III.
July 1944:
Beck and the
Valkyrie plotters set up
their new government as the coup goes on
July 20th to July 21st, 1944
Berlin Area
17:00 PM to 6:00 AM
Despite a complete takeover of Berlin by the plotters appearing to be likely after the death of Goebbels and the partial implementation of Valkyrie orders, the Bendlerstrasse is surprised at the rapid reaction of the SS and other security units that were not surrounded in time. Although by this point key bureaucrats and ministers are now under heavy guard, reports start to arrive stating that isolated SS forces are either blocking the advance of Reserve Army units and/or arresting/releasing officers, leading to the crucial escape of figures targeted for arrest.
A few minutes after surviving the shootout with Major Remer, Skorzeny and his men return to the Prinz Albrechtstrasse to meet with Kaltenbrunner and Walter Schellenberg, the latter of which has just been dragged out of his machine gun desk [23]. With the SS officer asking for instructions in light of the apparent chaos, Kaltenbrunner orders him to disrupt any movements or orders from the Bendlerstrasse, and puts Schellenberg to work in terms of contacting relevant SS figures to warn them of the situation. For his own part, Heinrich “Gestapo” Müller learns of the mass arrests of party members – including several of Bormann’s other allies – and the failure to arrest Stauffenberg at his arrival on Berlin, and thus resolves to call to Bormann at the Wolf’s Lair. Following a brief conversation and realizing Kaltenbrunner is mobilizing men and that the Prinz Albrechtstrasse is likely to become the center of a battle, Müller resolves to disappear from the complex alongside his Gestapo officers that are still free to move.
The zeal of SS units in fighting the Reserve Army has caught Stauffenberg and the Bendlerstrasse officers by surprise, and Himmler’s counter-coup units are soon bolstered in strength when Kaltenbrunner reaches out to the Regiment Hermann Goering and successfully persuades the commander to switch sides and take over Tegel Airport in support of the SS. Talk is spreading across several units of Hitler’s death with conflicting explanations as to the actual culprits – Himmler, an army cabal, Goering -, and the center of Berlin becomes a war zone as SS units snipe at the Reserve Army and plan to force their way into the Bendlerstrasse. One of the few places not attacked by either side is the Armaments Ministry, where Albert Speer has basically barricaded himself alongside his staff after learning of Hitler’s death. Speer is deeply shaken by the news of Hitler’s death and outright refuses to answer any further calls from the Bendlerstrasse after a tense conversation with General Fromm, to whom he grimly warns that he needs to reevaluate his support for the coup before it’s too late [24].
In the meantime, more units begin to pour into Berlin as most of the radio and communication centers are taken over by the army. Crucial to the Valkyrie plans is the entrance of the Gross Deutschland Reserve Brigade of Colonel Stirius from Cottbus, a much needed reinforcement in holding the SS back and in raising morale amongst the conspirators. And yet, as the night approaches it becomes clear that for anyone to fully overrun the other side and firmly secure Berlin itself – key to the success of any coup or counter-coup - they will require the invaluable assistance of Guderian’s armored forces, as the ambitious General controls the Panzer cadets stationed at Potsdam. Guderian has indeed put his forces into alert, putting Panzer units on the road and stopping them just short of entering the city, but to the shock of several officers who attempt to call into his HQ Guderian is allegedly out of reach after going for a walk at his estates [25]. Despite desperate attempts by Beck, Himmler and Bormann to reach him or persuade his subordinate General Wolfgang Thomale – another conspirator - into action, the panzer forces fail to move.
In the Bendlerstrasse, most of the Berlin based conspirators are already in place giving orders. The main exceptions are Carl Goerdeler, who won’t be found until the next day (as he hides from the Gestapo) and General von Tresckow, who will receive orders from Beck that night and will take flight to Berlin escaping the vigilant eyes of the – furious - Field Marshal Model. More important in retrospect will be a critical order issued by Stauffenberg, ordering Colonel von Boeselager (key conspirator) to move his 3rd Cavalry Brigade (5,000 strong) west. Boeselager, currently stationed near East Prussia in order to protect the region from a Soviet breakthrough is also is given a key target to seize: the Wolf’s Lair. In the meantime, the first nationwide radio message is sent around 7:00 PM and delivered by the recently arriving General Lindemann, announcing Hitler’s death, denouncing the current situation an as attempted coup by the SS and proclaiming the installation of a new government led by Colonel General Beck. Fromm’s annoyance grows as it becomes clear the coup is actually badly planned and badly coordinated when several of the Wehrkreise refuse to acknowledge Beck’s authority or stall for time, and even more when he learns Himmler, Goering and Bormann are all alive and most likely planning a counter-coup of their own.
Despite this failure to arrest the other key members of the Nazi regime – Goebbels’s death notwithstanding - Beck, Stauffenberg and Olbricht have nonetheless succeeded in turning a seemingly hopeless plot into a credible – if by no means strong – opportunity to seize control of the state and overwhelm their opponents. And yet, unless they can force a major change on the scramble for power, time may act against their side [26].
The Wolf’s Lair:
18:00 PM to 6:00 AM
As the news of the all-out war across Berlin by the SS and the Reserve Army continue to pour into the Wolf’s Lair, Goering dispatches Doenitz back to Hamburg to act as his representative in the zone and to keep the Kriesgmarine in line. In the meantime, Martin Bormann is absolutely restless following the call by Gestapo Müller through his own secure connection [27], in which he is informed about the arrests by the Reserve Army – including key allies of his like Reich Chancellery Chief Hans Heinrich Lammers -, about Himmler’s independent and unsanctioned orders to Müller, and of the sheer chaos within Berlin. Deprived of his own sources of power and facing the growing wrath of Goering – with whom Bormann hasn’t had the best relationship in the past - he is painfully aware that any misstep could lead to his arrest or even his execution, having been caught off guard by the sudden power-play and the loss of Keitel. To make matters worse, Himmler appears to be acting on his own, which strongly suggests – to Bormann – that the SS is already mobilizing in a struggle for power, and the failure of Himmler and his vast security apparatus to prevent the assassination is either suspicious or an error that could be exploited. Determined to win time and survive at all costs Bormann resolves to attempt to manipulate Goering, reasoning that by inciting the Reichsmarshall against Himmler and exploiting his status as an “official” but immensely flawed (and unpopular) successor – and a lesser evil of sorts for his own personal ambitions - he can gain some time and then make a move against Goering – whom the Wehrmacht may not take seriously before long – once the time is right [28].
Bormann rejoins the group and immediately starts playing the part of a dutiful subordinate, informing Goering of the new “evidence” uncovered by the Gestapo and of the events taking place in Berlin. Thus, Goering is briefed by Bormann regarding Himmler’s “contacts” with individuals opposed to the late Führer, the “convenient” failure to prevent the assassination, and the unilateral orders to security officers in Berlin. The unsettled Reichsmarschall – who is nonetheless all too glad to have an excuse to wield against his rival – is thus persuaded that an SS putsch is either a reality or imminent, and despite Ribbentrop’s suggestion that both men should meet to avoid a direct conflict before it’s too late (a notion soon shot down by Bormann, who expresses his concern at the Reichsmarschall’s security), Goering has Rattenhuber and other SS officers across the Wolf’s Lair arrested, turning over the separate SS communication lines to General Fellgiebel’s, who has managed to avoid suspicions thus far. Pressed on by Bormann to take immediate and decisive action, Goering decides to prepare a radio broadcast to the nation and contact the Gauleiters and the Army Group commanders to try and secure the support of the party and of the Wehrmacht.
Luftwaffe General Köller drafts a provisional statement to be read across the radio – as it will take time for Goering to be prepared for his own - announcing Hitler’s death, denouncing Himmler and the SS as plotting a coup and informing the Reich of Goering’s new status as head of the government, statement which is finally aired by the stations that can be reached through the Wolf’s Lair radio communication systems after extensive technical delays. While limited on its broadcast, it will soon be followed by Goering’s own statement mourning the Führer, asserting his new position and his “unwavering belief” in victory, and crucially, his personal denunciation of Himmler as a traitor to be arrested as the direct culprit of Hitler’s death [29], a relevant factor in pushing undecided or neutral officers to nonetheless partially acknowledge Valkyrie orders as far as arresting the SS is concerned. As Goering hurriedly tries to assemble his staff and prepare for taking control over the state [30], the first radio messages from Berlin arrive during the night after Fellgiebel can offer no further delays, denouncing an unnamed group over trying to take over Germany – strongly implied to be the SS – and declaring the sudden creation of the Beck Government, with Field Marshal Witzleben as Supreme Commander. Goering has a fit of rage at the news, only made worse when he is informed of the occupation of Karinhall by Reserve Army troops and the arrest of several of his closest allies and officers. As the news continue to pour in regarding the SS rising in Prague and the Reichskommisariat, and the growing instability within the Wehrkreise, Goering now has to fight what appears to be two different coups. Eventually, more radio dispatches are issued as communications become more fluid, and Goering records another – and longer - speech to the German people denouncing both the Beck Government and the SS and demanding the arrest of the “traitors”.
By morning of the next day Goering – through Bormann’s furious maneuvering - has achieved some degree of success. Although the enormous loss of public and private prestige incurred over the last few years and over disasters such as Stalingrad has turned the Reichsmarschall into a figure of ridicule and/or scorn, (which prevents Goering from immediately commanding wide support) the combination of the the official decree, the shock at Hitler’s violent death and the also noteworthy flaws of Himmler (widely unpopular with the Army) and Beck (who technically speaking has no real justification for suddenly becoming head of state) help in persuading Field Marshals Kesselring (Army Group C) and Model (Army Group Center) to immediately declare their loyalty to Goering and arrest suspicious elements within their theaters, a decision which is also supported a few of the Wehrkreise. On the other hand, Goering finds little success in identifying units he can instantly mobilize within Germany, since, as Model makes it clear, diverting already shaken and demoralized units from the eastern front without risk an irreversible and full-blown collapse.
Furthermore, Goering feels unsafe at the Wolf’s Lair not only in light of Hitler’s fate – which suggests the base is infiltrated and compromised -, but because of his marked distaste for Bormann. Finding him to be a valuable “ally” in the middle of the crisis, the Reichsmarshall is nonetheless convinced he’ll soon have to get rid of Bormann once the SS is dealt with. Entrusting Bormann with control of Rastenburg – to avoid keeping him too close - and dubitative between flying to Munich or to Hamburg, an exhausted Goering finally makes a choice and boards a plane alongside Köller and other loyal officers.
Occupied France:
16:00 PM to 8:00 AM
From Zossen, General Wagner sends a simple coded message to Colonel Finckh, one of the conspirators in Paris. All the message says is “exercise finished”, the codename for Hitler’s successful assassination. Finckh rapidly takes the documents necessary to put Valkyrie orders for Paris in place from a safe and contacts General Blumentritt (Chief of Staff, not a conspirator) and the Army Group B HQ in La Roche Guyon, being forced to leave a message for Field Marshal von Kluge at the hands of General Speidel. The news also makes its way into the Hotel Majestic and to General Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel, Military Governor of France and key member of the Valkyrie plotters. Stülpnagel informs his staff of the situation – presenting it as an SS coup - and gives the appropriate orders to arrest all SD and SS personnel in Paris, and then speaks to Colonel General Beck through the phone for a few minutes. As Beck informs him that Field Marshal von Kluge allegedly remains unconvinced and ambivalent about Hitler’s death, von Stülpnagel resolves to take immediate action and decides to visit La Roche Guyon by 7:00 PM.
Despite General Beck’s best attempts at swaying von Kluge on the phone, the Field Marshal continues to doubt Hitler’s demise, even attempting to contact the Wolf’s Lair several times without any results [31]. As more and more news begins to pour in from Berlin, several voices join urging him to act: General Speidel, General von Falkenhausen (former military commander of Belgium) via telephone from Brussels, and even Blumentritt, who despite not being a member of the plot is convinced of the actual existence of the SS/Gestapo coup. Alas, it takes Stülpnagel’s arrival to La Roche Guyon for the officers to finally persuade the Field Marshal that Hitler is indeed dead. Kluge finally resolves to act, cancelling preparations for an ordered – and on his opinion suicidal - counteroffensive in Normandy and ordering Speidel to draft plans for an orderly withdrawal, hoping to take advantage of the temporary halt in the Allied advance. The main concern at the time remains the Waffen-SS units present on the battlefield, as arresting their commanders might risk the collapse of some of their best units. On the other hand, Kluge and his officers are aware that Sepp Dietrich and other of the SS commanders openly distrust and even despise Himmler, a key factor they could exploit [32]. Kluge orders Rommel to be put under a heavier guard for his own safety and resolves to conference with Dietrich the following morning. Von Stülpnagel, despite his misgivings towards Kluge’s caution, returns to Paris [33].
At 11:00 PM the Paris garrison suddenly storms the SS and SD HQ and arrests all officers and men in sight, securing their surrender with no casualties and not a single shot fired. However, the situation remains tense during the night as Admiral Theodor Krancke gets hold of the radio dispatches from Goering and Himmler and denounces Beck and Stülpnagel as being behind the actual coup. Krancke threatens to release the SS troops with the thousand or so marines at his disposal, and he has to be taken into custody after a tense scene. As July 21st dawns on Paris, Stülpnagel and Kluge report to Berlin that the plotters can count on Paris and Army Group West. Their celebration is short-lived, however, as Bernay Hospital (where Rommel is recovering) reports that a company of Waffen-SS men has taken over the building under orders from General Sepp Dietrich.
Across the Wehrkreise and the Third Reich:
16:00 to 8:00 AM
In order for a coup or a countercoup to succeed, securing the support of Reserve Army units and the military structure of the Wehrmacht inside Germany is crucial, and this is represented by the Wehrkreise (military districts). The level of organization of the plotters in each of the districts varies from direct support from the main commanders to a skeleton group of mid-ranking conspirators, and as the day develops and confusion grows the results are, at best, mixed. Having deployed most of their strength and influence to take over Berlin, the Valkyrie plotters nonetheless secure the support of Wehrkreis II (Stettin), IV (Dresden), VI (Münster), IX (Kassel) and XI (Hannover), with Wehrkreis XI erupting in infighting and severe confusion as several officers attempt to declare for Goering anyway [34]. On the other side, Goering also succeeds in gaining over districts in the first hours, securing Wehrkreis I (Konigsberg), VII (Munich), X (Hamburg) and XVIII (Salzburg), mostly thanks to early supporters like Grand Admiral Doenitz, Gauleiter Paul Giesler and General Julius Ringel. The rest of the Wehrkreise adopt a tentative “wait and see” strategy, although in virtually all of them the SS are arrested or forced into hiding as both Beck and Goering have marked them as public enemies. Despite the criticisms of plotters like intelligence officer Hans Bernd Gisevius, SS officers are held under custody as opposed to shot and killed when arrested.
Another key element is the combined OKH/OKW in Zossen, where the former staff of Keitel and Jodl – now left without a direct superior – is desperately trying to prevent the collapse of the front resulting from Hitler’s death. Seconded by General Wagner and General Lindemann, Field Marshal von Witzleben makes his entrance on the HQ bringing the Valkyrie orders, and stating his new position of Supreme Wehrmacht Commander. The staff is torn on how to react to the Field Marshal’s announcement (and whether it has any legality), but lacking a better alternative the officers allow Witzleben to assume temporary command. Although the Field Marshal does his best to reach out to the Army Group commanders he receives non-committals or outright refusals from officers to acknowledge his new position, Field Marshal Model outright warning Witzleben he’ll be hanged for treason before the week is over. Tempted to leave for Berlin [35], Witzleben is nonetheless able to coordinate with the few Wehrkreise already behind the coup, and successfully orders General Friessner of Army Group North – who carefully avoids formally recognizing the Beck government - to commence an immediate withdrawal south to defend East Prussia and avoid an encirclement from the Red Army.
Vienna is a particularly successful instance for the coup, as General von Esebeck and Colonel Kodre take immediate action after being contacted at around 5:00 PM. Inviting the SS commanders to the Army HQ in Vienna, the officers actually surrender with no complaints [36], and Gauleiter Baldur von Schirach is virtually the only one arrested while attempting to resist. A takeover of the rest of Austria seems unlikely at best, though, as the 24th Waffen SS Mountain division (1,000 strong), based on Linz, is put on alert by Himmler. On the other hand, the outcome of the coup in Prague results in a most unexpected outcome. Realizing that the Heer units are actually outnumbered by the SS due to the presence of the SS-Oberabschnitt Böhmen-Mähren, General Ferdinand Schaal attempts to obey the Valkyrie orders with caution and delays making a move. The Minister President and SS General Karl Frank (alerted by Himmler) reacts faster, sending men to capture Schaal and Reich Protector Frick. Several gunfights erupt through Prague during most of the afternoon and night, leading to Frick’s capture by the SS and Schaal’s death when a grenade is tossed into his office. By morning, Frank reports to Himmler that Prague, and by extension most of Bohemia-Moravia is now SS-controlled territory.
By 7:00 PM, radio announcements are spreading through Germany, the Valkyrie ones having an advantage of a few minutes over those of Goering, and it is still several hours before SS broadcasts can be put in place from Prague. While the death of Hitler is undisputed and the news spreads quickly through Germany (and soon reaches Allies), by the time July 21st dawns the inner Third Reich stands in monstrous confusion as Goering, Beck and Himmler have all accused each other of being behind the assassination of the Führer, with Himmler bearing the worst part due to Bormann’s manipulation of Goering and his own recklessness in deploying the SS in Berlin. The plotters have found success in Paris, Vienna, Norway – via an early message from General von Falkenhorst - some of the Wehrkreise and most of Berlin, numbers favoring them against the SS troops. Goering has mobilized some tentative support from parts of the Wehrmacht and the Party, and Himmler, although badly damaged on his prospects due to the consequences of Valkyrie and the machinations of Bormann, can still count on loyal SS units still active through Germany, new allies mobilizing in several of the Reichskommissariat and his newfound haven in Prague as he frantically tries to contact the main Waffen-SS commanders and any Field Marshal willing to back him up.
Germany wakes up the day after Hitler’s death with three prospective leaders.
_____________________________________________
Notes for Part III:
[23] Schellenberg also knew a plot was going to take place and did nothing. Here Skorzeny finds him first, and therefore he has no option to support Himmler, at least for now.
[24] Speer’s portrayal is something altered from the original version of Twilight of the Valkyries (along with that of Skorzeny and others), which is motivated by how my personal perception of him has changed in three years. This may not be that noticeable since most of what I planned for Speer was coming in the chapters that were never written, but back then I happened to believe in some of Speer’s myths despite being mostly cynical about what many high-ranking Nazis wrote post-war. Influenced by Gitta Sereny’s characterization of Speer – her biography of him is a brilliant book – I originally envisioned Speer as possessing certain idealistic, emotional and principled traits he probably lacked in RL – or did not possess to the level he pretended to -, something which was bound to influence my portrayal of him. It was interesting to notice as I was rewriting that my mental image of Speer had changed.
[25] Guderian’s motivation was a source of some debate in the original version, and with good reason. The level of his involvement on the OTL coup is subject to significant debate and Guderian’s own memoirs can hardly be accepted as truth given how much Guderian – known for his enormous ambition – distorts things to support his own convenient narratives. Objectively speaking, we know General Thomale (Guderian’s deputy) was a conspirator. We know several of Guderian’s units were prevented from going to the Eastern Front by Olbricht (presumably in the hopes they would support the Reserve Army). We also know Guderian went for a “walk” of several hours and couldn’t be reached on July 20th, only taking action by sending his men to depose the coup when it was clear Hitler was alive and well. We are not yet at a point in which Guderian has acted differently than OTL – thus his men are yet to enter Berlin -, but we soon will be.
[26] By this point the coup is already a lot more successful than it ever came close to being in OTL, but it’s still deeply, deeply flawed. Far from just being the Wehrmacht against the SS, it still remains a group of Reserve Army officers and a few isolated commanders trying to use loyalty to Hitler to secure the Government against Goering and Himmler under extremely false and flimsy pretenses. Not a very easy task, even if the alternatives are so deeply flawed in the eyes of those who decide to carry out the Valkyrie orders out of different reasons.
[27] Bormann had his own secure line out of the Wolf’s Lair that was isolated from what Fellgiebel could control. If the July 15th bomb had gone off and taken out Goering and Himmler then Bormann would have been the only one who could have immediately reacted right after Hitler’s death. It’s an interesting notion for anyone who wants to explore a July 15th Plot scenario.
[28] A lot of what happens in this scenario – and indeed, in any attempt at simulating Valkyrie – will depend not only on the narrative one wants to explore, but also on how one reads the psychology of the main figures of the Third Reich. Whereas it could be argued the logical solution would be for Goering, Himmler and Bormann to cooperate in a rational manner my understanding of the situation is that without Hitler as a common element to bind them into a common pursue, accounting for the sheer animosity between these characters, and reading Bormann as a schemer – who would find it hard to think 100% rationally when his life and position appears to be at risk -, I find it reasonably he’d try to pit Himmler and Goering against each other so he could profit. This is in no way objective, but it makes sense to me.
[29] The essential problem with simulating something like this is that there are too many factors to consider. Too many characters involved – many of them with a personal agenda -, too many events within a few hours, too many possibilities as to how the situation after Hitler’s death would play out. Some are more implausible than others or downright unlikely (as in, immediate Himmler takeover or instant Valkyrie victory, both of which are extremely unlikely), and so this has to be one out of countless ways in which events could develop. The main takeaway from this is that the impact of Hitler’s death, the flaws of each would-be successor and the painful mistakes of the Valkyrie plotters (near amateurish) all conspire to lead towards a frantic form of chaos, a chaos in which momentum is everything.
[30] Goering was also another somewhat controversial part of the original version, some arguing his position was just too deteriorated by 1944 to make for a realistic successor. That’s a sentiment I happen to share only up to a point. Goering is obviously damaged goods and too flawed to make for an evident rallying point for Nazi loyalists and this is exactly why he struggles to instantly overcome the flawed Valkyrie plans or the SS, but on the other hand one shouldn’t underestimate the psychological impact of Goering being the “official” successor to a beloved leader who has just been martyrized by his scheming enemies. Against the cartoonish villainous Himmler and against Beck, who is both a relic and extremely unpopular with the army (not to mention lacking any justification to assume power), I find it reasonable at least a few key officers would decide Goering is the least bad option or the one that makes sense from a standpoint of loyalty and standing up by Hitler’s instructions.
[31] Kluge’s attitude on July 20th is easily the stuff of dark comedy (reminds be a bit of Malenkov in The Death of Stalin), as he changed sides at least four times that day whilst displaying a near bipolar mood. No reason for him to suddenly grow a spine, so Stülpnagel still has to go and save the day for the Valkyrie plotters.
[32] Rommel allegedly spoke to Sepp Dietrich shortly before the air attack incapacitated him, and apparently sounded Dietrich out on his loyalties in the event of a struggle, receiving a fascinating response. Alas, this is something Kluge and Stülpnagel don’t know, they can only guess where Dietrich’s loyalties may lay.
[33] Unlike OTL, Kluge has not been able to contact the Wolf’s Lair and Keitel is dead anyway, which means there are no contrary reports to Hitler’s death. Much like Fromm, I believe Kluge would join the plot in this context, if conditionally so.
[34] Tresckow and the other officers who wrote the operational plans for Valkyrie proved to be surprisingly naïve as to what should be done and how it should be implemented. This resulted in an amateurish operation which failed to make necessary decisions while making unbelievable mistakes – like ordering Nebe to arrest Himmler but not noticing that the latter was nowhere near Berlin that day -, and which depended all too much on Stauffenberg’s courage and drive to issue necessary orders whilst assassinating Hitler. The shockwaves from Hitler’s death and the general backstabbing between the Nazi loyalists are decisive in giving Valkyrie a credible shot at a victory, but they don’t alter the fundamentally flawed plans that, barring incredible look, would have made a clean and successful capture of power near impossible as opposed to a prolonged struggle.
[35] IOTL, Witzleben was so disgusted from the chaos at Zossen that he left to the Bendlerstrasse and then abandoned the coup. Here, despite the mistakes included in Valkyrie is somewhat more successful, and therefore remains at Zossen.
[36] This is OTL. The SS officers even ceased to complain after von Esebeck supplied them with cigars and brandy.