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hypothetically saying, if the CP lost the war, how do you guys think will be the major changes in Austria?

I think AH will be in a better position compared to OTL.

Let's say Romania joins the war at some point for Transylvania and Russians recover and push the Central Powers back while Serbia and Montenegro are not in any shape to join. And Italy can't change sides.

I can see AH losing Galicia (to Poland/Russia) and Transylvania (to Romania) and maybe Bohemia (independent Czechia) but keeping the rest and becoming Austria-Hungary-Illyria. Or maybe it still dissolves and a Slovene-Croat-Bosniak half-Yugoslavia is formed. I imagine Austria and Hungary would still be larger than their OTL post war versions.
 
Depends on the loss.

The fascinating thing about this scenario is that it's not just that Austria's in better shape, but Italy is in the CP too and the war wasn't over the Balkans. There's not really anything that Britain or France want from Vienna, and there's not much Russia can forcibly impose.

This means that there's a very plausible variant of the Sixtus Peace where Austria exits the war, leaving Germany and (especially) Italy in the lurch in exchange for, say, nominal reparations and very minor territorial adjustment in Poland.

That last part could even see a situation where Austria 'gives ground' in Poland on paper but on the proviso that an independent Poland is re-established as a buffer between the Hapsburgs and Russia- where the state is nominally independent, supposedly a client of Russia and is actually a client of Austria's.
 
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Let's say Romania joins the war at some point for Transylvania and Russians recover and push the Central Powers back while Serbia and Montenegro are not in any shape to join. And Italy can't change sides.
Italy will frankly be screwed if austria departs the war early since they are relying on the austrians to substitute their economic losses from britain
I can see AH losing Galicia (to Poland/Russia) and Transylvania (to Romania) and maybe Bohemia (independent Czechia) but keeping the rest and becoming Austria-Hungary-Illyria. Or maybe it still dissolves and a Slovene-Croat-Bosniak half-Yugoslavia is formed. I imagine Austria and Hungary would still be larger than their OTL post war versions.
Czechia actually has pretty low separatism at this point. All of the separatists were in exile and every bohemian politician of note before the 1918 migration of nationalist leaders into bohemia were regionalists and not nationalists.
 
Depends on the loss.
indeed
The fascinating thing about this scenario is that it's not just that Austria's in better shape, but Italy is in the CP too and the war wasn't over the Balkans. There's not really anything that Britain or France want from Vienna, and there's not much Russia can forcibly impose.
well if the russians get their head in the gear, they can at least get memel and some border territories, but yeah at the moment they can't.
This means that there's a very plausible variant of the Sixtus Peace where Austria exits the war, leaving Germany and (especially) Italy in the lurch in exchange for, say, nominal reparations and very minor territorial adjustment in Poland.
probably after Franz Joseph dies. The man was not comfortable with betraying an ally.
That last part could even see a situation where Austria 'gives ground' in Poland on paper but on the proviso that an independent Poland is re-established as a buffer between the Hapsburgs and Russia- where the state is nominally independent, supposedly a client of Russia and is actually a client of Austria's.
That would certainly be interesting.
 
Theirs's always the possibility that the Central Powers dig in and give up the offensive and let the allies smash against them for a bit and then negotiate a basically a white peace after all of the casualties.
 
well if the russians get their head in the gear, they can at least get memel and some border territories, but yeah at the moment they can't.

Sorry, I meant not much that Russia can impose on an Austria-Hungary that's exiting the war in good shape. If they break through onto the Hungarian Plain or what have you, then the situation changes.
 
Chapter 27: Hard Neutrality
Chapter 27: Hard Neutrality



TIMES OF OSMAN

Foreign Minister Curuksulu Mehmed Bey REJECTS Offers from London and Berlin

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Constantinople, April 3, 1916

In a sudden move, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs has published a public report stating that the governments of the German Empire under Chancellor Bethmann Hollwegg and the United Kingdom under Prime Minister Asquith have both offered an alliance with the Ottoman Empire on the conditions of monetary aid, military aid as well as total economic concessions regarding the Capitulations in the Ottoman Public Debt service.

The Foreign Minister, Curuksulu Mehmed Bey has called for a public conference in Topkapi Palace, where the government has reiterated its view that it shall remain neutral in the great war culminating throughout Europe.

“We have only just been able to come out of the war in the Balkans and we are in no state or condition to look for matters of war and conflict again, so soon after the great conflict with Bulgaria, Serbia and the Montenegrins. Our government and nation will remain neutral in the conflict encompassing the countries throughout Europe.” – Curuksulu Bey, the Foreign Minister has released this statement to confirm that the government will not be dragging the nation into a war again.


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Curuksulu Mehmed Bey

Grand Vizier Ahmet Riza has similarly made a statement supporting his Foreign Minister, and has made his stance on neutrality become firmer than ever before.

The War in Europe

The War in Europe is spreading everywhere, that we cannot deny. The Spanish, French, Italians, British, Greeks, Austrians and Germans as well as the Belgians and Russians are fighting throughout the continent leading to hundreds of thousands perishing everyday. Our nation’s revitalized economy and military would be a boon for any side in the ongoing war. The Minister of War, Mahmud Shevket Pasha has called the steadiness of the military to seek a war with another great power into question.

“The current military innovation happening in Europe – for example just look at their new tanks, is something we cannot replicate at this time.” – Mahmud Shevket Pasha told the reporters of the Times of Osman yesterday.

The Specter of Nationalism and Humiliation

It cannot be denied however there are nationalists who would wish to take part in the war to get what many believe to be rightfully a part of the Exalted Ottoman State. The capitulations that led to the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina into the Empire of Austria-Hungary, recovering influence in the Caucasian mountains as well as bringing Egypt back into the fold are all dreams that many Ottoman nationalists are known to espouse. Such rewards could be possible if our nation entered the war, however with possibility of rewards, also comes the possibilities of failure.

Nonetheless, many nationalist deputies in the Chamber of Deputies have told the reporters of the state that they will be boycotting the vote that will reaffirm the neutrality of the nation.

Deputy from Adrianople, Enver Pasha has stated that he will not be accepting the government’s agenda regarding the ruling on neutrality and has stated that he will submitting his resignation from the CUP Party and will be forming a new nationalist party, called the Ottoman Nationalist Party (ONP) with other like minded members to form a league representing Ottoman revanchist movements. However for now, it seems this party will be going nowhere as no one in the Chamber of Deputies or the Senate has defected to this new party other than Enver Pasha himself. Still, the rise of nationalistic parties could be detrimental to the empire as of this moment.


From The Women’s Movement in the Ottoman Empire, Salonika Press, 1997.

For all intents and purposes, the rise of women’s rights movements in the Ottoman Empire cannot be pinpointed to one event. The rise of consciousness in the Imperial Harem, as well as the general rise of education throughout the empire would mean that gradually the second standard living standards of Women in the empire became totally untenable and not at all capable of being retained throughout the empire. In the late 70s and early 80s, Women’s rights movements cropped up throughout the empire with the sole intention of aiding the movement for suffrage, rights and abolition of the harem. Of course, Sultan Abdul Hamid II was not at all interested in anything that seemed progressive and brutal suppression of these movements took place quieting the movements. It was during the Second Constitutional Era that the women’s movements began to rise up once again.


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Fatma Aliye

The works of Hallide Edib, Fatma Aliye and Maria Leontias gained prominence during the Ottoman-Italian War, with their women’s movements and women’s organizations taking part in nursing and pharmaceutical works that could make the war effort better and more well organized. Throughout the periods and time between the Italo-Ottoman War and the Balkan War, however the dampening of nationalism throughout the empire and economic development throughout the empire meant that the government under Ali Kemal was more focused on developing the nation economically to bring it up to speed and to make the nation’s living standard’s even better. This inadvertently led to more and more women’s joining Edib and Leontias’s fronts for women swelling with women throughout the empire, as living standards increasing in the empire, and education swelling in the empire made women more conscious about their rights in the nation.

In 1913, Hallide Edib and Maria Leontias founded the Ottoman Women’s Association, an association that claimed to represent the interests of all women in the Ottoman Empire. Later that year they published the Women’s Manifesto, written in Turkish, Arabic, Greek, Albanian and Slavic which declared their intentions in the empire.

  • To Seek Equality between the status of the Woman and Man throughout the Ottoman Empire.
  • To create an environment in which equal economic opportunities can be handed over to both males and females in the empire.
  • To see to it that the education of women can take place in the empire in a smooth and proper manner that can ensure the future prosperity of women in the empire.
  • The promulgation of universal women’s suffrage in the empire.
  • The abolition of the Imperial Harem and rebranding the institution into a purely educational board.

The 5 point demands as they came to be known in the Ottoman Empire were demands for progressivism and representation of women in the empire. Throughout 1913 and until early 1915 the Women’s Associations started multiple marches throughout the Ottoman Empire in favor of women’s rights. The Constitution of 1908 gave freedom of protest and freedom of criticism to the masses, even women, and the Ottoman Riot Police was deployed only to stop violence during the marches, and otherwise the government allowed the women to conduct their marches, and only stopped them if the marches devolved into riots and shouting.

The outbreak of the Balkan War made the situation even more untenable for the anti-Women’s Rights in the Chamber of Deputies. The work of the Women’s Ottoman Militia against the Bulgarians and Serbians as well as Montenegrins behind enemy lines to strike out against the enemies supply lines, and the works of the women nurses throughout the war made the stature of women rise again and their voices and the political power that women wielded continued to grow throughout the Balkan War.

Former Grand Vizier Ali Kemal publically supported Women’s Universal Suffrage in the empire, and persuaded the Liberal Entente, now led by his Albanian protégé, Hasan Prishtina to adopt it as their main policy as well. The endorsements also came from the more progressive parts of the empire. Hristo Tatarchev, a regionalist and separatist politician in Ottoman Thrace, Sergey Komachev, as well as Mustafa Kemal Pasha made it clear that many in the empire were starting to come around and were supporting Women’s Rights in the Ottoman Empire.

However by April 1916, the situation was quickly turning into a stalemate. In the Deputies, the pro-Women’s Rights deputies, collectively called the Reformers and the anti-Women’s Rights Deputies collectively called the Stayers were locked in political stalemate over the issue. In the Senate the Reformers had a majority however in the Governor’s Mandate in the Ottoman government, there was an equal amount of reformers and stayers as well. The only provincial governor election that would be taking place in 1916 would be the Armenian Vilayet’s governorship election. As such the elections in the Armenian Vilayet promised to become extremely interesting as it would determine the political mandate in the Ottoman legislation for women’s rights in the empire.

The Armenian Vilayet’s governor was Sehzade Mehmed Ziyaeddin, the son of Sultan Mehmed V, and he was elected to the position by the Ottoman Senate in 1913 to offer a non-partisan governor during the first few years of the Armenian Vilayet. As such partisanship largely did not find a proper place in the small Vilayet. However by the time of the 1916 Governorship Election, partisanship in the Vilayet was divided between the Armenakan candidate Armen Garo, and the Armenian Revolutionary Foundation candidate Simon Zavarian. Garo ran on an economic platform more than anything else, as well as a socio-political one. Zavarian similarly ran through the elections on nationalistic lines, hoping to garner regionalist votes in the Vilayet. This however backfired on the man, as the Kurdish, Greek and Turkish minorities in the Vilayet instead opted to vote for Armen Garo’s moderate line instead of the ARF’s regionalist line, which was a thinly held separatist line for many. Zavarian managed to recover some votes when he focused his position on a confederal position rather than a nationalistic one.

The main contention however (un)surprisingly came in the form of Women’s Rights. Garo supported women’s franchise in the empire, and supported women’s rights, having links with some regional Armenian women’s associations in the empire as well. He was a major donor to the Women’s cause as well. Zavarian while sympathetic to the plight of the women ran on a platform of the status quo, as he stated that changing the political situation at the time with enfranchising the women could turn out to be dangerous.


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The counting of the elections by the Ottoman Electoral Commission was fractious and was filled with jittered and panicked nerves as the commissioners continued to count the ballots and the votes. At the end of the election, it was decreed that Garo had won the governorship after the counting ended, having won 46.3% of the total votes, whilst Zavarian had come close, with 42.8% of the total votes in the elections. Garo was sworn in as the new Governor of the Armenian Vilayet.

This swung the mandate in the Governor’s Mandate in the Empire in favor of the Women’s issue in the empire and the women’s association gained momentum after this election. On May 12, the Minister of the Interior, Huseyin Hilmi (also leader of the Socialist Party) declared:-

……War by all classes of our countrymen has brought us nearer together, has opened men’s eyes, and removed misunderstandings on all sides. It has made it impossible I think that ever again at all in the lifetime of the present generation that there should be the revival of the old class feeling which was responsible for so much reactionary feelings, and among other things, for the exclusion for a period, of so many of our population from the class of electors. I think I need to say no more to justify this extension of the franchise to our dear members of Ottoman society – our women………

On May 19, The Representation of the Women Act passed in the Chamber of Deputies and was ratified by the Senate. The terms of the act were:-


  • All women in the empire were given universal right to vote after passing the age of 18 and registering in the Electoral commission.
  • Women above the age of 26 with proper education and monetary requirements would be able to stand in General Elections for the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.
  • Absolute Primogeniture to be adopted in the country’s succession and inheritance laws for business, economics, and familial wealth so that the eldest child regardless of sex would be able to inherit in their share of the ancestral right in the empire.
The act was a momentous change in Ottoman policy. Many had thought that a conditional women’s franchise would be given and would be implemented however the implementation of universal Women’s right in the empire fundamentally changed the situation of politics in the Ottoman Empire. It added around 3.4 million voters into the electoral commission and allowed women to stand in the elections. 8 women Deputies would be elected in 1918 as a result of this act giving them the right to do so.”

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an English paper in Smyrna showed this poster after the act was passed.

From A History of Ottoman Arms and Weapons, Osprey Publishing, 2011

“The introduction of the Tank by the British government in the Battle of Lede fundamentally changed warfare forever, and every schoolboy interested in the military will be able to tell you what a Tank is. The Ottomans were early innovators in the idea of the Armored car and had used the Duvar Armored Car with great effectiveness throughout the Balkan War. The Ottomans were also eager to repeat that innovation by incorporating the Tank into Ottoman development plans in the military.

The Ottoman Ministry of War recognized the usefulness of the Tank almost immediately, as the tanks would be able to change warfare in the flat terrain of Ottoman Arabia forever, and the armored fighting role would also the Ottomans to have fortified maneuverability which would be extremely useful for the Ottomans if another war broke out in the mountainous Balkans.

On April 3, the Ottoman Minister of War, Mahmud Shevket Pasha ordered the Ottoman Engineering Corps to look into the tank and to ferment local development of the tank within the Ottoman Empire if possible. The first experiment used by the Ottoman engineers was the construction of a small landship with the aid of an American Killen-Strait tracked tractor. A wire cutting mechanism was successfully fitted, but the capability of the motor to cross wide trenches and holes was insufficient. A Duvar armored car was also fitted, however the project was abandoned after it was found that the project would not be able to fulfill all terrain requirements.

The Ottoman Engineer Corps also took part in development of the Caterpillar Continuous tracks as a means to an end to find a proper method to create a proper tank in the empire, and the Ottomans conducted an experiment near Baghdad near the flat terrain between the Euphrates called the Baghdad experiment. Ottoman Chief Engineer Heron Adamos (ethnic Greek) scrapped the earlier experiments and instead turned to caterpillar tracks in its full and in May 1916, managed to have a 75 horsepower wheel directed model and a 45 horsepower integral caterpillar baby engine, showing a proper maneuverability of the vehicle. The integral caterpillar was a success. On the 16th of June, new experiments followed, which were witnessed by Mahmud Shevket Pasha, Mehmed Essat Pasha, and Mustafa Kemal Pasha. The first complete chassis of the armor was demonstrated to the Ministry of War on 9th July, 1916, with the participation of Mehmed Essat Pasha during testing.


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the prototype tank made by the ottomans.

The prototype would come into prototype testing production on the 18th of July, 1916.”

TIMES OF CALIFORNIA

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Nationalists Win Filipino Elections. Demand more autonomy from the US government! Tensions rise in the region

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June 6, Manila

The elections for the members of the Philippine Assembly were held on June 6, 1916 under the conditions of the Philippine Organic Act of 1902 which prescribed for elections to take place every three years within Philippines, which became an American protectorate. The elections for the Philippine Assembly was largely contested only by the Nacionalista Party led by Sergio Osemna, a prominent Filipino Politician, and the Progresista Party. The Nacionalista Party, as its name means, is predominantly a Filipino Nationalist Party that supports Philippine independence from our nation. It is an increasingly populist and conservative party that stays on the right side of the political spectrum.

In an electoral landslide of epic proportions, the Nacionalista Party won around 75 seats in the Philippine assembly whilst the party’s opponents, the Progresista and Democrata Nacional won only 7 and 2 seats each. Around 6 independents managed to win seats in the assembly as well. Sergio Osmena, the Speaker of the Assembly and leader of the Nationalists has managed to hold onto his position, and has called for more autonomist powers to given by Washington. Osmena has called the continued American presence in the Philippines an infringement on Filipino sovereignty and has submitted a three point demand into the new Filipino Assembly asking for the repeal of the 1903 Sedition Law which imposed penalties on independence fighters of the Philippines, and has called for the repeal of the Flag Law which banned the display of the Filipino flag. Finally he has also called for the increase of the local governments, and has called for a new commission to be formed for the increase of Filipino autonomy.


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Sergio Osmena

Our reporters from the government tell us that the points have passed in the new Filipino Assembly however President Wilson and the government have rejected this decision on part of the Filipino Assembly and has used their veto to overrule the legislation.

The failure of the American government to uplift the depression and recession in the Philippines, and even in the United States has radicalized the population. Many rumors have been made that the Moros are preparing for a new rebellion and the government is currently trying to hold matters on calm, though this reporter must admit that the situation is turning more and more untenable as time goes. Unrest is also spreading in the Confederation of the Lanao Sultanates, and many say that the Sultans are plotting to end the rightful American occupation of their lands, by proclaiming an independent elective monarchy of Muslim Filipinos in the south. The recent arrest of the Sultan of Baloi has only served to make matters worse in this case.

Only time will tell if the government will be able to meet this rising threat with the proper acumen that it deserves.


From A History of American Political Parties and their Polities, New York Publishing, 1999.

“On June 2, 1916, the Republican Party held the Republican National Convention to seek their candidates for the 1916 US Presidential Election that was coming during November that year. At the starting of the convention, Supreme Court Justice, Charles Evan Hughes was widely seen as the favorite due to his ability to unite the party, though the nomination of Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge or General Leonard Wood also seemed possible and even likely to many in the party.

Many republicans sought to nominate a candidate that was acceptable to Theodore Roosevelt in hopes of avoiding a new third party run by the Progressive Republicans, though they were unwilling to nominate Roosevelt himself. The main candidates raised during the convention were:-

  • Associate Justice, Charles Evan Hughes of New York
  • Former Senator, Elihu Root of New York
  • Former Vice President, Charles Fairbanks of Indiana
  • Senator, Albert B. Cummins of Iowa
  • Former Representative, Theodore Burton of Ohio
  • Senator, Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin
  • T. Coleman du Pont of Delaware.
  • Senator, John Weeks of Massachusetts
  • Senator, Lawrence Sherman of Illinois
  • Governor, Martin Brumbaugh of Pennsylvania.
Former President Theodore Roosevelt was raised as a candidate however he withdrew from the balloting as he did not wish to run for the presidency over political and personal concerns in the 1916 elections. By the end of the national convention, it was voted and decided that Charles Evan Hughes would be the Republican candidate for the Presidency whereas Robert La Follette managed to gain the candidacy for the vice presidency from the political party.

At the same time, the Progressive National Convention was taking place simultaneously whilst this was going on in Chicago, Illinois. The progressives had before the 1915 Gubernatorial elections been focused on reunification with the Republican Party, however after the good showing of the party in the 1915 elections, the party decided to oppose reunification with the Republicans, like the Republicans themselves. Roosevelt refused to take part in the convention fearing that the Progressives would eat up Republican votes and allow the Democrats to win the election again. With Roosevelt refusing to be their candidate, the Progressive Party turned to other members of the party and cross party members such as Gifford Pinchot.

Among the candidates from the Progressives were:-

  • Former Congressman, Victor Murdock of Kansas
  • Governor, Hiram Johnson of California
  • Former Chief of the Forest Service, Gifford Pinchot.
  • Louisiana Congressman John M. Parker
  • Raymond Robins
Among these candidates, it was John M. Parker who had been most famous in the party after his near successful run in Louisiana last year that won the nomination for the presidency. Similarly, Gifford Pinchot became the vice president candidate from the Progressive Party.

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John M. Parker, the Progressive Candidate

Similarly the Socialist elected their candidate too during the 1916 Socialist National Convention. The Socialists raised Arthur Le Seuer, former Mayor of Minot, North Dakota to become their presidential candidate whilst trade unionist James Maurer was elected through ballot voting to become their vice presidential candidate.

The Socialist party wouldn’t continue throughout the 1916 elections properly and their votes floundered, mainly due to the red scare after the Communist uprising in Bulgaria, however the Progressive Party managed to conduct itself in a most beneficial manner, allowing it to consolidate itself as the main third party in America after the 1916 US Elections, though it didn’t manage to win the presidency that year.”


From A History of British Liberal Leaders (A Case Study into British Politics), Oxford Publishing, 2008. All rights reserved.

“Before the end of 1915, it became clear that the troops entrenched along the Western Front were engaged in a long term slogging march with the German Empire, as such british politicians began to search for a quicker way to victory. Prime Minister Asquith supported Churchill’s proposal that the navy and army invade Sardinia in a prelude to an Invasion of Rome itself, knocking Italy out of the war, and clearing the Mediterranean of total naval danger for the British convoys in the region.

However many in the British government were also opposed to the ongoing plan to land in Sardinia, and Admiral Fischer resigned on April 2, even ignoring Asquith’s order to return at once to his post. Fisher avowed that Churchill was impossible to work with and that he was against the planned Sardinian campaign. The ongoing Shell Crisis in the British Army also precipitated a political crisis of the highest kind within the government.


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British munitions industries during the Munitions Crisis.

Shortage of ammunition had been a serious problem since the autumn of 1915 and the British Commander in Chief, General Smith-Dorrien had ben filing for more ammunition. Lord Northcliffe and many reporters blamed Lord Herbert Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War. On the basis of assurance from the Ministry of War, Asquith stated in a speech later that the army had sufficient ammunition in early January 1916. However the British failed to dislodge the Germans at the Battle of Outer Brussels, leading to a major fallback that almost jeopardized the Battle of Ledes and the Ledes campaign against the Germans. The Army complained back to the government blaming the lack of explosive shells. This time General Smith-Dorrien directly contacted Conservatives Bonar Law and Arthur Balfour complaining about the lack of proper shells to press British advantage in the war. By this point, the Conservatives and minor parties had all lost their confidence in Asquith as a proper wartime leader against the Germans and Austrians as well as Italians, just as the Sardinian Campaign was set to begin. In February, the death of Asquith’s eldest son, Raymond, killed fighting on the Western Front was also a staggering blow, and impaired Asquith’s personal effectiveness in fighting out the war.

He did not speak of his grief, but it made him dull and listless, and found it difficult to concentrate and failed to attend several meetings of the cabinet. The accumulated disappointments against Asquith continued to grow. The Times started to write articles that Asquith was disqualified on grounds of temperament and illegitimacy of his ways of governing the Isles during the conflict. Asquith attempted to reverse out of the political crisis’s however he was unable to and on April 9, submitted his resignation to King George V. He told the King that his resignation was the only solution to the growing embarrassment in the Liberal Party and to prevent bipartisanship during such a time of troubles.

After the fall of Asquith’s government, the Liberals largely came to the conclusion that a coalition government was required in Great Britain with the Conservatives. Bonar Law was amenable to a coalition on the grounds that a coalition had equal representation in the formed cabinet. A few liberals resigned in protest, however the absolute majority (92%) of the party stayed, and agreed to Bonar Law’s terms. Now came the job of finding a suitable successor within the Liberal Party, or perhaps an independent as Prime Minister. The prime candidates to become Prime Minister after Asquith were David-Lloyd George, the Minister of the Munitions, Reginald McKenna, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Herbert Samuel the Home Secretary, Lord Kitchener, the Secretary of War, and finally Bonar Law himself, the Leader of the Conservatives within Britain.


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Prime Minister Reginald McKenna

Samuel and Kitchener dropped out of the nomination quick. Samuel was unsure of his own capability to be Prime minister and was more interested in keeping his role as Home Secretary whilst Lord Kitchener rejected the premiership on grounds that he needed to see the war through and that the Military could not run the state. Lloyd-George was deemed too liberal for many Conservatives and Bonar Law was not at all trusted by the Liberals. As such McKenna appeared as a centrist candidate for the premiership, which he accepted. He was asked by King George V to form a new government. McKenna formed a wartime coalition government in parliament with the Conservatives with confidence and supply given by the Irish Parliamentary Party as well as the Labour Party. The cabinet he formed consisted of:-

  • Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury: Reginald McKenna (Liberal)
  • Chancellor of the Exchequer: Andrew Bonar Law (Conservative)
  • Financial Secretaries to the Treasury: Sir Hardman Lever (Liberal) and Stanley Baldwin (Conservative)
  • Parliamentary Secretaries to the Treasury: Lord Edmund Talbot (Conservative), Neil Primrose (Liberal), Frederick Guest (Liberal) and Leslie Orme Wilson (Conservative).
  • Junior Lords of the Treasury: James Hope (Conservative), John Pratt (Liberal), James Parker (Labour), Josiah Jones (Liberal) and Sir John Gilmour (Conservative)
  • Lord Chancellor: The Lord Finray (Conservative).
  • Lord President of the Council: Arthur Balfour (Conservative)
  • Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs: Sir Edward Grey (Liberal)
  • Secretary of State for the Colonies: The Marquess of Crewe (Liberal)
  • Secretary of State for Home Affairs: Herbert Samuel (Liberal)
  • Lord Privy Seal: Lord Curzon (Conservative)
  • Secretary of State for the Colonies: The Earl of Crawford (Liberal)
  • Secretary of State for War: Lord Kitchener (Independent)
  • Secretary of State for India: Austen Chamberlain (Conservative)
  • First Lord of the Admiralty: Winston Churchill (Liberal)
  • President of the Board of Agriculture and the Fisheries: George Roberts (Labour)
  • President of the Board of Education: Arthur Henderson (Labour)
  • President of the Local Government Board: Walter Long (Conservative)
  • Chief Secretary of Ireland: John Redmond (IPP)
  • Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster: Thomas McKinnon Wood (Liberal)
  • Minister of the Munitions: David Lloyd-George (Liberal)
  • Paymaster General: Arthur Henderson (Labour)
  • Minister-Without Portfolio: The Marquess of Landsdowne (Conservative)
  • Postmaster General: Joseph Pease (Liberal)
  • Secretary for Scotland: Harold Tennant (Liberal)
  • President of the Board of Trade: Walter Runciman (Liberal)
  • First Commissioner of the Works: Lewis Harcourt
  • Attorney General: Sir F. E. Smith (Conservative)
McKenna’s first work as Prime Minister was impose a tariff of 33% on all luxury imports in order to fund the war effort. The McKenna duties were applied to cinematographic film, clocks and watches; motorcars and motorcycles as well as musical instruments. He also sought to stabilize the erratic British economy during the war, and started to stabilize the economy by increasing wartime taxation on goods such as coffee, and tobacco. He managed to lower the deficit in the budget from £0.9 billion to £0.65 billion in a few weeks however, he could not lower it any further. The unreliability of the American economy meant that he could not bring loans from America as he thought he could, and as such the new Prime Minister turned to the Dominions and neutrals such as Sweden, Portugal and the Ottoman Empire as well as Netherlands to fill the British army with weapons. In particular, the British government and McKenna’s investments allowed the Swedish and Ottoman economics to boom throughout the war as McKenna is estimated to have bought £90 million worth of goods from the Ottoman Empire throughout the Great War and £60 million worth of goods from the Kingdom of Sweden throughout the war. Around £180 million worth of goods were bought from the Dominions, creating a standing post-war debt of £330 Million, which while a large amount was quite small to what many had thought it would be. Many during Asquith’s government had calculated a debt of around 600 to 800 million and McKenna’s rational economic policies made sure that Britain could fight through the war properly.

McKenna also passed the Munitions Act of 1916 on April 24, exactly one week before the Sardinian Campaign began, ending the Shell crisis.”


From The Italian Revolution of 1919: Its Origins by Luigi Umberto

“Ever since Spain had conspired to enter the war against the Central Powers, the Entente Powers had been designing a method to knock Italy out of the war. Ever since a Royal Navy commission in 1913, the Royal Navy and the French thought the best way to do that was to invade Sardinia as a hopping campaign until Rome itself, which would see Italy bail out of the war. The Spanish were willing to commit the bulk of the troops for the invasion, with Dato’s government raising the reservist system of Spain throughout the months in a most efficient manner.

It was decided that the flat fields of Arborea just south of Oristano in Sardinia would be the best landing ground for any invading force. The Order of Battle for the Allied troops during the landing consisted of:-

  • 42nd East Lancashire Division (UK)
  • 52nd Lowland Division (UK)
  • 10th Irish Division (UK)
  • 87th Division (France)
  • 90th Division (France)
  • 5th Infantry Division (Spain)
  • 8th Infantry Division (Spain)
  • 10th Infantry Division (Spain)
  • 7th Mountaineer Division (Spain)
  • 5th Guards Division (Spain)
The entire force of nearly ~210,000 men was commanded by General Aylmer Hunter-Weston and General Damaso Berenguer. On the flip side, the Italians were commanded by General Luigi Cadorna and their order of battle consisted of:-

  • 50th Infantry Division
  • 43rd Infantry Division
  • 64th Infantry Division
  • 7th Infantry Division
  • 47th Infantry Division
  • 26th Mountaineer Division
  • 53rd Mountaineer Division
  • 3rd Infantry Division
The allies had been concentrating their fleets in the Eastern Mediterranean and the combined amphibious capability of France, Britain and Spain were used to make sure that this massive operation was capable of taking place.

The allies planned to land and secure the northern shore of Arborea and capture the Italian forts and artillery batteries for a force that could advance through the Sardinian highlands through the summer and cut the island in half.

The 10th Irish Division was the first to land at Marcnedi and came under heavy fire from the Italian defenders. Cardona’s ‘impressive’ strategy was to simply hurl men at the invaders, and hope for the best and overwhelming the enemies with numbers and the home advantage. Similarly to the north, French and British marines landed at Torre Grande allowing the 87th Division and 42nd East Lancashire Divisions land and attack the nearby defenses of the Italians.


1619188587501.png

The Spanish Generals landing ashore in Sardinia.

The frontal attacks that Cadorna specialized in was suicidal when the Allies held naval superiority and the naval carronades and the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAF)’s planes wreaked havoc on the Italian lines as they tried in futility to fulfill the orders given to them by their commander. In addition, Cadorna had poor relations with the other generals on his staff, and had sacked 217 generals, 255 colonels and 355 battalion commanders before the battle, making regimental and divisional coordination between the troops all the more harder. In addition, he was also detested by his troops for being too harsh, having ordered the summary execution of any officer whose units retreated during the battle. Around 750 commanders would be executed under his command during the entire Battle of Sardinia due to his incapability to defend Sardinia. There are also rumors that he revived the Roman practice of decimation – the killing of every tenth man in a military unit – for units which failed to perform in the battles, though this rumor is largely unfounded, thought it has some basis in truth as Cadorna was known to shoot retreating troops. His foolish leadership allowed the British, French and Spaniards to capture Oristano and Terraiba by the 9th of May before the allies began to move inland.”

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This is the last pre written chapter. Taking a large break from the war these are the political developments. Thoughts and predictions?
 
The frontal attacks that Cadorna specialized in was suicidal when the Allies held naval superiority and the naval carronades and the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAF)’s planes wreaked havoc on the Italian lines as they tried in futility to fulfill the orders given to them by their commander. In addition, Cadorna had poor relations with the other generals on his staff, and had sacked 217 generals, 255 colonels and 355 battalion commanders before the battle, making regimental and divisional coordination between the troops all the more harder. In addition, he was also detested by his troops for being too harsh, having ordered the summary execution of any officer whose units retreated during the battle. Around 750 commanders would be executed under his command during the entire Battle of Sardinia due to his incapability to defend Sardinia. There are also rumors that he revived the Roman practice of decimation – the killing of every tenth man in a military unit – for units which failed to perform in the battles, though this rumor is largely unfounded, thought it has some basis in truth as Cadorna was known to shoot retreating troops. His foolish leadership allowed the British, French and Spaniards to capture Oristano and Terraiba by the 9th of May before the allies began to move inland.”
Sigh... Cadorna being a Cadorna.
 
Sorry, I meant not much that Russia can impose on an Austria-Hungary that's exiting the war in good shape. If they break through onto the Hungarian Plain or what have you, then the situation changes.
Yeah, point taken. A sixtus variant ittl could see AH leave the war mostly unscathed.
 
Wait does that apply to ottoman throne? Sorry but religious establishment would never allow that. Nor loyalists to the dynasty that would destroy the ottoman dynasty.
Not in the throne. It is in regards to the commoner succession and distribution of family wealth within the common populace.
 
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