Chapter 20: State Society
As cities grew larger, the government and organization of the cities and kingdoms grew more complex. Though they continued electing Sagamos and Ogimaa, who could vote was increasingly restricted.
Each city had a set of
dibendaagozi, literally “members” but often translated as citizen. These were the descendants of the original inhabitants. They were the only people who could vote. It should be noted that both men and women could vote, so long as they were dibendaagozi. Even children were allowed to participate in elections, although their parents were expected to control them. The status of dibendaagozi was passed patrilineally, just like clan membership. In many places, dibendaagozi were marked with special tattoos only they were allowed to have.
Initially, the vast majority of people in cities were dibendaagozi but this changed over time. Freedmen, slaves, foreigners, immigrants from the countryside and their descendants made up a greater and greater proportion of the urban population. By the late classical period, no more than about 20% of the population were dibendaagozi.
Certain jobs could strip the status of dibendaagozi from a person. Prostitution, latrine cleaning and other ‘unclean’ jobs would remove a person’s ability to vote. However, their descendants and family would retain their vote. If a person changed jobs then they might be allowed to return to the status of dibendaagozi after a period of time and a ritual cleansing. If you sold yourself, your wife, or your children into slavery, however, you were stripped of that status permanently.
Crimes could remove the status of dibendaagozi as well. Depending on the seriousness of the offense, it might suspend the right to vote temporarily, forever, or even for your descendants. If, after a number of generations had passed and the ban was lifted, your descendants could petition for the status of dibendaagozi again.
Conversely, the status of dibendaagozi could be granted. The Sagamos could decree any person a dibendaagozi at any time. If a person who was not a dibendaagozi was initiated as a zhimaaganish warrior they became a dibendaagozi. Both of these were rare events but they did happen. When they did, their descendants would retain their status. There is a story from Mishawaka of a Sagamos granting dozens of people the status of dibendaagozi in order to influence the results of an election. The strategy did change the election but it also resulted in the Sagamos being forced out of office.
Each kanata or neighborhood elected their own Ogimaa. When an Ogimaa died or resigned, an election would be held. The election, called
biinjwebinigewi, was a time of danger and opportunity. The ceremony itself was held in the courtyard of the kanata. There were no voting booths or secret ballots. All of the dibendaagozi of the kanata gathered together. They cheered for the candidates they supported and stayed silent for the people they did not support. The election was over when there were cheers for only one candidate. This is called election by acclimation.
A biinjwebinigewi election
[1]
What were the qualifications to put your name forth? It’s simple really. You had to be a dibendaagozi of that kanata. There were no other requirements. Theoretically, anyone eligible to vote in the election could run. Usually, of course, the son of the previous Ogimaa was the only candidate. Other members of the ruling endaad, or sub-clan, might also run but this was not guaranteed. Dark horse candidates, unconnected to the previous Ogimaa, could and did win, although it was rare. And whoever won could hold the post for the rest of their life.
Many times, the elections were uncontested. But no matter who or how many were running, a lot of wealth was required to win an election. During the election, huge parties were held in the courtyard. In these parties, gifts, food and alcohol were handed out to the dibendaagoozi. If the election was uncontested, the party was more perfunctory. But it was all paid for by the candidates. The parties showed the wealth and power of a candidate. There are many stories where a candidate, assured of winning, was miserly and did not bother to fund the party. Then, during the election, they were challenged by a popular upstart and lost.
If there were multiple candidates, then the candidates would compete with each other on the size of their election party. They gave out magnificent gifts, prepared expensive food and drink, made promises of future policies, and even married in exchange for votes. There is one inscription which describes a candidate from Munising hiring prostitutes to sleep with voters. But it is said in such a way to make it clear that this was rare and considered unsavory. More commonly, gangs supporting one candidate or the other would roam the streets getting into fights. Wars even started over the breaking of election promises. A contested biinjwebinigewi election was a huge party where at any moment, violence could break out.
If no consensus was reached on the first attempt then the candidates would attempt to outperform each other in a variety of areas. Speeches were common, just as they are today. They even had debates, of a sort. Anyone from the crowd could ask a question of the candidates and the candidates would be required to answer to the best of their ability. This was more important in the election of a Mide, where knowledge of the aadizookaan (holy books) was critical.
Candidates might also perform feats of strength. Picking up large objects or running a circuit could be used to demonstrate the physical ability of the candidate. Ritualistic (non-fatal) duels between candidates or their supporters might even take place.
[2] We might find such actions strange during an election but these acts allowed the populace to see who was blessed by Manidoo. Having the blessing of Manidoo was a sure sign that one was worthy of being an Ogimaa, Mide, or Sagamos.
The official charged with running the election was called the
agindaaso or counter. They would ensure that violence and public drunkenness was not excessive during an election. They did this by hiring or being loaned zhimaaganish warriors to act as security.
The agindaaso would also listen for the cheers and certify the winning candidate using an oshtigwaanens, literally “little head” but meaning a stamp. Stamps were made from ceramic and carved with small symbols, usually the head of a doodem animal, in negative relief. When pressed into wet clay or filled with ink and put on birch bark paper, they would leave an identifiable mark. They functioned like signatures for the bureaucracy and nobility of the city. Each Ogimaa, Sagamos, Mide, and city official had an oshtigwaanens as a symbol of their office.
Oshtigwaanens stamp depicting a wapiti elk
[3]
The agindaaso was expected to take their job very seriously. While everyone else in an election could be and often were inebriated, they were required to remain completely sober. They also could not accept gifts. Unlike other officials, the agindaaso was not appointed and dismissed by the Sagamos at will but rather appointed for a set amount of time, generally one year. Some histories even use the name of the agindaaso to differentiate the year. For example, a year might be called “the year that Bizaan of the elk clan was agindaaso” or something similar.
Failing to administer the election correctly or perpetrating deliberate fraud were not just legal violations but blasphemy. The penalty for such actions could be severe. An agindaaso from Cuyahoga pretended not to hear cheers and certified an Ogimaa who did not have unanimous consent. For his crime, he was torn limb from limb by the crowd, including by many who had cheered for the winning Ogimaa. More commonly, a cheating agindaaso would be stripped of their office or exiled.
The elections for Mide were notoriously rowdy and sloppy affairs because they included every dibendaagoozi of every priestly clan in the city. Rich men had a greater advantage in these larger elections because the cost of gifts and parties was so much higher. Conversely, the crowds were larger (and often drunker) and therefore they were more easily persuaded by populists and naysayers.
The election of a new Sagamos was not open to the public. Only the Ogimaa could attend. This was done to ensure that charismatic Ogimaa would not use the crowds to force the election result they wanted. Even so, the election of a new Sagamos was considerably more likely to devolve into violence. At least, this was true in cities where the Sagamos was more powerful than the city clans.
As cities grew in size and sophistication so did the government. Bureaucrats other than the Sagamos, Mide and a small group of Ogimaa were needed for administration. We have already mentioned the agindaaso. They were a part of the small group of nobles chosen by the Sagamos for certain jobs. This group was called the
okwabiwag, or sitting group. Many had no formal position but were supposed to advise the Sagamos on various matters. As we have already discussed, the position of Agoiander among the Ongweh’onweh was similar to prime minister and was reserved for women. No equivalent position existed among the Menominee. However, in cities with powerful clans the Sagamos effectively acted like a Prime Minister who could be deposed by a majority of Ogimaa.
There were many other bureaucrats used by various cities. They included judges empowered to speak for Sagamos in minor disputes or in certain areas, priests in charge of granaries, and many other minor functionaries. Last time, we followed the day of one such minor functionary in charge of keeping the drains of the city clean.
Despite the view of many modern people that cities in the past were filthy and crime ridden, the reality was very different. The Sagamos and Ogimaa were expected to use slaves to clean the drains and sweep the streets. Cities in the Mishigami were small enough, interconnected enough, and interdependent enough that social ostracization and shame was an effective deterrent for most crimes. Only serious offenses would need to be punished by an Ogimaa or Sagamos. If you were put in front of a Sagamos or Ogimaa, punishments could be severe.
Regular people paid their taxes in the form of labor, food, and textiles to their Ogimaa. The Ogimaa would then pay any communal taxes to the Mide and Sagamos. This system allowed many Ogimaa to embezzle money and accumulate wealth. This was resented by many dibendaagoozi and might result in their sons loosing the next election. Of course, this was so removed from the graft that it was often not an effective deterrent. There was no mechanism, other than shame and threats, to force the resignation of a venal and ineffective Ogimaa. Other than death, of course, but that was rare.
The average person would rarely interact with government officials. When they did, it was usually no more than a minor functionary or their neighborhood Ogimaa.
Next time, we will discuss the proliferation of maize and its effects on the mishigami and beyond.
[1] Taken from:
https://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/society/pix/logretta_model.jpg actually a Norse thing assembly
[2] I think this is how modern elections should be done. A boring debate on the issues? No, Joe Biden and Donald Trump mud wrestling to determine who is favored by the gods. That would be much more dignified.
[3] Taken from:
https://sadigh.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/7/5/12751077/5611783_orig.jpg Actually an ancient Persian seal depicting a stag
Comments? Questions?
