayed its responsibilities. Attempted explanations by Colonial Secretary Charles Dilke and Foreign Secretary Joseph Chamberlain that the report was commissioned under the Disraeli government and that the naval estimates have increased since the Liberals took power are ignored. Eventually Jan Hofmeyr, part of the Cape Colony delegation proposes a solution. He suggests the Imperial government to embark on a serious program to renew the navy, including sustained construction to restore its strength. However the Australian Station should be only modestly bolstered to avoid US hostility, but steps should be taken to ensure it can be rapidly reinforced in a crisis. The Imperial government should also assist the Dominions in strengthening their own defences, to reaffirm their commitment to Imperial security, both to foreign powers and the Dominions.

July 1888: The Hofmeyr compromise is accepted by Conference as a solution, albeit somewhat reluctantly by the British, with the Pacific Dominions agreeing to contribute to the cost of the new ships for the Pacific. However all the Dominions argue that Imperial security is a matter of concern for the entire Empire, and the Imperial government should no longer act without regard to the Dominions, a position again accepted by the British. This will become the Toronto Doctrine in the Imperial constitutional framework. However both Chamberlain and Dilke express some concern. They point out international crises develop very quickly and the Imperial Conferences are only held biennially. This provokes some talk of holding the conferences annually, but it is argued this will not resolve the issue. Chamberlain suggests the formation of a permanent Imperial Security Council of Dominion and Imperial representatives with binding powers in a crisis. The Dominions are open to the possibility but unwilling to give it binding powers. Agreement is nevertheless reached to form such a council, but without binding powers. The revelations of the Carnarvon Report further increase the Dominions mistrust of the Imperial government left from the 1884 Sydney Conference, though the Imperial commitment to respect Dominion concerns in future does limit the damage. At the close it is decided the next conference should be held in 1890 at Durban in Natal Colony.

August 1888: During Lord Salisbury briefing after the Toronto Imperial Conference, the the Carnarvon Report, which the Dominions agreed to keep suppressed, features prominently. Campbell-Bannerman is reluctant to risk the arrangement with the Conservatives regarding reform legislation by releasing the highly damaging report. It is agreed a new report should be commissioned. Progressive MP and former First Lord of the Admiralty George Goschen is appointed to prepare the new report. Given the importance of the conference, Lord Salisbury suggests in future the Opposition also be represented at Imperial Conferences, a suggestion to which Campbell-Bannerman readily agrees.

August 1888: With the Plan of Campaign now clearly failing due to financial pressure and confident of Lord Salisbury's sincerity in his commitment to limiting blocking of legislation in the Lords, Campbell-Bannerman, in consultation with the Irish Reform Party, introduces further reforms to deal with the unrest in Ireland. Thus the Purchase of Land (Ireland) and Congested Districts (Ireland) Bills are introduced. The first provides a £40 million {£46,244,411} fund for the government to purchase land in Ireland to be resold to tenants. It also empowers the Irish Land Court to sell bankrupt estates to tenants, providing loans for this purpose. The second bill establishes Congested District Boards to deal with poverty and overcrowded living conditions, particularly in the west of Ireland. These boards will engage in public works to improve infrastructure, encourage the adoption of modern agricultural techniques, work to improve fisheries and sponsor the development of local manufacturing and other industries to increase employment. Both bills easily pass in the commons, and true to Lord Salisbury's word, also pass the Lords in late November. It is noticeable the Irish Home Rule Party was not consulted in the drafting of these laws due to their support for the Plan of Campaign.

September 1888: With British assistance, the Qing begin construction of a modern arsenal capable of manufacturing small arms and small artillery pieces at Hanyang in the Hubei province.

September 1888: The policies of encouraging the development of Imperial markets has led the increasing importance of Imperial markets over those of Europe, gradually leading to refocusing of British attention away from Europe towards the Empire, particularly the huge market of India. This trend will greatly strengthen Britain's policy of 'splendid isolation' and avoiding European entanglements.

October 1888: In preparation for the upcoming Imperial Conference Natal Colony is granted responsible government, This leaves Fiji as the only Dominion without responsible Government.

October 1888: Seeking to limit British control over the Suez Canal, the French are able to gain sufficient support from the other Great Powers to pressure Britain into a conference in Constantinople over control of the canal. The resulting Suez Convention neutralises the canal, establishes an international commission to take actual control of the waterway, and guarantees access to all nations in peace and war. However the British only reluctantly accept the convention with the major reservation that it will not prevent them taking any action they feel necessary to defend or maintain public order in Egypt. This last reservation effectively prevents the convention having any legal effect.

October 1888: With most observers predicting incumbent Blaine will win a second term in the upcoming US Presidential elections and feeling they are falling behind the South American Naval Arms Race, the Chileans order another two protected cruisers from Armstrong Mitchell. Designed by Phillip Watts, the Angamos class will feature two 8” and ten 6” quick firing guns to outclass the Argentine ships ordered earlier in the year, also designed by Watts. This last aspect causes considerable anger in Argentina, with claims of corruption and duplicity on both the Chilean and British parts.

November 1888: Since the beginning of the 1880s, Argentina has seen unprecedented levels levels of foreign investment. In particular as much as 30% of British investment overseas has gone to Argentina. This, coupled with a shift from extensive to industrial agriculture has created a booming economy. However much of this investment has been speculative and created a massive investment bubble. Also the Argentine banks have allowed their cash ratios to fall to alarming level, often around 5-8% instead of the usual average of around 34% contributing to the fragility of the Argentine financial sector. Finally Banco Constructor de la Plata, one of the leading Argentine banks, defaults and collapses. The collapse leads to series of payment crises, with many other banks now also facing collapse. A consortium of international banks led by Barings Bank in London, intervenes. Pumping in cash in an effort to halt the collapse.

November 1888: In close election Grover Cleveland defeats incumbent US President James Blaine to become the first Democrat President since the Civil War. While the campaign focused primarily on domestic matters, such as civil service reform and the monopolistic practices of the 'robber barons,' for the first time foreign affairs featured heavily with the country evenly split between those supporting Blaine's aggressive approach and those concerned it is leading the US into conflict with the British. Eventually Cleveland's calls for domestic reforms won enough of the electorate over to give him the Presidency, though facing a Republican controlled Senate.

November 1888: The French Navy commissions the submarine Gymnôte. Designed by engineer Gustav Zédé, the Gymnôte is armed with two fixed 14" torpedo tubes and powered by a 41kW electric motor, the Gymnôte will be the worlds first practical military submarine. An experimental vessel, the Gymnôte will be subject to constant modifications throughout her career before being decommissioned in 1907 and turned into a museum ships at Toulon.

December 1888: Desperate to develop a match for the French Lebel rifle, the Germans hastily design the Gewehr 1888 'Commission Rifle.' Chambered for the 7.92x57mm Patronne 88 smokeless round, the first rimless military cartridge. The rifle however is unremarkable. An amalgam of several different designs, the rifle uses the action from the Mauser Gewehr 1871 modified by Louis Schlegelmich to feature front locking lugs, a barrel taken directly from the Lebel with a steel barrel jacket designed by Armand Mieg and finally a Mannlicher en-bloc clip for rapid loading. As the result of a patent dispute over the en-bloc clip with Österreichische Waffenfabriksgesellschaft (ÖWG, Austrian Arms-Manufacturing Company) who hold Mannlicher's patent on the clip, ÖWG will manufacture the rifle, with the exclusive right to produce it for export. There the bolt will be further modified by Otto Schönauer to resolve its outstanding issues and used for an entire family of rifles. While the Gew 1888 will be the world's most advanced rifle at adoption, its hasty design results in a number of serious problems, and like the Lebel, it will soon be outclassed.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-June 1889: Making good on promises

January 1889: Since the beginning of the 1880s, many on the right in France have become disillusioned with traditional conservatism. A new right wing proto-fascist populist movement known as the boulangisme has arisen around Georges Boulanger. Included amongst his supporters are many from the para-military Ligue des Patriotes headed by Paul Déroulède. After the government of Pierre Tirard falls in 1888, there are calls for him to lead any new government. But President Sadi Carnot refuses, instead appointing Pierre Charles Floquet. Since Floquet's appointment, his supporters have been urging him to stage a coup. Boulanger, believing France's international standing has been eroded by the growing power of the British eventually agrees. He and several hundred armed supporters march on the Élysée Palace to demand President Carnot dismiss Floquet and appoint Boulanger in his place. The Military Governor of Paris, Félix Saussier, dispatches troops to intercept Boulanger, who's supporters have been swollen by a large number of civilians. The tense stand off develops into a gun battle with Boulanger and 56 of his supporters killed, along with 24 soldiers. As Paris descends into rioting and chaos President Carnot is forced to declare martial law to restore order.

February 1889: To match the two powerful Chinese battleships ordered in 1881, the Japanese order two battleships from British yards. Slightly reduced versions of the British Broke class armed with 12" rather than 13.5" guns, themselves a version of the earlier Trafalgar class mounting their guns in barbettes as opposed to turrets, the Yakasa and Noto will be the most powerful ships in Asia when completed.

February 1889: After years of conflict between liberals who argue for a British style parliamentary democracy and conservatives pushing for a strong Prussian style Imperial government, the liberals seemingly finally triumph and the new Japanese constitution has an executive theoretically subordinate to the national assembly along British lines. Ōkuma Shigenobu, the leader of the liberal faction successfully argued that contrary to the conservative arguments recent events, particularly the Empires unified response to the US annexation of Hawai'i and Queen Victoria's interventions to resolve parliamentary deadlocks, show the British system does not restricted the power of the monarch nor is it unwieldy. However the conservatives are successful in restricting the franchise to just 5% of the population and ensuring that rules of protocol place effective final control in the hands of a tiny group of just nine powerful elder statesmen appointed by the Emperor known as Genrō.

March 1889: Since Emperor Yohannes IV called off his campaign against the Italians to deal with the Mahdist invasion, his vassal Menelik, who was supposed to contain the Italians, has remained inactive while they occupied much of Eritrea. Sensing weakness in the Emperor another of Yohannes vassals Talke Haymanot has renewed his alliance with Menelik and refused to assist the Emperor in his campaign against the Mahdists. With Abyssinia approaching civil war, Yohannes has resolved to crush the Mahdists, then turn on his domestic enemies and the Italians. He has mustered a massive army of 130,000 men for the task. As the first stage he undertakes to defeat the 85,000 strong Mahdist army at the town of Gallabat. The battles goes well for Yohannes, with his forces inflicting crippling losses on the Mahdists. However with his enemy about to break Yohannes himself is killed. Demoralised by their leader's death, the Abyssinians simply withdraw, allowing the Mahdists to survive. In the aftermath, Menelik declares himself Emperor of Abyssinia and negotiates the Treaty of Wuchale, ceding Eritrea to the Italians in return for arms. The Mahdists losses have been utterly devastating, forcing them to abandon their invasion and retreat to Sudan.

March 1889: Ever since Transvaal restored its independence in 1881, its President Paul Kruger has been trying to achieve a political union with the Orange Free State or at a defensive alliance. All his attempts had been rebuffed by Orange Free state President Johannes Brand. However Brand's death in office in 1888 has allowed Kruger to negotiate with his nationalistic successor Francis Reitz with far greater success. As a first step toward closer ties between the two Boer republics, the Treaty of Potchefstroom establishes a mutual defence pact between the two, followed by a customs treaty abolishing duties.

March 1889: New US President Grover Cleveland is inaugurated. Domestically he is committed to tackling government inefficiency and corruption as well as dealing with the large US corporations ongoing monopolistic practices. In foreign affairs he seeks to further free trade and dismantle the massive US tariff regime which has evolved since the Civil War. He also abandons his predecessor Blaine's policies, rejecting expansionism and seeking to repair relations with the British and Chileans. To this end he orders an investigation into the annexation of Hawai'i and calls for a meeting with the British and Canadian governments to discuss matters of 'mutual concern.' However restoring relations with the Chileans will prove much harder as many in the US are still angered by the Chilean intervention in the Panama Crisis.

March 1889: Since the US acquired refuelling rights at Pago Pago on the Samoan island of Tutuila in 1878, they have been in competition with the Germans, who have right at Apia on the island of Upolo for control of the Samoan Islands. Both have been backing different factions in ongoing political upheaval in the Islands. This has flared into civil war in 1888. The US and Germany both dispatch three warships to Apia to represent their interests in the conflict, monitored by the British corvette HMS Calliope under Captain Henry Kane. Tensions run high and at one point it appears the Germans are moving to engage the US squadron. However Captain Kane manoeuvres his ship into line with the US vessels, causing the Germans to break off. Captain Kane's actions are widely reported and praised in the US, with New President Cleveland going as far as to unofficial thank the British for their “assistance in easing tensions.” Unfortunately several days later Apia is hit by an intense tropical cyclone. Only the Calliope is able to escape to open waters, with all German and US ships being sunk. With neither side in a position to intervene in local affairs any longer, the civil war will resolve itself without outside interference.

April 1889: Boulanger's attempted coup has led to widespread unrest throughout France, with the country approaching civil war and being placed under martial law. Prime Minister Floquet has been forced to resign with Pierre Tirard recalled to the post. With Boulanger's death he has come to be seen as a martyr by his supporters with Paul Déroulède assuming leadership of the boulangists. However after several months order begins to be restored to metropolitan France.

May 1889: Though the ongoing social reforms since 1870 have considerable popular support, there are many in Britain who feel Imperial matters, particularly the navy has been neglected for those reforms. Therefore the Goschen Report into the Royal Navy has been eagerly awaited. While the Toronto Imperial Conference is not mentioned the Report largely echoes the decision made there. It finds the navy has fallen behind in strength relative to other powers and many ships are obsolete needing replacement. It also notes deficiencies in training, equipment and operations, being particularly critical of the lack of training for fleet operations. Its main recommendation is the adoption of a 'two power standard' whereby the Royal naval should equal the strength of the two next strongest navies. It comments a regular continuous program of new construction is necessary to maintain vital strategic industries such as shipbuilding and naval gun manufacture. It finally recommends the Dominions own defences be strengthen to provide time for Imperial forces to be deployed in a crisis. In response the Naval Defence Act is passed accepting all the Report's recommendations. The subsequent naval estimates are one of the largest in peacetime, including eight battleships, eleven large 1st class cruisers, 23 2nd class cruisers and six 3rd class cruisers suitable for colonial stations. The 1st class cruisers include two, the Australia and New Zealand, intended for the Australian Station as are two the 2nd class and four of the 3rd class cruisers.

June 1889: King Milan of Serbia's popularity with his population has been steadily falling due to his pro Austro-Hungarian policies along with his separation frum his wife in 1886 and the suppression of the Timok Rebellion in 1883. In an effort to shore up his position he replaces the conservative 1869 Constitution with a far more liberal document as well as pardoning the leaders of the Narodna Radikalna Stranka, or People's Radical Party. The NRS will quickly come to dominate politics in Serbia, moving the country closer to Russia.

June 1889: After the government of João Correia de Oliveira abolished slavery in Brazil in May 1888, his government has come under increasing attack by powerful land owners outraged by abolition. Eventually they successfully get a vote of no confidence passed and Correia de Oliveira's government falls. Emperor Dom Pedro II eventually appoints Afonso Celso, a staunch monarchist, as Prime Minister. Celso embarks on an ambitious program of reform to address the serious issues which have been plaguing Brazil for the last decade. He advocates increasing the franchise by abolishing the income requirement for the vote, ending lifetime Senate tenures, turning Brazil into a fully federal state and under the advice of the US military mission, addressing the indiscipline which has been growing in the Brazilian army and navy. To head off a conservative republican backlash, Celso makes massive loans available at very favourable terms to landowners and lavishly grants titles and honours to win over important figures.

June 1889: George Westinghouse purchases the rights to the Swan AC power distribution system in US. He forms a new company, General Electric, to directly compete with Edison and his DC power distribution system. The advantages of the AC system results in Westinghouse rapidly gaining a solid foothold in the market. However will spark an extreme reaction from Edison, who launches a series of vicious public attacks on the supposed danger posed by high voltage AC power distribution. This will lead to a brutal and exceptionally acrimonious battle between Edison and Westinghouse in the media for public opinion. This will come to be known as the War of the Currents.

 

[Miss Construction]

~July-Dec 1889: The perfect rifle

July 1889: The sanctions imposed on Chile by President Blaine have had only a limited effect on the Chilean economy, as they have either found alternative markets, used third parties to circumvent the increased tariffs, or in the case of Nitrates, continued to export, forcing US consumers to deal with the higher prices resulting from the tariffs. Regarding the ban on US investment in Chile, the British have simply replaced the lost US investment. However they have led to significant increased costs for US manufacturers. After an unsuccessful attempt to Congress lift the sanctions President Cleveland is able to convince Congress to pass the Smith amendment, allowing sanctions on specific items to be lifted. Cleveland will use this to remove the increased tariffs barriers on nitrates and copper.

July 1889: Since 1881 European communists and socialists, led by French and German activists, have been working to reform the defunct International Workingmen's Association, or First International. After many years it is decided to hold the First Congress of the new Second International in Turin, relocated from Paris in the wake of the coup in France, on the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. However this results in two competing congresses, with the socialists attending one and the communists another, though many delegates do attend sessions at both. While Europe's anarchist movement have refrained from participating in these attempts, a delegation of anarchists from the IWPA or Black International do attend the communist congress, however both congresses are hostile toward them. The most notable resolution from the split Congress is to declare 1st of May, International Workers Day and to hold a Second Congress in Brussels in August 1891.

July 1889: With unrest continuing in the wake of Boulanger's attempted coup the French government seizes the Lebel rifles being manufactured for Brazil for compulsory purchase. However they only offer the current purchase price of 85 francs {£3.81} per rifle as compensation. In the resulting scandal in Brazil, the bribe paid to Minister of War Deodoro da Fonseca comes to light. The Brazilian public is outraged and demand the military be reformed to deal with its long decline. Seeing an opportunity to deal with his opposition, Prime Minister Celso immediately replaces de Fonseca along with ordering the revitalisation of the moribund National Guard to protect against a military coup, recruiting heavily from the 'Black Guard,' former slaves committed to defending the monarchy.

August 1889: Regardless of their failure in Abyssinia, the Mahdists have not abandoned their goal of extending their interpretation of Islam to Egypt. In an effort to achieve this, the new Khalifa Abdullah Ibn-Mohammed dispatches an 8,000 strong army to invade Egypt. While this force attempts to evade the main Egyptian Amy, a force of some 3,000 Egyptian troops engage them at the town of Toski. The Egyptians now armed, trained and officered by the British, annihilate the Mahdists, with less than 1,000 escaping the battlefield. The Battle of Toski conclusively demonstrates the quality of the reformed Egyptian army and permanently ends any Mahdist threat to Egypt.

August 1889: Seeing their power being eroded by Prime Minister Celso's reforms, a number of senior officers led by General Benjamin Constant determine a coup to institute a military dictatorship and overthrow the monarchy is necessary to preserve their position. However head of the US military mission, General Wesley Merritt, becomes aware of the planed coup. Risking his career, he alerts Celso. Celso immediately acts to forestall the insurrection , ordering the arrest of the leaders, However as these arrests begin, the remaining plotters resolve to act immediately. Hastily gathering several hundred troops, most unaware of the plotters intentions, to seize the army headquarters. Loyalist Admiral Saldanha da Gama organises a a force of sailors and National Guards to oppose them. In the resulting battle the rebels are are forced to retreat, throwing the coup into disarray. As news of the attempted coup spreads, the Brazilian public rallies to the monarchy and the leaders of the rebellion flee overseas. With the coup put down,the leaders are tried for treason and sentenced to death, though only six sentences will actually be carried out, with the Emperor commuting many to terms of imprisonment. Celso also formally thanks the US for its role in thwarting the uprising, with General Merritt being made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross for his part in the defeat of the coup.

September 1889: The Imperial Forces Act brings the second part of the Hofmeyr Compromise into effect. The act provides for Imperial assistance for the Dominions to develop their military forces, The act specifically entourages the creation of standing military units, both to aid in training local volunteers, as well as too provide a cadre in the event of war. The act makes available training by British instructors and if requested, regular inspections regarding efficiency. Provision is also made for Dominion troops to train and operate with British forces to gain experience in a variety of conditions. It also enables the Dominions to purchase arms, ammunition and equipment as part of the British procurement process, thereby reducing the costs. Finally it recognises the potential danger of the concentration of the Empire's arms industry in Britain. To this end it provides subsidies to establish ammunition, small arms and artillery factories in the Dominions. In a statement to the house during the act's passage, Secretary of State for War Herbert Asquith states the government wishes to see three small arms factories in India, two in Canada, one each in southern Africa and the Pacific, all supported by at least two ammunition factories, along with an artillery factory in Canada.

September 1889: In the wake of the failed military coup, Brazilian Prime Minister Celso embanks on a program of reform to prevent a re-occurrence. His first action is to purge the army's officer corps with over two thirds dismissed including the entire military academy. He also requests the US enlarge its military mission to provide new instructors for the academy. The average soldier's terms of service and enlistment are to radically improved, with increases in pay, The reforms to the navy, who largely remained loyal are far less drastic, with only around 20% of its officers dismissed. His planned extension of the franchise and abolition of lifetime senators will be implemented as soon as possible. At Emperor Pedro II's request a Court of Imperial Powers is to be established, consisting of senior statesmen and jurists to 'advise' the Emperor on the use of his reserve powers, effectively transferring them to the new body. Finally the civil service is to be purged of republicans.

October 1889: With the Egyptian army proving they can defend the country from the Mahdists many in Cabinet wish to withdraw from Egypt, in accordance with the Occupation of Egypt Act. Foreign Secretary Chamberlain and Secretary for War Asquith raise concerns about such a move. They argue the Mahdists are religious fanatics, and inevitable such fanaticism spreads and causes unrest in neighbouring regions, pointing to the invasion of Abyssinia as an example. They suggest Egypt can never be secure until the Mahdists are eliminated. This argument finds much support. Eventually it is decided a campaign to reconquer Sudan is a prerequisite for any withdrawal. However, in light of the Toronto Doctrine, it is decided to discuss such an operation at next year's Imperial Congress and also to attempt to enlist the Dominion's participation.

October 1889: The Belgium army adopts its first small bore smokeless rifle. The Mauser M1889 is a German design by Paul Mauser using a rimless 7.65x53mm cartridge, to be domestically produced by the new company, Fabrique National in Herstal. Using a new extremely strong front locking bolt, making the rifle highly accurate, It is fed by an integral five round in line magazine, loaded by a radical new development known as a stripper clip or charger. These clips are a cheap disposable thin piece of metal holding five rounds by their base. The clip is simply inserted into a guide in the receiver, the the rounds stripped from the clip into the magazine by pressing down with the thumb. While not quite as fast to reload as an en-bloc clip, The used clip is then ejected from the rifle when the bolt is closed and discarded, it allows for individual rounds to be added to top up the magazine at any time. The stripper clip will go on to become the most common rapid reloading device in military rifles. Unfortunately the Belgium M1889 will not enter production until 1892 due to difficulties in procuring production tooling. The M1889 will be the first in a series of improving Mauser rifles which will become the most common military bolt action rifle of all time.

December 1889: After many years of trials the British finally adopt a magazine rifle to replace the single shot Martini-Henry. Based on the Remington-Lee, the new Lee-Metford rifle uses an improved Lee action with an ergonomically designed turn down bolt with only a 60 degrees throw as opposed to the normal 90 degrees, coupled with an eight round detachable box magazine. No provision is made for rapid reloading, but each soldier is issued with an additional magazine, though in practice troops carry as many extras as they can obtain. While superintendent of the Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield, John Rigby, had pushed strongly for a rimmed cartridge, the new 0.303” (7.7x56mm) British is a rimless round like the German Patronne 88. However the British have yet to develop a smokeless powder, so in the intern compressed black powder is used until a suitable smokeless powder is developed. The rifle is placed in production not only at RSAF Enfield, but with a number of private companies, as well as the small arms factories now being set up throughout the Dominions. The Lee-Metford and its successors will prove to be one of the best military rifles ever developed.

​

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-June 1890: Conquering the summits

January 1890: For many years the Portuguese have been trying to establish an overland route between their colonies of Angola and Mozambique, claiming much of central Africa as a consequence. To reinforce these claims, they have been sending troops into the region, leading too increasing tensions with the British who are also attempting to expand into central Africa. In an effort to resolve these tensions, the Treaty of Lisbon is signed. The treaty grants most of the disputed region to the British, but Nyssaland is assigned to the Portuguese and the British guarantee the Portuguese transit across the disputed territory, as well as committing to defend the Portuguese colonies in the event of attack.

January 1890: With his position now secure after the attempted 1889 coup, Brazilian Prime Minister Afonso Celso enacts the Lei Celso or Celso's Law removing the income restriction on the franchise and more importantly, allowing former slaves to vote. While the literacy requirement is retained, the new law increases the franchise from 1% to 10% of the population.

January 1890: After a series of discussions at a diplomatic level, Campbell-Bannerman, Canadian Premier John MacDonald and US President Cleveland meet in Ottawa for a formal summit. The main issues are tariffs, access to fisheries, the Bearing Sea sealing dispute, an outstanding boundary dispute in Alaska and the annexation of Hawai'i. It is quickly decided the best approach regarding the Bearing Sea and Alaskan issues is to send them to international arbitration. Regarding Hawai'i, Cleveland stresses a congressional report on the matter is due shortly. But he reassures both men the matter will be resolved with full respect for the Hawai'ian people and the US military presence will not be expanded. The other two matters are more problematic. Currently support for protectionism is extremely high in the US, however he suggests establishing a commission to look into the possibility of new treaty covering these issues. While both Campbell-Bannerman and MacDonald find this disappointing, the summit is regarded as very successful.

February 1890: In recognition of the navy's loyalty during last year's attempted coup, Brazil places an order an 8,000 ton armoured cruiser. As a gesture of thanks for the US role in saving the monarchy, the order is placed with Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia. The Dom Pedro II will be the most powerful warship ordered thus far in the South American Naval Arms Race.

March 1890: With it being necessary to call elections within the next two years, Campbell-Bannerman is faced with the dilemma of meeting his commitment to Irish Reform Party leader William Shaw. It is extremely clear the Conservatives will block any attempt to introduce Irish home rule in the Lords, meaning it will be impossible to fulfil his promise to Shaw. The matter is discussed at length in Cabinet. Joseph Chamberlain points out, if Irish home rule is introduced, it will inevitable lead to calls for Scottish home rule and then Welsh, which will be impossible to refuse, resulting in a breakup of the Union. He suggest introducing an extensive program of reform in Ireland as an alternative, to “kill home rule with kindness” by removing the demand for it. However Charles Dilke presents an interesting take on this. He agrees, Irish home rule will inevitably lead to Scottish and Welsh home rule, However, rather than seeing this as the end of the Union, perhaps it is merely a transformation and may in fact be desirable. He believes a policy of full devolution should be followed, along the lines of the Canadian Federation. In his suggested policy England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales will all have their own government, remaining subordinate to the central government in Westminster. He stresses if home rule is granted individually over time, it inevitably will be patterned on the Dominions, whereas if each government is established at the same time, their powers can be more limited. Finally cabinet decide to adopt elements of both approaches, introducing extensive reforms in Ireland to reduce the pressure for home rule and pursuing limited national devolution to as an alternative.

March 1890: Campbell-Bannerman raises the potential devolution policy with Shaw as an alternative to home rule. Shaw is highly sceptical, believing to even less likely to be possible than home rule. He is also concerned it will mean the degree of autonomy being offered will insufficient to meet the demands of the more radical elements in Irish nationalism and Parnell's Home Rule Party will capitalise on this to increase their support. He therefore rejects the proposal, continuing to demand a home rule bill in the next year Regarding winning Shaw's support as a prerequisite for devolution, Campbell-Bannerman will shelve the concept for the meantime.

March 1890: Since the accession of Kaiser Wilhelm II, relations between him and his Chancellor Bismark have become increasingly strained. Wilhelm is firmly opposed to Bismark's cautious foreign policy, preferring an aggressive Imperialist policy to allow Germany to take its “place in the sun.” Eventually matters come to a head over Bismark's attempts to extend his anti-socialist laws. While Wilhelm supports these laws, Bismark fails to inform him of a meeting attempting to get the extension passed. Furious at this, Wilhelm demands Bismark's resignation and replaces him with Leo von Caprivi.

April 1890: Continued pressure from the bimetalist Free Silver Movement leads to the passage of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, forcing the government to massively increase the amount of silver they purchase for Silver coinage. Despite President Cleveland vetoing the act, it has sufficient support in Congress to override the veto. The act will again, artificially inflate the US currency, leading to instability.

April 1890: In the wake of the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War former Chancellor Bismark followed a cautious diplomatic policy aimed at maintaining French's isolation. Part of this was to maintain good relations with Russia. This was achieved through the League of Three Emperors between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia, signed in 1873. The first League ended as a result of the Congress of Berlin in 1879 due to Russian anger at losing its gains during the Great Eastern War. Germany replaced the League with the Dual Alliance, a simple defensive treaty between Austria-Hungary and Germany. However Bismark was able to revive the League in 1881 for a three year term. In 1882, Italy joined the Dual Alliance creating the Triple Alliance between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy. Nevertheless, the League was renewed for another three years in 1884 and again in 1887. With the League due to expire, Russia approaches Germany once more to obtain its renewal. However Kaiser Wilhelm II's desire for a new aggressive foreign policy and seeking to improve relations with Britain, believes it will hamper that goal. He feels his personal friendship with Tsar Alexander III will ensure cordial relations. Thus the Germans allow the League to lapse, leaving Russia without allies.

April 1890: In the seven years since 1883, two battleships, eight armoured cruisers, fifteen cruisers, five monitors, eight gunboats and twenty torpedo boats have been ordered for the US navy, all in private yards. However as yet only five cruisers and six gunboats have been commissioned, though all twenty torpedo boats have been have been completed. This is raising considerable concerns about the efficiency of US shipbuilders. As part of the 1890 naval estimates, a full investigation into the industry is ordered. The estimates themselves include only three battleships, a single cruiser and four torpedo gunboats along the British pattern. However one of the battleships and the cruiser are to be constructed in navy yards to judge their efficiency.

April 1890: The report of US Congressman James Blount into the annexation of Hawai'i finds the US government actively colluded with settlers in the overthrow of the Hawai'ian monarchy and the use of sailors in support of the coup was illegal, finding the US diplomatic and military representatives in Hawai'i at the time directly responsible for the affair. The officer responsible for deploying US sailors is forced to resign, and President Cleveland immediately calls on Congress for a resolution voiding the annexation and offering the Hawai'ians 'all possible assistance' in restoring the monarchy and re-establishing independence. His only proviso is King Kalākaua issues an amnesty for the coup leaders and a new constitution be written guaranteeing the rights of the US settlers, the King agrees to the amnesty but demands the restoration of the 1864 Constitution. Regardless, Congress refuse to pass the resolution, stating Blount had been appointed to investigate the annexation without Congressional approval. Consequently it commissions its own report, to be conducted by pro-annexation Senator John Morgan.

June 1890: The first elections under the new electoral law are held in Brazil. The election will see over one million people vote compared with just 94,000 in 1886, and return an overwhelmingly liberal General Assembly. Celso will take the results as a clear mandate to continue reform.

June 1890: The final step in implementing the Hofmeyr Compromise is put in place with the creation of the Imperial Security Council. The Council will sit in London, being chaired by the Colonial Secretary and include the Secretary of State for India plus twelve members appointed by the Dominion governments, with a small permanent secretariat to support its operations. Its role is to facilitate consultation between the British and Dominions on matters of Imperial concern and allow a rapid response to any crisis. While it has no actual power over the British government's decisions, it does for the first time give the Dominions an official mechanism to voice their opinions on Imperial affairs. The Council will also include military and naval committees which will endeavour to ensure interoperability amongst the British and Dominion forces by encouraging standardisation of equipment, training, organisation and operational methods.

 

[Miss Construction]

~July-Dec 1890: An Imperial campaign

July 1890: Since assuming office US President Cleveland has been attempting to bring in measures to deal with the monopolistic practices of the 'robber barons.' However the powerful corporations he is attacking have mobilised to lobby congress and limit the scope of any such laws. During his first year he has only able to introduce legislation attacking 'unreasonable' pricing. However with the assistance of Republican Congressmen he is able to get the Sherman Antitrust Act passed. This law prohibits any corporate practice which is intended to suppress competition and empowers the courts to break up monopolistic Trusts. While imperfect, it is the first effective measure against the Trusts.

July 1890: The Durban Imperial Conference is the first at which the British opposition is officially represented, in this by party leader, Lord Salisbury himself. As a result, Prime Minister Campbell-Bannerman has also attended, making it the first time the British delegation has been officially headed by the Prime Minister, as while Campbell-Bannerman did attend the London Conference, the British delegation was officially headed by then Colonial Secretary Randolph Churchill. The British immediately raise the issue of their proposed reconquest of Sudan. The Pacific Dominions are extremely enthusiastic, going as far as to offer to contribute troops even before the matter of Dominion participation is raised. While not as eager, the other Dominions are supportive of such a campaign, acknowledging the importance of mainlining control over the Suez Canal for Imperial security. However they are reluctant to commit troops to the reconquest, claiming their military forces are just for their own defence, with British being responsible for Imperial campaigns. Surprisingly it is Lord Salisbury who effectively counters this by plainly stating if the Dominions wish a voice in Imperial affairs, they must also accept the responsibility which come with that, one of which is contributing troops to such campaigns. This will become the Durban Doctrine, that the Dominions are equally responsible for Implementing Imperial policy. Faced with this, the remaining Dominions agree to contribute to the campaign. However Canadian Premier MacDonald states such forces can not be prepared before the expiration of the Occupation of Egypt Act in 1891, while the Pacific Dominions express their outright objection to any setting any timetable for a withdrawal from Egypt. In response Campbell-Bannerman states a new occupation bill will be introduced, without any fixed schedule for withdrawal, allowing the Dominions to organise their forces. With this settled, it is agreed Sudan Campaign should be launched in the spring of 1892.

July 1890: With the Sudan Campaign arranged, South Australian Premier Thomas Playford raises some concerns over concentration of strategic industries in Britain. He points out while there are Royal Dockyards throughout the Empire, there are no yards capable of carrying out major repairs or refitting warships outside of Britain, which could considerably extend the time required to return damaged ships back to service, especially in the Pacific. In this he finds considerable support as all the Dominions can see the economic benefits in expanding their shipbuilding industries. Campbell-Bannerman counters that such a policy would be extremely expensive, however he does concede it should be investigated. In conjuration with this Jan Hofmeyr from Cape Colony raises the All Red Route he suggested at the London Conference again, arguing expanding the Dominions merchant fleets would provide a useful pool of skilled mariners in the event of war. Lord Salisbury in particular supports this, suggesting such a policy should be encouraged. The Conference is regarded as a resounding success, with the Dominions feeling their concerns are finally being attended to. At the end of the Conference many argue future Conferences should be held annually, but it is felt travel times make this impractical, Therefore the next Conference is scheduled for 1892 in Wellington, New Zealand.

August 1890: In an effort to determine their relative spheres of influence in Africa the Treaty of Potsdam is signed by Foreign Secretary Chamberlain and new German Chancellor Leo von Caprivi. The treaty transfers Wituland and the Ruandi-Urundi regions in east Africa to Britain. These areas will become part of British East Africa, In return Germany receives the Heligoland Islands in the North Sea and Dagombaland to the north of the Ashanti Empire in west Africa which will be added to German Togoland. The treaty also acknowledges British control of Zanzibar.

September 1890: The British have finally developed a satisfactory smokeless powder, known as cordite. While the powder entered production in August 1889, priority has been given to applying it for naval artillery. But with production now increasing, work begins on adapting the 0.303” round to its use. Additionally, in line with the new policy of distributing strategic industry throughout the Empire, plans are made to establish cordite factories in Canada, Cape Colony, India and New Zealand.

October 1890: Despite his success in the June elections, Brazilian Prime Minister Afonso Celso has been unable to enact much of his reform program due to conservative opposition. In particular he has been unable to reform the Senate. In an effort to quiet opposition from conservative landowners, the Lei de Compensaçao or Law of Compensation is passed. The new law provides former slave owners with compensation the losses due to the abolition of slavery in 1888. While not as successful as hoped, the law will improve Celso's support. However it will also require large loans from the US and Britain in order to fund the compensation.

October 1890: The Guangxu Emperor graduates Woolwich Military Academy with high marks, completing his education and there is fierce dispute in the Qing court as to his future. Despite her efforts Dowager Empress Cixi has been unable to gain sufficient support to replace him with a new Emperor. She and the conservatives remain convinced he is an unacceptable threat to the established order and have no desire to see him return, hoping instead to muster enough backing to depose him. The reformers on the other hand are split, Some such as Prince Gong, now agree with the conservatives. After his actions in 1887 they fear he will undermine the fundamental basis of Qing power by introducing a radical reform program. Both they and the conservatives recognising there are a growing number of younger radicals who see him as the great hope for fully reforming China into a constitutional monarchy. Others such as Li Hongzhang remain convinced his education will enable to him to effectively modernise China and are eager for his return. Eventually as he has expressed his personal desire to accept a commission in the British Army and serve as an officer, it is decided he should spend some time in the British Army to learn the essentials of command as a precursor to his assuming his role as Emperor. Thus the young Emperor is commissioned as Second Lieutenant Zaitian Aisin-Gioro in the Royal Engineers.

November 1890: Having made considerable speculative investments in Argentina, many of them dubious, Edward Baring, director of the Barings Bank in London, has been funnelling cash into the Argentine banking system to stave off a financial collapse since the 1888 crisis. Unfortunately, the Argentine banks remain on the verge of collapse and the Argentine government is now on the brink of sovereign default. Also, these effort have pushed Barings itself to the edge of collapse. As Britain is the financial centre of the world and Barings one of the largest British banks, their collapse would be disastrous. With the strong possibility of bringing down the entire British banking system, resulting in unthinkable worldwide consequences. To prevent this potential catastrophe, William Lidderdale, Governor of the Bank of England organises a consortium to intervene and create a fund to guarantee Barings debts. The consortium includes the Bank of England and most of the major British banks, along with many leading international banks. The rescue plan writes off over £20 million {£22,276,016} of Barings debt, and the bank is restructured as public company with a new board. Edward Baring himself loses his personal fortune and is required to retire, with many others involved sharing his fate. As a final result of the crisis, credit is cut off to Argentina. The government goes into sovereign default and its banking system collapses, plunging the country into depression.

November 1890: In 1875, William O'Shea, now an MP for Parnell's Irish Home Rule Party, separated from his wife Katherine. However as she was expecting a large inheritance he did not divorce her. In 1885 Katherine took up residence with Parnell in Kent. Eventually Katherine's wealthy aunt died. However Katherine's inheritance was left in trust, meaning her husband would have no claim on it. No longer having any reason to remain married, he filed for divorce in 1889 citing Parnell as co-respondent. The matter caused considerable concern within the conservative catholic Irish nationalist movement. However Parnell gave multiple assurances he will be completely exonerated at trial, for the most part these quieting those concerns at the time. While Parnell does not appear at the divorce hearing, evidence makes it clear he has been involved with Katherine for a very long time, including fathering three children with her. The following scandal ruins Parnell. All but three MPs from the Irish Home Rule Party abandon him forming the Irish National League, choosing John Dillon as the new leader.

December 1890: With the radical Irish nationalists now deeply divided in the wake of the Parnell Scandal, Charles Dilke sees an opportunity to implement his proposed devolution scheme. He raises the matter in cabinet, suggesting 'testing the water' by introducing a bill establishing limited devolution in the form of elected regional boards with control over things such as education and social welfare which are already handled differently in each of the home nations. Campbell-Bannerman is extremely reluctant to renege on his promise to Shaw to introduce home rule, but is eventually persuaded that if such a bill fails to attract controversy it would far easier to convince Shaw to abandon home rule.

December 1890: The Morgan Report into the Annexation of Hawai'i is released. Senator Morgan made no attempt to travel to Hawai'i. Relying solely on sworn testimony from settlers, US diplomats and naval officers. His report directly contradicts the Blount Report, finding nothing irregular in the annexation of Hawai'i. In a surprisingly close vote, Congress accept this report over the earlier one and refuses to void the annexation. Already under pressure over civil service reform, trust busting and monetary policy, President Cleveland is unwilling to press the matter immediately but reiterates his commitment to finding an honourable resolution, privately expressing his belief the annexation was illegal.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-April 1891: A new path

January 1891: Tensions between the liberal Chilean President Jose Balmaceda and the conservative dominated Congress have been growing for years, threatening to push Chile into civil war. Matters reach a head when Congress refuses to approve Balmaceda's choice as Prime Minister and Balmaceda unilaterally announces a budget, exceeding his constitutional powers. Congress reacts by calling on the army and navy not to recognise the authority of the President so long as he fails to uphold the constitution. The majority of the army support Balmaceda, while the bulk of the navy rally to Congress. Admiral Michael Culme-Seymour and General Gerald Graham, heads of the British military missions appeal to both forces not to intervene, suggesting a mediated settlement is a better option. The navy is unwilling to allow Balmaceda to remain in power, with the army equally against Congress. But both forces agree to hold off acting to permit an attempt at a peaceful solution. The two officers then approach Balmaceda and the leaders of the Congress, suggesting a compromise be reached, that both Balmaceda and Congress resign and new elections be called. With both sides believing the military option is now closed, they agree to stand down. A provisional Junta consisting of pro congress Admiral Jorge Montt, pro Balmaceda General Orozimbo Barbosa and War of the Pacific hero Admiral Juan José Latorre is installed. The Junta decide the 1833 constitution requires amendment, clearly delineating the limits of powers and responsibilities of both sides. The revised constitution will transform Chile from a psuedo-presidential to true parliamentary republic. It will also mark an important step toward a non political military in Chile.

January 1891: Hawai'ian King Kalākaua suffers a stroke and dies. While he is officially succeeded by his sister Lili'uokalani, with his death virtually all efforts to reverse the annexation and restore the Hawai'ian monarchy end. Only Britain, Chile, China, Colombia and Portugal remain refusing to acknowledge the annexation's legitimacy.

February 1891: With only a few months remaining before the expiration of the Occupation of Egypt Act, The Treaty of Alexandria is signed with Khedive Tewfik to establish the terms of an extended occupation. The Treaty allows the British to defend Egypt from foreign threat, act to maintain civil order, ensure the Egyptian government operates in a responsible manner, and administer the Suez Canal in conjunction with the French. The Treaty also requires several conditions before any withdrawal, including a stable friendly Egyptian government managing the country in a responsible manner, Egypt being free from external threat, and the freedom of navigation of the Suez canal being guaranteed. Also included are the right for the British to intervene to defend Egypt from threat of foreign attack after any withdrawal and to re-establish the occupation at any time if any of the conditions for withdrawal cease to apply. With the Khedive's agreement securing the basis for the occupation in international law. A new Occupation of Egypt Act will be passed repealing the 1884 act and implementing an occupation according to the terms of the treaty.

February 1891: With conservative opposition having been reduced by the Law of Compensation, Brazilian Prime Minister Afonso Celso is able to further his reforms by increasing the autonomy of the provinces and replacing their appointed governors with elected officials. Despite this success, Celso is still unable to bring his desire to end life appointments to the Senate, the body which is blocking his more ambitious reforms.

March 1891: The Regional Administration Boards Bill is introduced. This bill is intended to bring about Dilke's proposed elected regional boards for each of the home nations. The bill only proposes transferring control of education, health, and social welfare to the new boards, allowing them to enact ordinances regulating these within their jurisdiction. Their funding is to be by a sales tax set by each board. The Irish and Scottish boards will be placed under their respective government Offices, while new English and Welsh Offices will be created to oversee the other two boards. Despite the boards being presented as simply large local bodies, administering matters which are already accepted as best dealt with separately for each of the home nations, the bill quickly attracts controversy. While many in Scotland and Wales are enthusiastic about gaining a degree of control over their affairs, there is fierce opposition Irish protestants fearing the catholic majority will quickly bring about a 'papist' education system. In addition there is also opposition from the Conservatives, concerned it is the first step toward a break up of the union. However the strongest opposition comes from the Irish nationalists, who correctly see it as an attempt to avoid the introduction of full home rule. Despite Campbell-Bannerman's assurances a home rule bill will be introduced later in the year, Shaw withdraws the Irish Reform Party's support for the government and successfully introduces a motion of no confidence leading to new elections in April.

March 1891: As a response to the Turin Congress of the Second International in 1889, the Black International organises an International Anarchist Congress to be held in Capolago in Switzerland on the anniversary of the foundation of the Paris Commune. The Congress is attended by many leading anarchists from throughout Europe and the US. Much of the discussion focuses on the growing trend towards the right in Europe. The debate becomes heated over the matter of which methods should be pursued toward achieving a revolution, the older delegates still strongly support the 'Propaganda of the Deed' approach, while many younger delegates argue it is counter productive, having all but destroyed the movement in the US arguing instead for working through the trade union movement. Regardless, support for the need for consensus on methods established at the 1881 London Congress is still strong. However it resolved May Day should be marked by general strikes to increase awareness of workers right. The Congress also particularly condemns the oppression of women and Jewish people, noting they suffer inordinately under capitalism. Finally it is agreed another Congress should be held in London in 1893.

April 1891: The investigation commissioned into US shipbuilding has found widespread corruption in the awarding of contracts along with large scale inefficiency. Pending a through overhaul of the ordering system, only a single cruiser is included in the 1891 estimates. However, several ships under construction are moved to navy yards for completion where the contracts are judged to have been improperly issued. Given the massive programs of the Blaine era compared with the modest programs now, some in congress begin to question if these programs are sufficient. For the meantime, such criticism is deflected by pointing to the corruption involved in these programs and the need for reform.

April 1891: The election will see several radical left wing groups unite to form the Labour Representation Party with two members, Keir Hardie and George Lansbury, returned, as well as Joseph Chamberlain's son Austen returned as a Liberal MP. It is fought primarily over the issue of Irish home rule The Liberals make their policy of limited devolution as an alternative to home rule clear for the first time, a policy the Conservatives characterise as a break up of the United Kingdom. Eventually the Liberals a returned to government with 339 seats, finally giving them a slender absolute majority of just eight votes. The Conservative take 238 seats remaining as the official opposition. Despite having been unable to fulfil its promise on home rule, the Irish Reform Party only loses six seats, dropping to 45 MPs. The number of Progressives continues to fall, with only 28 returned. The new Irish National League retains 12 seats, while the rump Irish Home Rule Party manages to hold six. As a result of the Progressive Party's continuing decline, Gladstone finally stands down as leader, being replaced by Lord Rosebery. Despite his narrow majority, Campbell-Bannerman takes the result as a mandate to pursue his policy of devolution. Nonetheless, he delays reintroducing the bill in order to hold talks with the Conservatives in attempt to find a version they will accept.

 

[Miss Construction]

~May-Aug 1891: Growing family

May 1891: With the collapse of the Argentine banking system and their sovereign default in the wake of the Baring Crisis the International financial community has been imposing extremely high interest rates on all Latin American borrowers. The Brazilian Prime Minister Afonso Celso has been granting large loans on very favourable terms to conservative landowners as a way to placate their opposition to his reforms. Many of these landowners have been using these funds in 'get rich quick' schemes rather than productive investments, creating a large economic bubble which is now collapsing. In an effort to halt the collapse, Celso abandons his loan scheme and previous plans for a private central bank based around the Banco de Brasil, in favour of a state owned central bank to be known as the Banco Imperial do Brasil.

May 1891: The long awaited smokeless powder round is introduced for the Lee-Metford, along with a new Mark II version of the rifle to accommodate it, with new sights and an improved ten round double stack magazine.

May 1891: A joint negotiating committee is formed consisting on three US, two Canadian and one British representative to develop a new agreement regarding mutual access to fisheries and hopefully a US-Canadian free trade agreement.

June 1891: Canadian Premier John MacDonald ides unexpectedly in office. Despite his reservations due to his Catholic faith, John Thompson is persuaded to accept the post of Premier. Thompson will prove to be an extremely effective leader, contributing to a noticeable reduction in hostility and prejudice towards the French Canadian community.

June 1891: Having failed to get a home rule bill introduced, William Shaw feels compelled to stand down as leader of the Irish Reform Party to be replaced by Justin McCarthy. McCarthy immediately moves to reaffirm the party's commitment to home rule, distancing it from its previous alliance with the Liberals.

June 1891: With the success of the Treaty of Potsdam defining British and German interests in Africa the Germans have launched a diplomatic offensive in an effort to draw the British into the Triple Alliance. They highlight colonial rivalry with the French, along with mentioning Russian expansionism in the east. While the British are concerned by French imperialism and Russian expansion in Asia, the German approach falters on their insistence on a formal arrangement, and British concerns this may drag them into a war with Russia over the Balkans.

July 1891: After extensive discussions with Lord Salisbury, no suitable compromise has been reached over Campbell-Bannerman's devolution plans. Nonetheless, he is confident he can get it past the Lords with some modification and the support of the Progressive Lords. Thus a modified Regional Administration Boards Bill is introduced. The new bill separates off the primarily protestant Irish Province of Ulster as a fifth board, though still under the Irish Office. Also the provision for the creation of an English and Welsh Office is removed, with these boards falling under the Home Office, with the English board sitting in Birmingham. Additionally, a provision requiring that any ordinances relating to education does not favour a particular faith is included. While finally, all ordinances will require approval by the relevant government minister before coming into effect and control of the level of the sales tax for their funding is to be retained by Westminster. Campbell-Bannerman's belief proves correct, with the bill finally passing into law in November.

July 1891: The arbitration commission in The Hague established in 1890 to resolve the Bering Sea Sealing Dispute and the Alaskan Boundary Dispute delivers its findings. Regarding the Bering Sea Sealing Dispute, the arbitration commission finds in favour of the British and Canadians on all points and awards Canada $500,000 {£108,050} in compensation for interference with its sealing industry. However it also imposes a serious of restrictions on the taking of seals intended to preserve the seal herds. Regarding the Alaskan boundary it establishes a compromise solution, roughly dividing the competing claims in half and awarding much of the Lynn Canal to Canada. The results of the arbitration are generally well received in Canada and the US, though some in the US feel too much had been granted to the Canadians.

July 1891: In an attempt to deal with growing land agitation in Scotland, the Congested Districts (Scotland) Act is passed. Nearly identical to the 1888 Irish congested districts legislation, it sets up similar Congested District Boards in Scotland with the same objective.

July 1891: Since 1887 Tsar Alexander III's attempts to modernise have been hampered by a ban in Germany on investment in Russia. Additionally, the end of the League of Three Emperors last year has left the Russians without a Great Power ally. Seeing an opportunity to end France's isolation after the Franco-Prussian War, President Sadi Carnot dispatches a French naval squadron to Krondsadt on a 'goodwill mission.' However the squadron carries a secret proposal offering French investment and an alliance. The Russians, now themselves isolated, are eager for the proposed alliance and respond positively,

August 1891: In light of the concerns expressed at the Durban Imperial Conference regarding the concentration of the shipbuilding industry in Britain, the Royal Dockyard (Triconmalee) Act is passed, It authorises the expansion of the Royal Dockyard at Triconmalee in Ceylon to repair and construct the largest ships envisaged in the foreseeable future. The act includes provision for the establishment of an ordnance factory capable of producing naval artillery of all calibres and the construction of the Queen Victoria Graving Dock, which at over 280m will be the largest graving dock in the world.

August 1891: As a counter to the Brazilian armoured cruiser ordered from the US, the Chileans order a 7,000 ton armoured cruiser from the UK. This, along with the earlier Brazilian order greatly alarms the Argentians, Despite their dire economic situation they are able to raise loans to order two armoured Cruisers from Italy. Based on the Vettor Pisani class, they mount two 8" guns and eight 6" guns.

August 1891: The communist Second International hold their next Congress in Brussels. Once again representatives from the anarchist Black International also attend, despite their still being considerable discord between the two groups. The anarchists push heavily for the Congress to support their intention to organise general strikes for May Day next year, however this meets with considerable resistance. Nonetheless a tentative agreement for cooperation is eventually reached. The Congress is also deeply divided over the issues of anti-Jewish racism and women's rights. A resolution condemning persecution of the Jewish people is modified by members in the French delegation to also condemn the 'Semitic' tyranny over the working class by 'Jewish financiers and banks.' On women's rights, no specific resolutions are adopted beyond a declaration that the liberation of women will only be brought about by achieving a 'true socialist state.' These disputes serve to further increase the divide between the anarchist and communists. Finally it is agreed a Third Congress should be held in Zurich in 1893.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Sept-Dec 1891: Changing the rules

September 1891: The delivery of the 240 Maxim guns ordered in 1888 taken over two years to complete. The army is deeply dissatisfied at the time frame involved and compels the Maxim company to grant a licence to RSAF Enfield to produce the weapon. It is also decided all future production will be in the standard 0.303” rifle cartridge.

September 1891: With the depression in Irish agriculture continuing, the Industrial Development (Ireland), along with the Railways and Roading (Ireland) Acts are passed. The first is very similar to the Imperial Development Act, while the second is intended to encourage the development of a transport infrastructure necessary to support such industry. The intention of the acts are to foster the development of industry in Ireland outside of Ulster and thereby decrease Irish dependence on agriculture.

September 1891: The Dominions contribution to the Sudan Campaign is to consist of two composite infantry battalions, one from Canada and southern Africa, and one from the Pacific Dominions. These will be supported by two artillery batteries, one from Canada and one from the Pacific. They will form the Dominion Brigade supported by an Indian battalion. These begin arriving in Egypt to commence training and familiarisation. They will join a British infantry brigade of four battalions, five Egyptian and seven Sudanese infantry battalions in three brigades, a cavalry brigade consisting of a British and two Egyptian cavalry battalions along with the Egyptian camel battalion, along with two British and four Egyptian artillery batteries and a specialist engineer battalion. This last unit is intended to lay a railway to follow the invasion and maintain its supply line. Included in this last unit is Second Lieutenant Zaitian Aisin-Gioro. The army is to be commanded by General Herbert Kitchener and totals some 24,000 men, equipped with seven Maxim guns directly attached to the British and Dominion battalions and another twelve in two Maxim batteries of the Royal Artillery.

October 1891: The Russians introduce the Pekhotnaya Vintovka Obrazca 1891-go goda, or Infantry Rifle Model 1891, more commonly known as the Mosin M1891. Designed by Sergei Mosin, the rifle is a conventional turn bolt action weapon using a 7.62x53mmR cartridge fed by a five round stripper clip. The rifle is unusual in being sighted assuming the bayonet is fixed. While the bolt mechanism will be shown to be somewhat complicated, the Mosin will prove to be a dependable service weapon and equip the Russian army. Most will be produced in Russia, however initial lack of domestic facilities will lead to a large number being manufactured in France for some years.

October 1891: The Liberal Party's program of reform in India has created a demand in India for further reform, with radical elements taking a distinctly anti-Imperial tone. Recognising that Indian nationalism can not be ignored, the government has adopted a policy of supporting the moderate pro-Imperial Indian National Congress over the radical Indian National Association. After extensive consultations with the INC, the Indian Civil Service Act is passed. It splits the previously united Indian Civil Service into a Central Civil Service and individual Provincial Civil Services for each province, though retaining a pathway for elevation from a provincial service to the central service. It also finally allows for the Civil Service exams to be held both in Britain and India, along with scrapping the separation of roles into covenanted and uncovenanted allowing for Indians eventually to reach senior levels. It is hope this will encourage increased participation of the growing Indian middle classes in the administration of India and give them a vested interest in mainlining the existing power structure by allowing them to take over at the provincial level while maintaining Imperial control of the core central government.

October 1891: After many months of tense negotiations, a new US-Canadian fisheries and trade treaty has been negotiated. The new treaty would see both sides gaining mutual access to the other's fisheries under a quota system. While the trade agreement would see mutual tariff reductions to foster greater trade ties.

October 1891: Charles Parnell dies, and his seat will be taken by the Irish National League in the following by-election. This leaves just five Irish Home Rule Party members in parliament under the new leader John Redmond. Redmond throws himself into trying to revive the party's fortunes by negotiating a coalition between the three Irish parties, pointing out their representation in Parliament has fallen from 73 to 63 seats due to their disunity.

November 1891: After the failure of the 1889 coup the boulangist Ligue des Patriotes was banned and many of leaders fled overseas, including leader Paul Déroulède. Nevertheless the movement has survived with over sixty members of the Chamber of Deputies being boulangists, headed by Victor Rochefort. Rochefort allies himself with the monarchists and begin a campaign calling for an amnesty for the exiled boulangist leaders and rehabilitation of the movement.

November 1891: At the request of the Emperor the Constitutional Court is created in Brazil. Consisting of nine members appointed for a ten year term, the court will be the court of last resort in Brazil, with a bench of three to five judges ruling on cases. The full bench will also have the power to strike down any law it finds to be contrary to the 1824 Constitution. The court will also serve to advise the Emperor on the use of his reserve powers, though in practice, the Emperor will always follow the courts advice. The court will be a further step in assuaging conservative opposition to the ongoing liberal reforms and ease the potential succession of Pedro II's daughter Isabel to the throne when her father dies.

November 1891: In response to the Japanese order for two modern battleships the Chinese order another pair of battleships from the British. Virtual repeats of the Royal Navy Centurion class, they are specifically designed for operations in Chinese waters, with a shallow draft to enable them to operate in rivers. Unfortunately the two new battleships will stretch the Qing naval budget beyond its limits, and the British naval mission will be dismissed for financial reasons, along with training operations and the purchase of supplies and ammunition being cut back.

December 1891: The British and Chileans sign a naval treaty at Valparaiso. The Treaty of Valparaiso commits both sides to cooperation and regular joint exercises in the Pacific, the first such exercise being held off Australia next year. The treaty also includes provision for the Chileans to 'join' the All Red Line of undersea telegraph cables, with the intention to lay a cable from Chile to New Zealand via Easter and Pitcairn Islands.

December 1891: The Trans Pacific Cable Company's new cable ship CS Isaac Newton reaches Fanning Island from Bamfield in British Colombia, having laid some 6.000km of undersea telegraph cable. Five days earlier her sister ship the CS Humphry Davy arrived after laying 5,000km from Norfolk Island via Fiji. This will mark the finally completion of the All Red Line of telegraph cables linking the British Empire. With the final link now complete, the Imperial Security Council begins planning on incorporating additional redundancy into the system and developing a plan to link Hong Kong into the system. While the Trans Pacific Cable Company begins work on the Valparaiso to Tauranga cable linking Chile to New Zealand.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-April 1892: Imperial games

January 1892: Work begins on the construction of a military railway to support the invasion of Sudan. The railway will use the same 3'6” gauge as is in use in southern Africa and extend from Wadi Halfa to Kerma, bypassing the second cataract of the Nile. Then it is intended to build another line from Wadi Halfa to Abu Hamad, allowing supplies to reach the invasion force all year round. This construction is to be covered by an Egyptian brigade, while the British brigade and remaining Egyptian units are to advance cautiously to engage any Mahdist forces. General Kitchener does not feel the new Dominion forces have yet reached a sufficient level of training, so they are to remain in Egypt in reserve for the time being. Kitchener's plan is to secure his supply line's flank by advancing on Gondola and then eventually attack the Khalifa's capital at Omdurman via Abu Hamad.

January 1892: US Senator William McKinley successfully passes the McKinley Tariff Act which massively increases US tariffs, despite President Cleveland's fierce opposition, The act instantly causes a huge increase in prices of many goods and is massively unpopular. It will also lead to widespread introduction of retaliatory tariffs in other countries.

January 1892: Khedive Tewfik of Egypt dies unexpectedly and is succeeded by his eighteen year old son Abbas II, The young Khedive immediately begins to resent the control the British exert over Egypt, seeking to re-establish full Egyptian independence. Abbas immediately begins to surround himself with advisers, primarily French who oppose British control over Egypt. Additionally he begins secretly recruiting supporters in the Egyptian army. In this he is aided by growing opposition to British rule in the Egyptian middle class.

February 1892: Congress votes to reject the new US-Canadian trade and fisheries treaty as is, requiring it to modified to restrict Canadian access to US fisheries and totally rejecting the proposed tariff reductions. While President Cleveland does communicate the modifications Congress requires to the British and Canadians, they refuse to contemplate any such modification, feeling they would unduly favour the US.

February 1892: Since 1881, a French company has been trying to construct a trans oceanic canal cross the Isthmus of Panama. However work came to a halt in 1889. Since that time the company has to attempted to maintain the equipment and keep itself afloat. However the debts are now massive and the company collapses, wiping out hundreds of thousands of investors savings. In the resulting scandal, massive political corruption comes to light, with many prominent politicians being implicated and even convicted.

February 1892: Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont, heir to a fortune, moves to Paris and begins studying engineering and aeronautics.

February 1892: In order to support his policies of devolution and domestic reform, Campbell-Bannerman appoint the radical Charles Dilke as Home Secretary. His former position as Colonial Secretary is taken by Herbert Asquith, while Asquith's role as Secretary of State for War is taken by Reginald Brett. Brett, aware the army is in need of further reform, is finally successful in convincing the Duke of Cambridge to retire as head of the army. General Garnet Wolseley is promoted to Field Marshall and appointed as his replacement. Wolseley immediately begins advocating for change and rationalisation, demanding additional telegraph battalions along with the creation of specialist railway engineering battalions in the Royal Engineers, along with the creation single unified Medical Corps and similar unified Ordinance Corps. Finally Wolseley also abolishes the regimental numbers retained for line regiments in Childers Reforms.

February 1892: Since their establishment of a Protectorate over Cambodia in 1863, the French have been seeking to expand their control in Indochina into Siamese territory, with ultimate aim of absorbing Siam completely. However after the French attempts to intervene in Burma, the British have been providing support and arms for the Siamese, allowing them to resist these efforts. In return the Siamese have renounced their claims to the Thai speaking Shan region of Burma. In a new attempt to expand their control, the French demand the Siamese acknowledge French control of all territory east of the Mekong River. Relying on British support, the Siamese refuse.

March 1892: With memories of the Panama Crisis fading and it now clear former President Blaine's trade sanctions on Chile are having little or no effect on Chile, President Cleveland is finally successful in having them lifted. He also sets about negotiating an Treaty of Friendship with the Chileans. The proposed treaty would have little practical effect but Cleveland hopes it might be the first step in restoring US influence in Chile.

March 1892: The French, seeking to undermine British control of Egypt begin giving Khedive Abbas II covert support in his opposition to the British, smuggling some 10,000 single shot Gras rifles into the country. Additionally political advisers are provided, along with funds to incite nationalist unrest.

March 1892: French anarchist François Ravachol plants a series of bombs in the offices of senior members of the French judicial system. He is easily captured after information from a police informant and executed. However a certain romantic mythology around him will develop in anarchist circles, leading to further examples of 'propaganda of the deed' and an eventual crackdown on anarchism and by extension, socialism, throughout continental Europe.

March 1892: With 80% of the Brazilian population being illiterate, Prime Minister Afonso Celso introduces free compulsory education to the age of 11, along with government subsidies for education to the age of 15. Once again, the new liberal policies cause a great deal of opposition with the countries conservative elites.

March 1892: The new Regional Administration Boards are elected, with the English, Scottish and Welsh boards falling under the control of the Liberals, while the Irish board is narrowly dominated by the Irish Reform Party and the Ulster board the Conservatives. With the exception of the Ulster board, all will introduce free and compulsory education until the age of 13 by the end of the year. However Ulster will wait until 1896 before bringing in similar reform.

April 1892: The new Chinese arsenal at Hanyang is completed and begins producing modem weapons. Unfortunately a major fire breaks out a few weeks after production starts, inflicting major damage and requiring extensive repairs. However despite this setback it is seen as a great success.

April 1892: With Thomas Edison having lost control of his own company in 1891, Westinghouse and Edison Electrical merge to form the General Electric Company. This marks the final triumph of AC power distribution in the US and the end of the War of the Currents. From this point on, AC will be the dominant power distribution system worldwide.

April 1892: The naval building programs of the Blaine years finally begin to show their effect with eight armoured warships commissioning into the US navy, unfortunately due to the extended construction times, at least six of these are already regarded as near obsolete. However, despite the calls of the Mahanist Secretary of the Navy Hilary Herbert, the 1892 building program only includes a single battleship, albeit to a greatly improved design and two armoured cruisers.

April 1892: In the wake of the near catastrophe of the Baring crisis the Banking Security Act is passed, for the first time imposing regulation on the British financial sector. The act requires all British banks to make regular financial statements to the Bank of England and allowing the bank to impose capital requirements based on the risk of investment the institution holds. Despite the modest nature of the regulations, the act incites fierce controversy over government intrusion into the workings of the market.

 

[Miss Construction]

~May-Aug 1892: Hints of the future

May 1892: As planned at the Capolago Anarchist Congress a series of general strikes are launched on May Day throughout Europe. Despite their agreement to support the strikes at the at the Brussels Congress of the Second International, communist involvement is extremely limited. The strikes will bring a heavy handed response in many places, particularly in Germany and France. In Germany the strikes will lead to a reintroduction of Bismark's anti-socialist laws. Whereas in France, with memories of the boulangist coup attempt still fresh, it will lead to many anarchists being imprisoned or deported to penal colonies in New Caledonia and French Guyana. The boulangist movement will capitalise on the unrest along with the Panama Scandal to revitalise their failing support base, winning many seats in the Chamber of Deputies in the elections which follow.

May 1892: With land reform having advanced tenants rights in Ireland considerably since 1870, there has grown an increasingly vocal movement for similar reform, not only in Scotland but also England and Wales. In an effort to answer these calls the Tenants Holdings Bill is introduced. Patterned after the 1883 Land Law (Ireland) and 1888 Purchase of Land (Ireland) Acts, it would establish Land Courts and Commissions in Scotland, England and Wales. As with Ireland, the Land Courts are intended to adjudicate rent disputes between tenants and landlords, while the Land Commissions are meant to encourage tenants to purchase their own holdings and include a government fund to provide for such purchases. While the administration of these courts and commissions remains under the central government, in line with the Liberals policy of devolution there are separate bodies for each of the home nations.

May 1892: Viceroy of India, former Prime Minister George Trevelyan, now Lord Wallington, is successful in passing the Manufacturing Industries Act through the Indian Legislative Council. The act removes many of the restriction which have been imposed during British rule to hinder the development of Indian industry. The Act however attract fierce controversy in Parliament from both sides of the house with the concerns being raised not only by Conservatives, but Liberals concerned about the effect Indian competition might have on their industrial constituencies. Secretary of State for India Lord Ripon vigorously defends the act, claiming the threat is negligible and in fact the act will create a solid trading partner and market for British industry.

June 1892: General Kitchener's forces finally engage the Mahdists in the Battle of Ferkeh. Some 9,000 primarily Egyptian troops will engage and decisively defeat the a force of roughly 4,000 Mahdists. While not strategically significant, the Egyptians only lose 20 men against around 1,000 Mahdists killed with another 500 captured. This will result in a considerable moral boost for the Sudanese troops and corresponding fall for the Mahdists.

June 1892: The annual Royal Navy estimates include provision for a class of no less than twelve battleships to be ordered in groups of four over the next three years. The Majestic class will be broadly similar to the 1889 eight ship Royal Sovereign class, except with improved 12" guns replacing the Royal Sovereign's 13.5" weapons and armoured hoods over their barbettes. The estimates will also see a new type of warship, torpedo boat destroyers, or more simply destroyers, intended to replace the earlier torpedo gunboats. Basically enlarged torpedo boats, these destroyers will be built by specialist yards with the Admiralty simply issuing broad specifications regarding speed and armament, then allowing the yards to design the vessel they feel best fits the requirements.

July 1892: With cricket continuing to decline in North America in the face of baseball's growing popularity, a tour by the England team is organised in an effort to revive the game. While the tour will achieve moderate success in Canada, lingering anti-British sentiment in the US will continue to hamper the game.

July 1892: The British delegation to the Wellington Imperial Conference is once again headed by Prime Minister Campbell-Bannerman and includes Leader of the Opposition Lord Salisbury, Foreign Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, and Colonial Secretary Asquith, as well as Commander in Chief of the Army Field Marshall Wolseley and First Sea Lord Admiral Anthony Hoskins. The sheer number of senior British ministers and government officials attending is indicative of the importance the Conferences are now given. Unlike previous Imperial Conferences which have focused on security, the Wellington Conference focuses primarily on economic matters and Imperial integration. Colonial Secretary Asquith raises the possibility of an Imperial Customs Union once more. However as with the 1886 London Conference, the Dominions are unwilling to commit to that level of economic integration. However the death of Canadian Premier John MacDonald in 1891 has softened the Canadian stance to a degree. Eventually it is agreed to form a committee to establish an Empire wide scheme of unified tariffs, with Britain and the Dominions imposing a common duty on imported Imperial goods until such time the US reduce their tariff regime. The matter of the US McKinley Act is also raided, with almost unanimous agreement there should be an Empire wide retaliatory tariff imposed. With the completion of the All Red Line, the issue of an All Red shipping route is again raised. While most are opposed to the total exclusion of foreign shipping from internal Imperial transport, it is accepted that some form of preference for Imperial shipping lines should be instituted. Many of the Dominions express disappointment that only one Royal Navy Dockyard is being expanded, arguing further expansion of the shipbuilding industry throughout the Empire is required. While the massive economic benefits associated with the Triconmalee dockyard expansion are not mentioned directly, it is clear from the Dominions insistence any future expansions be undertaken in the Dominions that this is probably a very significant factor in their concerns. Campbell-Bannerman counters that the Triconmalee expansion is costing millions of pounds and further expansions are simply unaffordable.

July 1892: For the first time the possibility of an Imperial Federation is seriously discussed, with the focus on exactly how much power any Imperial government would retain in such a federation. The British prefer a model akin to Campbell-Bannerman's policy of devolution for the home nations, with a strong central government. All the Dominions oppose that, but are split between those wanting something akin to the Canadian confederation with a more limited central government, and those advocating something more like the Federal Council of Australasia, with the central government being simply an advisory body appointed by the member states. During these discussions the matter of responsible government for Fiji comes up. The Pacific Dominions are strongly in favour of it being granted to the colony, bringing it in line with the other Dominions. In fact the very use of the term Dominion is a matter of contention with it being agreed all those colonies with responsible government should formally be retitled Dominions. On matters of security, some concerns are raised about the slow progress of the Sudanese campaign. General Wolseley stresses how his own operations which relieved Khartoum in 1884 were seriously hampered by logistics and stresses his support for Kitchener's cautious approach. This settles the matter for the most part, though the Pacific Dominions are disappointed their troops have remained in Egypt. Wolseley again stresses this is simply the opening stages of the campaign, and he is sure one Kitchener has secured his supply lines, the Dominion forces will be fully employed. The next Imperial Conference is scheduled for Dublin in 1894.

August 1892: A Russian naval squadron conducts a reciprocal goodwill visit to Marseilles in return for the French squadron's visit to Krondsadt in 1890. As with the Krondsadt visit it is actually a cover for further diplomatic negotiations toward a Franco-Russian alliance. In this round of talks it is agreed both nations will mobilise their force if a hostile power should mobilise against either.

August 1892: In response to the McKinley Tariff Act and in line with the decision of the Wellington Imperial Conference, the British and Dominions begin imposing retaliatory tariffs against US imports. The most extreme will be imposed by Canada. However Foreign Secretary Joseph Chamberlain makes it clear to the US administration, the increased tariffs will be removed as soon as the McKinley Act is modified and tariffs reduced.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Sept-Dec 1892: Swimming upstream

September 1892: Since 1873 the US has persisted with the use of what is basically a trapdoor breach loading modification of the Civil War era M1863 Springfield muzzle loading rifle in 45-70” (11.6x53.5mmR) black powder round. Realising this weapon has long been obsolete, the US finally adopts a modern small bore repeating rifle as a replacement. The new 0.30-40" (7.8x59mmR) M1892 Krag-Jørgensen is a Norwegian designed bolt action rifle using a five round capsule magazine, dump loaded via a side gate. Unfortunately several US arms designers will immediately sue the government claiming corruption, requiring the entire trials process to be repeated, with the Krag-Jørgensen winning again. This, combined with problems in tooling up production and persistent minor issues will delay full scale production until spring 1894.

September 1892: The South American Naval Arms Race continues unabated with the Brazilians and Chileans each responding to the Argentines order of two armoured cruisers with a second of their own. By now both the US and British are concerned by the ongoing arms race, President Cleveland suggests a joint approach to attempt to find a diplomatic solution to halt the ongoing arms race. Prime Minister Campbell-Bannerman, equally as concerned agrees to cooperate to defuse tensions.

September 1892: Siamese governors in Laos, expel French traders on suspicion of opium dealing. This incident is shortly followed by the suicide of the French consul to the Laotian city of Luang Prabang on his way back to Saigon. The French Imperialist lobby uses these incidents to incite anti-Siamese feeling and as a justification for stronger action.

September 1892: The Sudan Military Railway finally reached Kosheh in August, beyond the unnavigable portion of the second cataract. A small dockyard was rapidly built, enabling ten armed river steamers to be dismantled and transported by rail to the new base. With the Nile in flood, these gunboats were then able to navigate the third cataract in preparation for an assault on the fortified Mahdist position at Dongola. However, after several days of bombardment by Commander Colin Keppel's flotilla and seeing the size of the approaching force the Mahdists abandon the town, allowing it to be taken without resistance. The fall of Dongola shocks the Khalifa, who expects the British to advance across the Nubian Desert to directly attack his capital at Omdurman and he immediately begins preparing to meet such an attack.

October 1892: With the successful completion of the Hanyang Arsenal, the Chinese decide to build a second similar facility at Chengdu in Sichuan Province. As with the Hanyang Arsenal this will be built with British assistance, however unlike Hanyang, the Chengdu Arsenal is intended to be able to produce all manner of artillery than than just light artillery pieces.

October 1892: With his final retirement from politics Gladstone is created Earl of Hawarden. Despite his retirement he does take the opportunity occasionally to speak in the Lords, particularly in opposition to further Imperial expansion.

October 1892: US Secretary of State Walter Gresham successfully negotiates a Treaty of Friendship with Chile. While as expected, the treaty would have little real impact, it does provide for a permanent joint US-Chilean committee to encourage a return of US investment and a reduction in the retaliatory tariffs the Chileans imposed on US goods in the wake of the 1885 US trade sanctions. However the treaty will falls 34 votes short of the two thirds Congressional approval required for ratification and consequently never goes into effect.

October 1892: The Tenants Holdings Bill has provoke extremely fierce opposition from the Conservatives, both due to its devolved nature and the erosion of landlord rights. They have successfully been able to have the bill considerably watered down. The act which is finally passed combines the English and Welsh bodies into a single Land Court and Land Commission for both home nations, while the government fund to advance loans have been removed and the entire act now only applies to holdings of 80 acres or less. Despite this set back, Campbell-Bannerman still regards the act as a success, hoping to extend it full intent at a latter date.

November 1892: While Prime Minister Afonso Celso's measures earlier in 1891 have mitigated the situation they did not prevent the collapse of the Brazilian economic investment bubble, pushing the country into depression. As a cost cutting measure three coast defence battleships built in the 187's are decommissioned and sold for scrap while the army is reduced from 18,000 to 12,000 men.

November 1892: The Italians, seeking to match the latest developments in small arms introduce the Carcano Fucile Modello 1891 chambering the rimless 6.5x52mm Carcano cartridge as their standard infantry rifle. Using a simplified Gew 1888 bolt designed by Salvatore Carcano and a six round Mannlicher en-bloc clip, the Carcano is a simple but effective weapon, ideally suited to the limited Italian industrial base. The long barrelled infantry rifle will be followed by the Moschetto Modello 1891 cavalry carbine in 1893.

November 1892: As part of their ongoing program of social reform, the National Health Insurance Act is passed. This act institutes a program of health insurance funded by workers and employers contributions, to ensure widespread access to health care by all sections of society. While the insurance is established nationally, it is left to the five Regional Administration Boards to implement a local insurance scheme within a nationally established minimum framework.

November 1892: In repose to the controversy in Britain over the Manufacturing Industries Act, Viceroy of India Lord Wallington arranges for the Industrial Tools and Dies Act, limiting the importation into India of machine tools from non-Imperial manufacturers. The act imposes a system of licences and tariffs to effectively restrict the market solely to Imperial companies. While the act provokes a great deal of criticism from the more radical Indian nationalists, most of the moderates and Indian industrialists accept it as an unpleasant but necessary compromise to remove the restrictions on Indian industrial development, believing in time, India will be able to produce its own machine tools, rendering the act moot.

November 1892: In a landslide result caused by public anger over the McKinley Tariff act, incumbent Grover Cleveland wins a clear victory over the Republican challenger Benjamin Harrison. The election also results in the Republicans losing control of Congress for the first time since the Civil War. Cleveland campaigns on a program of continued civil service reform and anti-trust legislation, combined with lower tariffs and continuing to improve relations with the British, including a new free trade agreement to reduce barriers to trade.

December 1892: Nikola Pašić, head of the NRS or Peoples Radical Party in control of the Serbian government stages a coup deposing King Milan and forcing him into exile. Milan's 15 year old son is placed on the throne under a regency headed by Pašić.

December 1892: In line with his policy of fostering free trade and improving relations with Britain, President Cleveland proposes a renewed round of talks to once again attempt to negotiate a treaty acceptable to both sides.

December 1892: The Berlin to Baghdad railway reaches Ankara. Work begins on extending it to Konya.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Jan-April 1893: Trouble in the bazaar

January 1893: Paul Mauser introduces another version of his successful 1889 design. While incorporating many detailed improvements, it introduces a flush five round staggered magazine and the high velocity, flat shooting 7x57mm Mauser cartridge. The rifle is immediately adopted by the Spanish who will also purchase a licence for domestic production. The rifle will also be adopted by the Brazilians and Ottomans.

January 1893: With the bulk of the British forces engaged in Sudan, Khedive Abbas II of Egypt launches an uprising to oust the British from Egypt. While initially only some 2,000 of the 16,000 Egyptian and Sudanese troops remaining in Egypt join the uprising, the revolt spreads quickly and soon only 2,000 mainly Sudanese troops remain loyal, though another 4,000 have deserted or been disarmed by the rebels. Hundreds of British officers serving with Egyptian army units are murdered. Nonetheless, the 3,500 strong Dominion Brigade under Brigadier William Gatacre, with the assistance of the remaining loyal Sudanese and supported by Admiral George Tryon's Mediterranean fleet manage to hold Alexandria. With his supplies lies now cut, Kitchener is forced to halt his operations in Sudan and disarm his 6,500 Egyptian troops, who are now regarded as unreliable. He however retains his Sudanese units, leaving him with just 13,000 men, along with 1,000 British troops holding the main supply base at Aswan. To secure his position, he falls back to his bases at Wadi Halfa, Kosheh and Dongola. Meanwhile, reinforcements are urgently dispatched to reinforce the Dominion forces holding out in Alexandria.

February 1893: Regardless of the experience of the Crash of 1873 and subsequent Long Depression, since the recovery in the mid 1880s, another speculative bubble in railway and industrial investment has developed in the US. The situation has been worsened by the persistence of bimetalist policies in the US resulting in an unstable currency. This has led to European and British investors liquidating their US commitments as concern over the US economy has grown. All exacerbated by the increasing diversion of British capital to the safer Dominions after the Barings Crisis of 1890, along with the restrictions on risky investments imposed by the Banking Security Act of 1891. The badly overextended Philadelphia and Reading Railroad collapses, finally triggering a treasury crisis. The crisis is widely blamed on the inflated prices of silver caused by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. President Cleveland successfully convinces Congress to repeal the act in an effort to stabilise the US currency.

February 1893: During the withdrawal to Wadi Halfa now Lieutenant Zaitian Aisin-Gioro's detachment becomes isolated and is attacked by a large band of Mahdists. With only eight British engineers and twenty four Egyptian soldiers he holds off the attack for over twenty four hours before being relieved. During this time he displays great heroism and personally rescues two of his men under fire. As a result he is awarded the Distinguished Service Order. However the incident also highlights the danger in which the Emperor of China has now been exposed to. As a result he is order back to the rear base at Aswan and preparation made for his evacuation to safety.

March 1893: Seeking to take advantage of the uprising in Egypt, the Khalifa orders 30,000 Mahdists under Osman Digna, his ablest commander, to attack the 4,000 strong garrison at Dongola. Despite inflicting heavy casualties on the attackers and being supported by the Nile River flotilla, the garrison is forced to fall back to Kosheh due to a shortage of supplies. The supporting fire of of Keppel's flotilla prove vital in allowing the garrison to withdraw intact. Though Osman Digna advises immediate pursuit, the Khalifa orders his to fortify Dongola and construct artillery batteries covering the river.

March 1893: The French dispatch several armed columns into Laos demanding the Siamese withdraw and accept the area east of the Mekong as part of Vietnam and thus under French control.

March 1893: A force consisting primarily of Indian troops lands at Kossier on the Red Sea in an effort to reopen a supply line to Kitchener's forces in Sudan. The landing is unopposed and work begins immediately on constructing a road to Kena, allowing supplies to then be shipped up river to Aswan and on to Wadi Halfa. A limited supply line will be established by mid April, allowing Kitchener's forces to be resupplied sufficiently to defend their positions. In addition an Indian infantry battalion and cavalry battalion will move to increase his available forces.

March 1893: British Foreign Secretary Joseph Chamberlain hosts talks between the Conservative Canadian Premier John Thompson and US Secretary of State Walter Gresham With the rejection of the 1892 Treaty, the British and Canadians somewhat sceptical a mutually agreeable deal on trade and fisheries access can be reached. However with the new US Congress leaning toward lowering protectionism, they are willing to discuss the matter. Eventually a new draft treaty is negotiated. Under the proposed terms, both Canada and the US will reduce tariffs on a wide range of items by 2%, with another 3% reduction by mutual agreement to follow in two years, and a final 3% reduction, again by mutual agreement, five years after that. The fisheries deal is substantially unaltered from the 1892, only with the provision for improved access by either side on agreement to an annual payment in return.

March 1893: John Redmond, the new leader of the Irish Home Rule Party, successfully negotiates an compromise deal whereby all the three Irish parties represented in Parliament agree to cooperate and avoid competition in elections. While the agreement is purely informal, the new alignment will come to be commonly known as the Irish Parliamentary Coalition.

March 1893: With the situation in Egypt and Sudan appearing dire, the British propose a secret agreement with the French to allow the French a free hand in Laos in return for the French ending their support of Khedive Abbas II. The French, realising as Abbas was unable to expel the British in the initial uprising, he is very unlikely to be successful, agree to the terms.

April 1893: With the ongoing problems in the US economy, only four torpedo gunboats are ordered in the 1893 naval estimates, despite calls by the increasingly Mahanist dominated US navy and continuing support from Secretary of the Navy Hilary Herbert.

April 1893: The British forces in Alexandria having been reinforced to some 12,000 men under General Frederick Roberts launch an offensive toward Cairo in order to re-establish control over Egypt. They are opposed by Khedive Abbas II with some 10,000 Egyptian regulars, supported by 15,000 hastily raised and equipped Egyptian irregulars. Abbas has split his forces in two, with some 3,000 regulars and 6,000 irregulars guarding against a repeat of Wolseley's attack from Suez in 1882.

April 1893: The Gresham=Thompson Treaty on US-Canadian trade is presented to the US Congress for ratification. Despite some Congressmen's concerns over the growing US treasury crisis, the new Democrat controlled body agrees to it's ratification.

April 1893: With the French introduction of the Lebel Rifle the new Austro-Hungarian 11mm M1886 Mannlicher rifle was rendered obsolete. In an effort to adapt the rifle a 8x52mmR compressed black powder round was hastily developed and the M1886 modified to use it as the M1888. This solution however was always intended as a temporary measure pending the development of a smokeless round. Unfortunately this has proved difficult. With the continued failure to develop a full smokeless powder, a second new cartridge, the 8x50mmR M90 using a semi-smokeless powder is introduced as yet another interim measure. The existing rifles are updated as the M1886-90 or M1888-90 while a new M1890 rifle is developed with a stronger chamber for the higher pressures expected with a smokeless round. Unfortunately the strength of the wedge locking system of the original M1886 is nearing its limit, but it expected it will be capable of handling the pressures of a fully smokeless round. Eventually a fully smokeless round is developed in the form of the 8x50mmR M93, however only the M1890 rifle is capable of handling the new round, even then only marginally. The older updated M1886-90 and M1888-90 rifles are restricted to the semi-smokeless 8mm M90 cartridge.

 

[Miss Construction]

~May-Aug 1893: One night in Bangkok

May 1893: The repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, has caused a rush of people seeking to convert their silver notes to gold. Eventually this causes US gold reserves to fall to their statutory minimum, preventing further silver notes being converted. The result is a panic, followed by a series of bank and railway collapses, triggering another massive depression in the US. Fortunately the prior divestment of their US portfolios by European and British investors limits the international fall out and the depression is largely confined to the US.

May 1893: The Khalifa finally allows Osman Digna, now with 40,000 men to attack Kosheh. However Kitchener is now receiving supplies and the garrison is now 7,0000 strong, supported by the Nile River Flotilla. Digna's attacking forces come under withering rifle and Maxim gun fire, and are unable to break the British defences. When Digna himself is killed, the Mahdists morale breaks and they flee. However with little cavalry at their disposal, the British are unable to effectively pursue the routing troops. Nonetheless, some 8,000 Mahdists are killed or captured.

June 1893: The radical Government of India Act is passed. This act firmly establishes the principle that the administration of India should be handled at the provincial level as far as possible, and that Indian opinion must be well represented. The nine major provincial councils of Assam, Bengal, Bombay, Burma, Central Provinces, Madras, Pashtunistan, Punjab, and United Provinces councils are to consist of thirty elected members, four members appointed to represent the main ethnic and religious groups in the province including two reserved for Anglo-Indians, and finally fourteen members appointed by the provincial governor. The four minor provinces of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Ajmer-Merwar, Baluchistan, and Coorg will be governed by a council of 15 elected members and ten members appointed by the Chief Commissioner. The central legislative council is to consist of eighteen members appointed by the nine major provincial councils, four members appointed by the minor provinces, sixteen members appointed by the eight major Princely States of Baroda, Gwalior, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Jammu and Kashmir, Jodhpur, Mysore, and Travancore, six elected members to represent the Dilat, Parsi and Sikh communities, four members elected by the Anglo-Indian community, and lastly twenty members appointed by the Viceroy. The central council is only to retain power over defence, railways, economic development, famine relief, maintenance of public order, relations with the Imperial government, weights, measures and other standards, and foreign affairs. The governor of each province and viceroy retain the right to veto any legislation, with a further veto held by the Secretary of State for India in London. The act will result in a major increase in Indian support for the moderate Indian National Congress over the more radical Indian National Association.

June 1893: General Roberts engages Abbas army at Tandata. While in a strong defensive position, the Egyptians most serious issue is a lack of artillery, with only 30 pieces, all with only limited ammunition. Against this, the British have 60 pieces amply supplied. The vast majority of the Egyptians are also only equipped with obsolete single shot rifles, while the British are armed with modern Lee-Metford magazine rifles. Nonetheless, the Egyptians offer heavy resistance, but eventually the British advantages begin to tell, with the morale of Abbas irregular troops collapsing under sustained British assault. Abbas is forced to retreat toward Cairo, abandoning much of his artillery. With it clear he can no longer hope to oppose the British advance, Abbas flees to the Ottoman Empire several days latter. Abbas flight destroys what remains of his army's morale and it disintegrates. Robert's quickly occupies Cairo and moves to fully restore British control over Egypt.

July 1893: In April a French Colonial Inspector and seventeen Vietnamese militia were killed by Siamese forces in Laos. In what will become known as the Paknan Incident, the French use this as a pretext for military intervention, sending two warships up the Chao Phraya River toward Bangkok. Still believing they have British support, the Siamese fort at Paknan opens fire on the vessels. The French return fire and force passage to Bangkok, then issuing an ultimatum demanding the Siamese withdraw from all Laotian territory east of the Mekong River, pay and indemnity and punish those responsible for the deaths in Laos. The Siamese appeal to the British for support, however in accordance with their agreement with the French, they advise the Siamese to obtain the best terms they can.

July 1893: Thus far the US and British attempts to halt the South American Naval Arms Race have proved fruitless with the Brazilians now ordering another pair of protected cruisers from British yards.

July 1893: Former British Indian civil servant Allan Hume and founder of the Indian National Congress has managed to establish a thriving textile business, now owning three mills. Seeking to diversify he cooperates with Parsi industrialist Jamsetji Tata to found the Tata and Hume Iron and Steel Company to use the Imperial Development Act to construct an advanced steel mill capable of producing steel equally in quality to the best in the world.

July 1893: Despite fierce opposition US Congress enacts the Howard Act bring the terms of the Gresham-Thompson Treaty into effect. The reduced tariffs on Canadian goods will lead to Canada becoming a major transshipment point for British and Dominion goods entering the US market re-branded as Canadian goods. This will create a great deal of public opposition to the treaty in the US.

August 1893: With Egypt once again firmly under British control, Kitchener's supply line has been restored. The Dominion Brigade and an additional British brigade, supported by cavalry and artillery are dispatched to reinforce his army, replacing the now disbanded Egyptian units. This brings the number of troops at his disposal to 23,000, allowing him to feel confident in resuming the offensive. His initial move is a drive to regain control of Dongola.

August 1893: The Third Congress of the Second International at Zurich is dominated by the disastrous results of the 1892 May Day strikes. The anarchist blame the communist for their lack of support, while the communists condemn the anarchists for the crackdown on socialist movements which followed. The acrimonious argument will eventually lead to the expulsion of the anarchist movement from the Second International, marking the final split between the two socialist revolutionary groups. With the removal of the anarchist elements the Congress will pass a resolution condemning Jewish influence in international capitalism and also calling for the establishment of a 'dictatorship of the proletariat as a precursor to the establishment of a true classless socialist state.

August 1893: Brazilian Prime Minister Afonso Celso successfully gets the Lei dos Direitos Básicos or Law of Basic Rights passed. The law guarantees freedom of the press, speech and religion as well as abolishing the death penalty. While once again not welcomed by the conservatives, the law finds wide support with the lower and middle classes.

August 1893: Admiral George Tryon is appointed as First Sea Lord. He begins a program of reforms based around his TA signalling system. Under this system the previous complex process of issuing orders with multiple signal flags and awaiting acknowledgement is replaced with a few simple orders with no requirement for acknowledgement. Instead, officers are to simply follow the lead ship and exercise their own judgement as required. While highly controversial, it will greatly increase officer initiative and the flexibility of the Royal Navy.

 

[Miss Construction]

~Sept-Dec 1893: Who's got the gun

September 1983: Since obtaining the exclusive licence to market the German Gew 1888 Commission rifle worldwide, the Austro-Hungarian company ÖWG engineer Otto Schönauer has been working to correct the designs many faults. The result is a highly successful design, adopted by the Romanians as the M1893, the Netherlands as the M1895 and to a limited extent, the Portuguese as the M1896, all using the identical 6.5x53mmR round.

September 1893: With their fears regarding British expansion growing, the Transvaal and Orange Free State will issue a combined order for 30,000 new 7mm Mauser rifles to equip their citizen militias, along with significant amounts of high quality Krupps artillery.

September 1893: Premier Richard Seddon of New Zealand becomes the first Dominion to introduce universal Women's suffrage, though they are not yet allowed to stand for election. This will bring about a massive increase in the momentum for Women's suffrage throughout the Empire, with South Australia following suit next year and even extending the right to stand for election the next. In particular it will lead to increased suffragette agitation in Britain.

October 1893: Under the terms of the 1883 Treaty of Ancòn which ended the War of the Pacific between Chile and Peru, the former Peruvian provinces of Arica and Tacna were supposed to be occupied by Chile for a period of ten years before a plebiscite would decide their final fate. Nevertheless, though the scheduled date for the plebiscite has now arrived the Chileans and Peruvians have been unable to reach agreement over the terms on which such a plebiscite is to be held, particularly whether or not Chilean migrants and works in the disputed territory should be allowed to participate. This dispute will dominate relations between Chile and Peru for many years to come.

October 1893: Though Egypt is once again firmly under British rule, they are now faced by a dilemma. Clearly a new Khedive is required. However technically Egypt is a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and only the Sultan has the power to remove Abbas from his position. In an effort to resolve this legal problem, they pressure the Governing Council of Egypt to declare that Abbas has abdicated his position by his flight, installing Khedive Tewfik's younger brother Hussein Kamel as his successor. This causes a diplomatic rift between the British and Ottomans. Sultan Abdul Hamid II refuses to recognise the new Khedive, instead continuing to regard Abbas as legitimate, giving him sanctuary in Constantinople. Regardless, Hussein Kamel assumes the title, though Egypt is now effectively a British Protectorate in all but name. The Egyptian army is reduced in size to just eight infantry battalions and single cavalry battalion with only two mountain artillery batteries. However a new separate Sudanese army of ten infantry battalions, two cavalry and a camel battalion, supported by four field artillery batteries is to be organised around the loyal Sudanese troops. The terms of service for the Sudanese, who formerly were little more than slaves are to be massively improved, bringing in modern terms of regular service.

October 1893: After the tumultuous Zurich Congress of the Second International the anarchist Black International's Congress in London focuses on the way forward. It is clear the communist movement currently has greater support outside Britain and the Empire, especially as the more moderate parliamentarian socialist groups have decided to side with the Second International. It is decided the anarchist movement should focus on grass roots labour organisation and building up a support bases, while engaging in the principle of 'propaganda of the deed' to build the environment where a true socialist revolution can occur. The major resolution of the Congress is to declare the communist movement as enemies of the people and legitimate targets for 'direct action.' This will result in an undeclared war between the two threads of revolutionary socialism which will persist well into the future, with communism coming to dominate the radical left in Europe while anarchism will dominate in the British Empire and US.

October 1893: Without British support during the Paknan Incident, the Siamese were left with no option but to concede to the French Ultimatum. However in the wake of the incident, many in France called for the establishment of a full Protectorate over Siam. This greatly alarmed the British, who having now restored their control over Egypt, feel able to take a more aggressive stance. They inform the French, their agreement only covered the absorption of Laos and demand the French respect Siamese territorial integrity beyond this. This British pressure brings a negotiated settlement where the Siamese agree to the terms of the original French ultimatum, but preserve their independence. Despite British support in rejecting any wider French demands, their initial refusal to assist will lead the Siamese to begin looking for support from other powers.

November 1893: The two Japanese Wakasa class battleship are completed, making them the most powerful warships in commission in Asia. They will be finally delivered to the Imperial Japanese Navy in February.

November 1893: The French Navy complete the submarine Gustav Zédé, and enlarged version of the earlier Gymnôte. The submarine was laid down as the Sirène but renamed Gustav Zédé after his death in 1891. Armed with one 14" fixed torpedo tube and two addition torpedoes in drop collars designed by Polish engineer Stefan Drzewiecki, supposedly able to fire at torpedo at an angle from the hull. These Drzewiecki drop collars will become a feature of French and Russian submarines. Again powered solely by an electric motor, the Gustav Zédé will undergo extensive trial before finally being commissioned in 1900.

November 1893: With Osman Digna's defeat at Kasheh and the British suppression of Khedive Abbas II's revolt in Egypt, the Khalifa reverts to a defensive strategy, returning with his main army to Omdurman, leaving 12,000 men to garrison Dongola and 15,000 to block the sixth cataract at the Shabluka gorge while concentrating his main army in defence of Omdurman. Kitchener's forces reach Dongola in early November. With the Nile River Flotilla bombarding the forts, Kitchener orders an assault. On the town. The battle lasts for around three hours and results in the Mahdists being routed after suffering 4,000 dead. With Dongola retaken, Kitchener resumes extending the railway from Wadi Halfa to Abu Hamad.

December 1893: French anarchist Auguste Viallant throws a bomb from the public gallery into the Chamber of Deputies in Paris. While the bomb does relatively little damage it will spark a series of laws known as the 'Lois Scélérates' or villainous laws restricting the freedom of the press and attacking the anarchist movement in France.

December 1893: The new Qing Hanyang arsenal finally begins production in China. Built with British assistance it includes the latest manufacturing equipment and techniques, being theoretically capable of producing small arms and light artillery on a par with any in the world. Unfortunately, the quality of Chinese manufactured steel still lags behind the industrialised western powers, resulting in poorer quality weapons. The arsenal is also capable of producing cordite under licence. The arsenal begins production of a licensed copy of the German Gew 1888 Commission rifle in 7.92mm Patronne 88 as the Type 18 for their standard service rifle.

December 1893: The RSAF Enfield begins production of Maxim guns for the British and Imperial forces. The vital role the two Dominion Maxim's played in the initial defence of Alexandria is seen as clear vindication of the wisdom of directly attaching a few such weapons to battalions for such situations with some calling for the number per battalion to be increased, though many argue they are still generally better employed together as batteries to provide concentrated fire which can be deployed where required. Nonetheless, a Machine Gun Committee is formed to investigate the results of their use in the ongoing Sudan Campaign to determine the ideal method for this new weapon's deployment. All however agree, the Maxim is far superior to the older manually operated machine guns and these older weapons should be replaced as rapidly as budgetary considerations allow.