The Good Berry: A Wild Rice Domestication TL

PeterEzgo · Jul 3, 2023

Chapter 16: The Middle Kingdoms

The Naawayi’ii (literally “in the middle of”) Peninsula [Lower Peninsula of Michigan] and the Odawa (“merchant”) Peninsula [Ontario Peninsula] separate the western basin of the Great Lakes, which is heavily Algonquian, from the two eastern lakes, which have mixed Algonquian and Ongweh’onweh [Iroquois] populations. Control of these peninsulas was the key to the most lucrative trade routes of the Mishigami.

For much of the early classical period the Kingdom of Miyamee [Detroit, MI/Windsor,ON] slowly rose in power. It was founded on the shores of Lake Waawiyaataanong [Lake St. Clair]. This was the only water route between Lake Karegami [Lake Huron] and Lake Wabishigami [Lake Eire]. Miyamee quickly gained control of all the land around this strategic lake.

Through this Miyamee was able to grow rich by taxing or confiscating the trade goods that passed through Lake Waawiyaataanong. These taxes and tolls then paid for the Miyamee military, which quickly grew to have a fearsome reputation.

Miyamee built a hegemonic empire the likes of which had never been seen in the Mishigami. The cities of Gnondi [Flint, MI], Owashnong [Grand Rapids, MI], Gooshnik [Ann Arbor, MI], Pakatekweyang [London, ON], and many others sent tribute to Miyamee.

As a hegemonic empire, Miyamee did not rule these areas directly. Instead, local rulers and forms of government remained in place. They would be required to send tribute, usually in the form of trade goods. Manoomin, bede, slaves, elk antlers, copper, wampum, silver, obsidian, jade, and many other things might be demanded.

They might also have restrictions placed upon them. For example, they might only be allowed to train so many zhimaaganish. They might not be allowed to build defensive walls. Their foreign policy was usually restricted. They could not go to war or even speak with representatives of foreign Sagamos without the permission of Miyamee. These restrictions left them venerable to raiding by opportunistic neighbors not under the thumb of Miyamee.

Map of the Mishigami and Ohiyo Valleys in the Early Classical Period. The Kingdom of Miyamee is colored brown. The Kingdom of Minesing is colored yellow. The Black Swamp Confederacy is colored grey. [1]

We have already spoken about the competition between Miyamee [Detroit, MI] and Minesing [Barrie, ON] over the trade routes through the Odawa Peninsula. Minesing was also a hegemonic empire and functioned similarly to Miyamee. The other major player was the Makademashkiig Boodooswagon, or the Black Swamp Confederacy.

The Black Swamp Confederacy was formed in opposition to Miyamee. Its principal players were Mishawaka, Kekionga, and Wathipi. They used their position to bypass the Naawayi’ii Peninsula [Lower Peninsula of Michigan] and the Kingdom of Miyamee.

The three members of the Black Swamp Confederacy used the same tolls and taxes. They used the same weights and measures. They coordinated their defense against foreign attacks, especially those from Miyamee.

Mishawaka, Kekionga, and Wathipi were all dominated by oligarchic trading clans. These clans had members in each of the three cities and in many other cities across the Mishigami. The Sagamos of each of the cities was relatively weak.

Unlike the Three Waters Confederacy, the Grand Council of the Black Swamp confederacy did not give one vote for each city. Instead, each of the important clans had a vote. Often, though not always, the Sagamos of the cities would be the head of a voting clan.

The Sagamos of Miyamee was similarly weak. The trading clans of Miyamee could and would depose and appoint a Sagamos at will. For this reason, the conflict between Miyamee and the Black Swamp Confederacy can be thought of as a conflict between the competing clans more than a conflict between kingdoms. These groups of clans acted like cartels, enforcing their trade, farming, and craft monopolies through violence and the threat of violence.

The cities of Lake Wabishigami during the early classical period were largely independent and in competition with each other. As the classical period wore on, the Kingdom of Miyamee attempted to exercise influence and control in Lake Wabishigami but largely failed.

The cities along the Wabash and the Ohiyo [Ohio] Rivers will be discussed later. During the early classical period, they were small and unimportant. They would increase in importance and population when maize was adapted for temperate conditions.

Next time, we will discuss the Ongweh’onweh cities around Lake Ontario. But first, a supplemental discussing the cities of the Middle Kingdoms.

[1] Three Waters Confederacy in Red. Kingdom of Gakaabikaang in orange. Kingdom of Cahokia in dark red. Kingdom of Miyamee in brown. Kingdom of Minesing in yellow. Ontario Confederacy in green. Black Swamp Confederacy in grey. Kingdom of Hoshalaga in pink. Miscellaneous city states in purple.

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Jul 6, 2023

Supplemental: Cities of the Middle Kingdoms

Name: Kekionga (“Blackberry Bush”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Akwenakkwa (“turtle”)

Type: Black Swamp Confederacy

The city of Kekionga [Fort Wayne, IN] was one of the oldest large cities in the Mishigami. As the saying goes, Kekionga was old when the world was young.

Kekionga formed along the short portage between the Maumee and Wabash rivers. It was located at the western edge of the Black Swamp. The wetlands were transformed into rice bogs [paddies] which fed its growing population. Its name came from the abundant blackberries that grew in the area.

It was a part of the chain of settlements used to bypass the Naawayi’ii Peninsula [Lower Peninsula of Michigan] in trade. This helped its growth as well. It would be outpaced by the growth of Miyamee during the classical period.

As the Kingdom of Miyamee grew in power, Kekionga feared falling into its orbit. It joined with Mishawaka and Wathipi to form the Black Swamp Confederacy.

Name: Mishawaka (“Big Rapids”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Omashkooz (“elk”)

The city of Mishawaka [South Bend/Mishawaka, IN] was located on a short portage. This portage connected the Kanakee River to the Saakiiwee River [St. Joseph River]. The Kanakee River flows into the Illiniwe [Illinois] river which flows into the Mishi [Mississippi]. The Saakiiwee River flows into Lake Inogami [Lake Michigan]. This made it a vital trade link between the Great Lakes and Mishi watersheds. It also benefitted from east-west trade trying to bypass the Naawayi’ii Peninsula [Lower Peninsula of Michigan].

It was a frequent target for the belligerence of both the Three Waters Confederacy and, later on, the Kingdom of Miyamee. This is the reason it joined the Black Swamp Confederacy.

Name: Wathipi (“elk”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Mishewe (“elk”)

Type: Black Swamp Confederacy

The city of Wathipi [Toledo, OH] was the last in the chain of cities bypassing the Naawayi’ii Peninsula [Lower Peninsula of Michigan]. It was located at the mouth of the Maumee River as it flowed into Lake Wabishigami [Lake Eire].

It is located on the eastern edge of the Black Swamp. The wetlands of the swamp were transformed into rice bogs [paddies] as Wathipi developed. Initially, its main rival was Kekionga but as Miyamee expanded Wathipi came under increasing threat. It decided to join with Kekionga and Mishawaka rather than face destruction by Miyamee.

Name: Miyamee (“Big Water”)

Population: Large

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Ajijaak (“crane”)

Type: Wewan (Kingdom)

The city of Miyamee [Detroit, MI/Windsor, ON] controlled Lake Waawiyaataanong [Lake St. Claire] and with it, the route between Lake Karegami [Lake Huron] and Lake Wabishigami [Lake Eire]. It was made rich by tolls and controlled a large hegemonic empire that extended into both the Odawa Peninsula [Ottawa Peninsula] and Naawayi’ii Peninsula [Lower Peninsula of Michigan].

Its southward expansion was stopped by the formation of the Black Swamp Confederacy. Its northern expansion was slowed and then stopped by Minesing. Its eastern expansion was thwarted by the Ontario Confederacy. It was the richest and most powerful kingdom in the Mishigami during the classical period.

Cities of the Middle Kingdoms of the Mishigami

Name: Minesing (“island”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Asabikeshiinh (“spider”)

Type: Wewan (Kingdom)

The city of Minesing [Barrie, ON] is located on Lake Zhooniyaang (“Silver”) [Lake Simcoe]. It was a lesser rival to Miyamee. In spite of its name, it is not located on an island but on a bay.

The wetlands south and west of the lake were easily transformed into rice bogs [paddies]. This made Minesing more powerful early on. As trade increased, however, Minesing was outshined and outcompeted by Miyamee.

Even so, Minesing remained in control of a strategic position on the trade routes through the Odawa Peninsula. It remained powerful enough throughout the classical period to retain its independence and even maintained a hegemonic empire. It had good relations with the Ontario Confederacy. Records of their diplomacy during the classical period offer us a rare glimpse into the pre-literate society of the Ongweh’onweh [Iroquois].

Name: Saundustee

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Gaagaagishiinh (“raven”)

Type: Oodena (City-State)

The city of Saundustee [Sandusky, OH] was located on a natural port on the Wabishigami. It was never as large or important as its neighbors. It was repeatedly threatened by Miyamee, the Black Swamp Confederacy and Cuyahoga. It managed to cling to its independence throughout the classical period by playing each of the larger factions off each other. Each faction preferred a weak and independent Saundustee to a Saundustee under the control of their rivals.

Name: Cuyahoga (“Crooked River”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Animosh (“dog”)

Type: Oodena (City-State)

The city of Cuyahoga [Cleveland, OH] was located at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River. It was one of the most powerful cities located on Wabishigami Lake [Lake Eire]. Its merchants had a reputation for deviousness.

Like Miaymee, its trading clans could and did depose and appoint the Sagamos of the city at will. This was resented by the populace, who were known to riot if a well loved Sagamos was removed for petty reasons.

It was never as powerful as cities like Miyamee and its attempts to build a hegemonic empire resulted in repeated failure.

Name: Wyandot (“islanders”)

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Ongweh’onweh [Iroquois]

Ruling Doodem: Gekek (“Hawk”)

Type: Oodena (City-State)

The city of Wyandot [Eire, PN] was western most Ongweh’onweh [Iroquois] ethnic city. It was a port city in Lake Wabishigami. It was an important center for trade between the Ongweh’onweh cities further east and the Algonquian cities of Lake Wabishigami.

Like the other Ongweh’onweh cities, it had not adopted Mowin Syllabics by the time of the early classical period. What is known about its history was either written down later or is from neighboring sources.

Next time, we will discuss the Ongweh’onweh cities around Lake Ontario and the Micta River [St. Lawrence River].

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Jul 10, 2023

Chapter 17: The Sea of Stars

The areas around Lake Ontario and the Micta River [St. Lawrence River] were ethnically Ongweh’onweh [Iroquois]. The Ongweh’onweh adopted agriculture more slowly than their Algonquian neighbors and likely from their Algonquian neighbors. By the classical period, they were just as agricultural as the Menominee.

However, they adopted writing more slowly. Mowin syllabics needed to be modified in order to accurately represent the sounds of the Ongweh’onweh languages. This took time and before it was done, the history of the eastern Mishigami is not recorded.

Even so, we know many things about the Ongweh’onweh in the classical period. They shared many cultural and societal aspects with the Menominee. They farmed manoomin in irrigated rice bogs. They lived in longhouses. Their religion was similar. Most Ojichaag had an Algonquian name and an Ongweh’onweh name. And so on.

They also had many differences. They used matrilineal kinship groups. Men moved into the longhouse of their wife’s family, instead of the reverse.

In fact, women were generally more important and powerful in Ongweh’onweh society. Clan mothers chose the (still always male) Sagamos and could depose him, rather than the patriarchal Ogimaa of the Menominee.

A female Agoiander functioned as a sort of prime minister or chancellor. She kept the accounts and ran the land of state while the male Sagamos was in charge of war and diplomacy. Many Menominee histories derogatorily refer to the “women Sagamos” that ran Ongweh’onweh cities.

The most important political player of the Lake Ontario area was the Ontario Boodooswagon, or Ontario Confederacy. It included just about every major Ongweh’onweh city around the lake and some further inland.

The Ontario Confederacy was formed shortly after Mississauga [Toronto/Mississauga, ON] was attacked and forced to submit to the Kingdom of Minesing. Mississauga was the terminus of the portage from Lake Karegami [Lake Huron] to Lake Ontario. Control of it meant that Minesing controlled the entire portage and could charge exorbitant tolls on the route.

Rather than remain vassals, Mississauga hoped to rebel but needed allies if they were to have a chance. They convinced the Ongweh’onweh city states across Lake Ontario to come to their defense in exchange for trading rites. Only Tinawatawa [Hamilton, ON], Mississauga’s perennial rival refused.

Together, the newly formed Ontario Confederacy defeated Minesing and established their own trade monopoly on Lake Ontario. Tinawatawa continued to hold out until the rise of Miyamee. Rather than fall under the influence of Miyamee, Tinawatawa chose to join the confederacy.

Like the other boodooswagon around the Great Lakes, the Ontario confederacy set levels for tolls and taxes. It standardized weights and measures throughout the region. It provided for common defense and mediated conflicts between members.

The Grand Council of the Ontario Confederacy had two levels. Clans in each Oodena voted for representatives who then voted for their city’s interest. If those representatives could not decide, each clan would send a representative. This was rare.

Further east, the Micta river valley came to be dominated by the Kingdom of Hoshalaga [Montreal, QC].

Ontario Confederacy in green. The Kingdom of Hoshalaga in pink. [1]

Name: Tinawatawa

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Ongweh’onweh

Ruling Doodem: Agedzooni’ga (“Bear”)

Type: Ontario Confederacy

The Odawa Peninsula is the best known and understood part of the Ontario Confederacy during pre-literate times. All of the city states on the peninsula had trade and diplomatic relations with Miyamee and Minesing.

The city of Tinawatawa [Hamilton, ON] was the largest and most powerful Ongweh’onweh city on the Odawa Peninsula. It dominated the portage from Lake Wabishigami [Lake Eire] to Lake Ontario from a natural harbor on Lake Ontario. Its citadel was built into the Niagara escarpment, which runs through the city.

Initially, its relationship with Minesing and Mississauga was hostile. In order to avoid being squeezed between Minesing, Miyamee, and the Ontario Confederacy Tinawatawa decided to join the Ontario Confederacy and ally with Minesing.

This strategy paid off. Minesing could not fight Tinawatawa when Miyamee was so powerful. They both needed each other to complete the trade route through the Odawa Peninsula. The Ontario Confederacy was brought into Tinawatawa’s trade routes and gained a buffer from the threat of Miyamee.

Name: Mississauga

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Ongweh’onweh

Ruling Doodem: Noodzagwii (“snipe”)

Type: Ontario Confedearcy

The city of Mississauga [Toronto/Mississauga, ON] was situated between the Wonskotanach River [Don River, ON] and Gabekanaang River [Humber River]. For much of its existence it was in conflict with its neighbor, Tinawatawa.

After being threatened by Minesing [Barrie, ON], Mississauga looked for allies across the water. This was the beginning of the Ontario Confederacy. Ironically, despite being a founding member, Mississauga’s importance to the Confederacy would wane after the admittance of Tinawatawa. In later periods, the votes of Mississauga were even controlled by Tinawatawa.

Name: Seneca

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Ongweh’onweh

Ruling Doodem: Otayooni (“Wolf”)

Type: Ontario Confederacy

The city of Seneca [Buffalo, NY] controlled the area around Niagara Falls. It was a part of the Ontario Confederacy. Various attempts to build canals to bypass the waterfalls were made during this period. They all failed.

Niagara Falls itself was a sacred site and controlled by priests during the classical period. It had no vote in the Ontario Confederacy. Instead, Seneca voted for Niagara.

Name: Onondagega

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Ongweh’onweh

Ruling Doodem: Agadeiioo’ga (“Heron”)

Type: Ontario Confederacy

The city of Onondagega [Syracuse, NY] was made rich by trade in salt. It is the Ongweh’onweh city most often mentioned in inscriptions after Wyandot and Tinawatawa. The Heron clan both ruled the city and controlled the trade in salt throughout the Ontario Confederacy.

Ongweh’onweh Cities of the Classical Period

Name: Sawcunk

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Ongweh’onweh

Ruling Doodem: Unknown

Type: Ontario Confederacy

The city of Sawcunk [Rochester, NY] controlled the fertile Jenisii River valley [Genesee River valley].

Name: Manidoana (“The Garden of the Great Spirit”)

Population: Very Small

Ethnic Majority: Ongweh’onweh

Ruling Doodem: Unknown (Controlled by Mide; perhaps no ruling doodem)

Type: Ontario Confederacy

The area called Manidoana [Thousand Islands, QC/ Kingston, Ontario] meaning “the Garden of the Great Spirit” was a holy area. It was controlled by priests. It was famous for its sauces, particularly a type of fish sauce that was an elite item popular across the Mishigami. [2] It would later be conquered by the rising Kingdom of Hoshalaga.

Name: Hoshalaga (“Big Rapids”)

Population: Large

Ethnic Majority: Ongweh’onweh

Ruling Doodem: Genyadii (“Turtle”)

Type: Wewan (Kingdom)

The city of Hoshalaga [Montreal, QC] was located on an island at the confluence of the Odawa River [Ottawa River] and Micta River [St. Lawrence River]. It was one of the earliest major cities in the east.

It was a hegemonic empire similar to Miyamee or Minesing. It grew later and more slowly than either of the Middle Kingdoms. However, there was little doubt that it would dominate the Micta River Valley. It was many times larger than any other settlement in the area.

Next time, we will discuss the western periphery of the Mishigami during the classical period. But first, a supplemental on the Midsummer Festival.

[1] Three Waters Confederacy in Red. Kingdom of Gakaabikaang in orange. Kingdom of Cahokia in dark red. Kingdom of Miyamee in brown. Kingdom of Minesing in yellow. Ontario Confederacy in green. Black Swamp Confederacy in grey. Kingdom of Hoshalaga in pink. Miscellaneous city states in purple.
[2] Yes, this is a reference to Thousand Islands Salad Dressing.

The schedule for the next few updates looks like this:

Thursday: Supplemental on the Midsummer Festival. This was originally written for Chapter 5 but it got too long and off topic. I've decided to put it here to break up some of the monotony of the geographic tour.

7/17: Western Periphery. The parts of Illinois, Wisconsin and Minnesota that haven't already been covered.

7/24: A day in the life of a city dweller.

7/31: Elections and government

8/7: Finally and at long last the introduction of corn.

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Jul 13, 2023

Supplemental: Midsummer

The Midsummer Festival took place during the Raspberry Moon, on the summer solstice. It was one of the most important holidays of the year. In religious terms, it meant that the sun had reached the apex of its power and would soon begin the long slow decline to winter.

In practical terms, the normal days of the months (giizis) added up to 364. The extra day was necessary to reach the length of a solar year. Periodically a second day would be added to the festival, similar to a leap year.

To prepare, men and women would fast from alcohol and sex for three days. The Mide and his acolytes would forgo food and drink from sunup to sundown for the same three days.

On the morning of the festival, the Mide would go to platform at the center of the Kisewa. Recall that the Kisewa was a series of stone pillars set into the ground in a circle. A crowd would gather outside the poles. As the sun rose, the Mide would observe its trajectory. From the alignment of the poles and the sun, the Mide would know what day of the solar year it was. Using his secret and sacred knowledge, he would also know if the Midsummer Festival should last one day or two days. Once he was certain, he would announce the result to the crowd.

As time went on mathematics were used to calculate when the extra days should be. This would be done far in advance of the formal ceremony. That allowed for extravagant preparations for extended festivals to be made. Of course, as the solar years were calculated locally, this meant that calendars could vary slightly between settlements.

Once the announcement was made, the preparatory fast was ritually broken by eating the last of the previous year’s food. The first fruits of this year’s harvest was taken, rubbed with oil, and ritually burned. This symbolically fed the gods and was done to ensure a good harvest and atone for the sins of the previous year.

After this, the fun began. Great bonfires were built. A feast was held. Many people ritually bathed in oil or water. Bloodletting as an atonement for sins was common among men. Sweat lodges were filled with those wishing for a religious experience. Manhood and womanhood ceremonies were performed

The center of the festival was the dance of the women. A group of unmarried women, specifically chosen for their beauty and dancing skills (and familial ties to the nobility), would perform a healing dance to thank the earth for the crops still growing in the field.

The women would wear zangwewe magooday or 'jingle dresses' which had small shell and metal bells sewn so that they would make noise as they moved. The dancers would make their own music as they swayed. Elaborate make-up, jewelry, and hairstyles were also used to highlight their beauty. There was an informal competition between women over who could make the most beautiful (and expensive) outfit.

Modern Jingle Dress[1]

The dance would ritually heal the earth and the people. It was also a matchmaking opportunity. . Marriages accompanied the festival, some of them only arranged after the jingle dress dance.

The periodic extended midsummer festivals were cause for extra special celebration. It was said that Manidoo would forgive even the most terrible sins on the second day of the midsummer festival. Even more theatrical atoning for sins was done. A confession on the extra day of midsummer should always be forgiven. Of course, this was not always done but it was the ideal.

During times of stress and famine, the festival would be more intense. Famine and drought were considered punishments by Manidoo for the sins of the people. As the midsummer festival was about the atonement for sin, such disasters placed extra importance on it. Human and animal sacrifice would be performed. Women would wail inside the temples at representations of Manidoo and the Ojichaag. They would scream, cry and tear at their clothing to show their devotion. They would beg for forgiveness for any sins they or any else had committed.

Once the festival was over, the village would return to the rhythms of the summer.

[1] Taken from: https://i.etsystatic.com/17616847/r/il/6e4329/4343532549/il_fullxfull.4343532549_bo3z.jpg

This was originally written for Chapter 5 but it got too long and off topic. I've decided to put it here to break up some of the monotony of the geographic tour.

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Jul 17, 2023

Chapter 18: The Western Periphery

The Western Periphery consisted of three areas: Manoomingamiing, Meskonsing, and Biinjijwanong.

Manoomingamiing [Minnesota], the “Land of Rice Lakes”, was the northern most of the peripheral areas. It had many thousands of lakes that were used to plant rice and as drinking water by the Menominee and Siouan peoples. Siouan rice farmers are called psinomani. They were much more common in the west. In the classical period, it was dominated by the Kingdom of Gakaabikaang.

Name: Gakaabikaang (“At the waterfalls”)

Population: Large

Ethnic Majority: Mixed Sioux and Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Peshu (“Lynx”)

Type: Wewan (Kingdom)

Located at the furthest navigable point of the Mishi River [Mississippi river], the city of Gakaabikaang [Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN] was formed by the fusion of multiple trading towns. It is famous for its waterfalls.

It controlled a large kingdom. Most of its wealth came from the productive rice bogs [paddies] borne from the thousands of natural lakes around Gakaabikaang.

Today it is known by its Siouan name, Othunkwe. During the classical period, an oligarchy of mostly Algonkian nobility controlled the kingdom.

Meskonsing [Fox River Valley, WI], the “Land of Red Earth”, was the area just to the west of Lake Inogami [Lake Michigan]. It was fertile and rich. Underneath the fertile soil lay the clay soils for which it was named. They also allowed for the creation of ceramic pottery. This was likely where ceramics were first developed in the Mishigami.

It is said that the clay of Meskonsing is red due to the blood spilled in all the wars between its city states. Poonchikit, Milliokee, Taykopera, Taycheeda and Konema fought continuous wars over the valley and control of Lake Winnebago. Even the formation of the Three Waters Confederacy only slowed the fighting somewhat.

Cities of the Western Periphery

We have already discussed the cities of Poonchikit [Green Bay, WI] and Milliokee [Milwaukee, WI] in the section on the Three Waters Confederacy. Let’s discuss the other cities of Meskonsing:

Name: Taykopera (“Land of Four Lakes”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Binesi (“Thunderbird”)

Type: Oodena (City-State)

The city of Taykopera [Madison WI] was located on an isthmus between four lakes. Its Sagamos lived on top of an effigy mound in the shape of thunderbird that lies at the high point of the isthmus. It was shaped like a thunderbird because the Sagamos was a member of the thunderbird clan. It was frequently conquered or dominated in conflicts with its neighbors. However, it stubbornly struggled to remain or get back its independence repeatedly.

Name: Konema (“Watching Place”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Giniw (“Golden Eagle”)

Type: Oodena (City-State)

One of those neighbors was the city of Konema [Appleton, WI]. Konema dominated the Meskwaki Valley [Fox River Valley] and the Lake Winnebago. Meskwaki means “red earth” and Winnebago means “stinking water”. The people of the city were famous for their skill at making pottery. Konema-style pottery is found throughout the Mishigami.

The most famous Sagamos of Konema was a woman. Ogijibani’okwe was made an Ogimaa when all the male members of her endaad were killed. She eventually became Sagamos and even led an army to victory. She passed the title peacefully to her son after her death.

Name: Taycheeda

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Various

Type: Oodena (City-State)

The city of Taycheeda [Fond du Lac/Taycheedah, WI] is a small city on the south side of Lake Winnebago. It was often dominated by Milliokee, Konema, or Taykopera. It was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt during the wars around the Meskwaki Valley.

Biinjijwanong means “at the confluence” or more poetically “where the river flows”.[1] It is the area where the Wabash and Tanasi [Tennessee] flow into the Ohiyo [Ohio] and where the Illiniwe [Illinois], Ohiyo [Ohio], and Pekitani [Missouri] Rivers flow into the Mishi [Mississippi]. It has some of the oldest evidence for farming in Minisia. In the classical period, it was dominated by the Kingdom of Cahokia.

Name: Saukenuk (“City of the Sauk”)

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Mixed Algonkian and Sioux

Ruling Doodem: Waagoshiinh (“Fox”)

Type: Wewan (Kingdom)

The city of Saukenuk[The Quad Cities of IL, IO] is located at the confluence of the Ioway [Iowa] and Mishi [Mississippi] Rivers. The nearby rapids made navigation difficult. Experienced boaters from Saukenuk would navigate the rapids, for a fee. If you weren’t willing to pay, portage was common as well. Both meant trade flowed through Saukenuk. Its population was cosmopolitan, but, like Gakaabikaang, a mostly Algonkian nobility controlled the kingdom.

Name: Cahokia (“Wild Geese”)

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Sioux

Ruling Doodem: Naabese (“falcon”)

Type: Wewan (Kingdom)

The city of Cahokia [St. Louis, MO/East St. Louis, IL] was located at the confluence of the Mishi [Mississippi] and Pekitani [Missouri] rivers and near the confluence of the Illiniwe [Illinois] and Mishi rivers. It controlled one of the largest hegemonic empires of the classical period.

The Falcon King (Sagmos Chayton) is the most famous Sagamos of classical period Cahokia. The traditional story of his reign is that the rumor of his wife’s faithlessness with the Sagamos of Peoria [Peoria, IL] led to war.

The Falcon King defeated the Sagamos of Peoria, killing him and forcing Peoria to send tribute to Cahokia. However, the wounds he suffered in the battle were too great. He died before he could return to Cahokia.

His wife prepared a great funeral for him. To prove her loyalty, she was ritualistically strangled and buried with her husband.

Whatever the actual story, the there is a great burial mound near to Cahokia. Today, it is called the Falcon Barrow. It is shaped like a bird in flight. When it was first made, it contained many grave goods, including sacrificed slaves and wives.

There are inscriptions on the entrance to the tomb which curse any that enters it. They did not work. The grave has been looted numerous times.

Next time, we will discuss city life in the classical period.

[1] Shoutout to JSilvy and his excellent TL.

This will end the geographic tour of the Mishigami during the early classical period. In the future, I think I am going to alternate the geography updates with cultural updates so that we don't end up with so much geography in a row. I am also going to try to mix more historical narrative in with the geography.

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Jul 21, 2023

OOTL: Vocabulary

Not a real update. Just a list of vocabulary words used in the TL. I have decided to add geographic features (like rivers and lakes) but not city names. I will update this periodically as we go along.

Aadizookaan- sacred stories; holy book; collection of secret wisdom held by priests
Aazhida- “to go back to the way things were” honor code and system of vendetta for the zhimaaganish
Abwewin- a type of griddle or frying pan made from clay
Agidajiw- nobility of the Mishigami and Ziibiing; literally means “on top of the mountain” which refers to them living on wajiw (platform mounds)
Agindaaso- literally “counter”; the person who was in the charge of an election and would certify the winning candidate
Agoiander- female prime minister type position used by the Ongweh’onweh
Agokiwasigan- a type of meal in Minisia in which aji paste is poured over manoomin and vegatables
Aji- chili peppers
Aki Ashaageshiinh- land of the crayfish; OTL Louisiana-ish, especially the Mississippi delta area
Aki Cree- Land of the Cree; OTL Manitoba, Saskatchewan; Alberta, and the Aspen Parkland areas especially
Aki Mandang- North and South Dakota, basically; the Middle Missouri Valley
Aki- “land”; used in a variety of ways to seperate out different lands from each other
Andawaa- biter dog; small dog used as verminator
Anishinaabe- “the original people”; an Algonquian people from the Great Lakes region
Asabikeshiinh- small woven hoop made to resemble a spider web; hung up for protective magic; a dreamcatcher
Ashagi moona’ibaan- “heron well”; a shadoof; a type of lever with counterweight to pump water
Asibikaashi- an Ojichaag; the Spider grandmother deity; symbol of protection
Asin ziibiwan- “stone rivers”; aqueducts
Asiniibwaan- Siouan people of the Great Plains who were non-agricultural. The name means “Stone Sioux”
Assi- tea made from yaupon holly
Awakaan- house slave
Ba- title for a Lord of a large area
Babaa-ayaa zhimaaganish- “wandering warrior”; master-less zhimaaganish warrior; similar to knight errant or ronin
Bagamaagan- ball club
Bakwezhiganaaboo- a type of meal in Minisia similar to Poutine
Bawa’iganaak- a flail or knocker
Bayouk- bayous; a slow moving, brackish stream that diverts from the main channel of a river
Bede- the domesticated version of American Groundnut or Apios Americana
Biboonagad- winter count; a type of historical record
Biinjijwanong- “at the confluence” or more poetically “where the river flows; southern Illinois, western Kentucky and Tennessee, eastern Missouri
Biinjwebinigewi- an election by acclimation for a Sagamos, Ogimaa, or Mide
Binesi- a set of Ojichaag; the thunderbirds; controller of the wind and weather
Biscuit-root- the domesticated version of prairie turnip or Pediomelum esculentum
Bitaakoshin- war galley fitted with a ram
Biza- a drink made from fermented milk that is drunk by the Newe and others
Black Rice- English-language name for the domesticated version of Zizania Palustris or Northern Wild Rice
Boodooswagon- confederation of independent city states
Bow wood bush - Osage orange or Maclura pomifera
Brasil- South America
Budus- short for Boodooswagon; confederation of independent city states
Caddo- people who lived in OTL Oklahoma during the classical period; Caddoan
Cree- Algonquian agricultural peoples of the Great Plains who lived above the “Maize Line”; they did not call themselves this;
Dakon Oshtigwaanens- “Keeper of the Seal”; important ministerial official in Mozcala and the Shawnee Empire
Dhegihan- people who lived at the confluence of the Nebraska and Missouri Rivers; OTL Nebraska; Siouan and semi-agricultural
Dib’igaans- measure of time equivalent to about nine or ten minutes
Diba’igan- a measure of time equivalent to about an hour and a half
Dibendaagozi- literally “member’ but generally translated as citizen; someone who can vote
Dibishkoo Zagaswe’idiwag- “Assembly of Equals”; the principal legislature of Mozcala and the Shawnee Empire
Doodem- patrilineal clan in Anishinaabe society
Endaad- patrilineal sub-clan in Anishinaabe society
Eshkani river- literally “antler” river; the Thames River, ON
Eshpabid- “baron”; ruler of a Yuchi colony
Gaagaagi- an Ojichaag; raven deity that represents truth and wisdom
Gichi-Manidoo- the Great Spirit; creator and overarching deity; often called Manidoo
Gichi-wagikomaan- a sword; literally “Great Sickle”
Giiwedin Assiniikaang- the Canadian shield; literally “northern place of rocks”
Giizis- moon or month
Gizhiibide- medium type of cargo boat
Gulf of Chitti- Gulf of Mexico
Hairy Beans- the domesticated version of Fuzzy Beans or the plants of the genus Strophostyles
Hand Talk- also called Minisian Trade Sign Language; a form of sign language used to facilitate trade on the Great Plains
Hasinai Confederation- largest confederation of Caddo people during the classical period; also called the Tejas; famed for their mercenary skill
Ibimi- North American cranberries
Ikwekaazo- someone who was physically masculine and spiritually feminine
Illiniwe River- Illinois River
Ininiikaazo- a person who was physically feminine but spiritually masculine
Ioway- people from OTL Iowa; Siouan and agricultural
Jiibayaatigo River- St. Croix River
Jiimaan- literally “boat”; any type of small boat or canoe
Jiimaanikewinini- “Chief Boat Builder”; important ministerial official in Mozcala and the Shawnee Empire
Kaazo- catch all term for ininiikaazo and ikwekaazo
Kanata- village or neighborhood
Kanata Geese- the domesticated version of Canada Geese
Kiinwaa- the domesticated version of pitted goosefoot or Chenopodium belandiere
Kineepikoyiniwak- “Snake people”; derogatory nickname for the Newe used by the Siksikaawa and others
Kisewa- solar wheel; a series of poles placed in a circle and positioned so that the rising and setting of the sun on certain days will allow for the calculation of the solar year
Kitikiti’sh- people who lived in OTL Kansas during the classical period; Caddoan
Koha- cane or Arundinaria Gigantea
Lake Gichigami- Lake Superior
Lake Inogami- Lake Michigan
Lake Karegami- Lake Huron
Lake Waawiyaataanong- Lake St. Clair
Lake Wabishigami- Lake Eire
Lake Zhooniyaang- literally Silver Lake; Lake Simcoe
Madoodiswan- sweat lodge or public bath
Maize Kingdom- Minisian kingdom from the south; particularly one dependent on maize; differs culturally from a rice kingdom
Makademashkiig Boodooswagon- Black Swamp Confederacy
Makwa- bear;
Mandaamin- literally ‘the wonder berry’; corn or maize; also called millet ITTL
Mandan- the Siouan and settled agriculturalists who lived in the Middle Missouri Valley during the classical period
Manidoo- the Great Spirit; creator and overarching deity; often called Gichi-Manidoo
Manooa- Anishinaabe goddess of manoomin
Manoomin- name for the domesticated version of Zizania Palustris or Northern Wild Rice
Manoomingamiing- the land of rice lakes; Minnesota more or less
Manoominikewin- the festival of abundance; religious harvest festival; literally “rice abundance/harvest”
Mashkikiiwi- “medicine person”; a monk of the mozist religion
Maygrain- the domesticated version of Maygrass or Phalaris caroliniana
Mazina’igan Nandobani- “Book of War”; a text on how to fight war in Minisia written, supposedly, by Emperor Mahomet
Memegwesi- mythological; small people with horns of their heads and covered in hair; similar to fairies
Menominee- “the black rice people” in Anishinaabe; the Algonquian people who first domesticated Wild Rice
Meskonsing- Fox River Valley of Wisconsin
Meskwaki Valley- Fox River Valley, WI
Meso-Minisia- Mesoamerica
Metekwa- heraldry or totem poles; often called doodem poles
Micta River- St. Lawrence River
Mide- a High Priest; the chief priest in an area
Midewiwin- the way of the heart; the primary religion of the Mishigami
Millet- corn or maize; Zea Mays
Minisia- North America
Minisian Barley- the domesticated version of Little Barley or Hodeum pusillum
Minisian flax- the domesticated version of Lewis Falx or Linum lewisii
Minisian Lotus- the domesticated version of American Lotus or Nelumbo lutea
Minwaabikizi Wajiw- literally “a good mineral or stone mountain”; platform mounds built in the Mishigami and Ziibiing
Mishi Miikana- the Great Road of the Ohiyoong; runs from Akron, OH to Cincinnati, OH.
Mishi River- Mississippi River
Mishi-dibwewin- “Great Truth”; the Shawnee name for the Mozist religion
Mishigami- “Great Lakes”; the area around the Great Lakes;
Mishipeshu- an Ojichaag; the Great Lynx deity; controller of weather and patron of sailor; lives in Lake Gichigami
Mishi-zaaga’igan- Lake Mille Lacs, MN
Mowin or Mowin Syllabic- syllabary writing system invented by Medweginoonind for Anishinaabe languages; expanded and adapted for other languages in Minisia
Moz- prophet; usually referring to Tenskwatawa, the Prophet of the Mozist religion
Naawayi’ii Peninsula- lower peninsula of Michigan; literally “in the middle of”
Naawayi’ii War- war fought between the three waters confederacy and the Miyamee Kingdom in the Mid-400s
Nanabozho- an Ojichaag; rabbit deity that is a trickster and creator
Newe- equivalent to the Shoshone people of OTL
Niswinibi Boodooswagon- the Three Waters Confederacy
Nitaa- a type of doodem with a monopoly on skilled labor; a skilled laborer
Odaakewigimaa- “prefects”; officials in the Shawnee Empire
Odawa- a type of doodem with a monopoly on trade; a merchant
Odawa Peninsula- Ontario Peninsula; literally “trader or merchant”
Odawa River- Ottawa River
Ogimaa bimaadiziwin- “The Master of Life”; the principal deity of the Mozist religion
Ogimaa- lesser lord; leader of an endaad
Ohiyo River- Ohio river
Ohiyoong- Ohio Country; the area around the Ohio river roughly from Pittsburgh to Cincinnati
Ojichaag- a lesser god; represents a part of the personality of Manidoo; personal connection to Manidoo;
Okosimaan Jiiman- “squash boat”; a type of meal in Minisia in which a squash is cut in half and filled with manoomin and other food
Okwabiwag- literally “sitting group”; the set of officials who advise the Sagamos
Ongweh’onweh- the Iroquois people or Haudenosaunee
Oodena- independent city state
Oshki’aki- “colony”; land given to Yuchi soldiers to live on
Oshtigwaanens- literally “little head”; a stamp or seal that acts as the signature for an official
Paanii- field slave
Papoose- infants; name of the Stones River near Murfreesboro, TN
Pekitani River- Missouri River
Psinomani- “the black rice people” in Dakota; Siouan people who farmed domesticated Wild
Rabaska- largest type of cargo boat
Rice kingdom- Minisian kingdom from the north, especially in the Mishigami; particularly one dependent on manoomin; differs culturally from a maize kingdom
Sachim- king or emperor
Sagmos- the lord; leader of a settlement
Shingebiss- an Ojichaag; duck deity that represents fortitude and perseverance
Siksikaawa- Algonkian peoples who live in the Snake River Valley; more or less equivalent to the Blackfoot of OTL
Sunroot- Jerusalem artichoke or Helianthus tuberosus
Tanasi River- Tennessee River
Tejas- an alternate name for the Hasinai Confederation
Tuniit- people of the artic during the classical period; associated with the Dorset culture, with some modifications
Waabishki- white dogs with long hair; they are sheared like sheep
Wagikomaan- a sickle
Wajiw- literally “mountain; platform mounds built in the Mishigami and Ziibiing
Wampum- beads made form sea shells; often made into a belt with symbolic significance
Wapato- the domesticated version of arrowroot or various plants in the genus Sagittaria
Wendigo- an Ojichaag; evil creature who represents the cold, winter, insatiable greed, and hunger, and cannibalism; not worshipped
Wewan- hegemonic kingdom
Wiigwaasabak- birch bark scroll
Winter and Summer Chronciles, the- first narrative history of Minisia; details the Naawayi’ii War
Woolly Goat- Rocky Mountain Goat; especially the domesticated types
Yampa- a relative of the carrot
Yampapaa- name of the Snake River in Idaho; named after the Yampa plant
Zaangwewe magooday- Jingle dress; dress made with metal or shells that make noise as they move
Zagimeg- mosquito
Zhimaaganish- warrior class; trained soldiers
Ziibiing- ‘the land of rivers’; the American southeast and lower Mid-West; starting roughly from the Ohio and Missouri River Valleys south to the Gulf of Mexico

Last Updated 5/4/24

PeterEzgo · Jul 24, 2023

Chapter 19: Urban Living

The dawn wakes you. Other people in the longhouse are already moving. Your wife stirs beside you. Your young son, also asleep in the bed, kicks instinctively; trying to be left alone. But you cannot leave them alone. You are a commoner from the city of Kekionga [Fort Wayne, IN] in the year 1 CE. There is work to be done.

You put on your clothes. As she gets ready, your wife does the same. Men wear briefs. Women wear knee length skirts. Neither sex covers their chests. Children wear no clothes. They grow too fast to bother, at least in the summer.

You only own two sets of clothing. They are made of linen, wapiti leather, dog wool, and animal fur. A major job of your wife is to wash and repair the family’s clothes. The poor cannot afford to repair their clothes. Eventually they will wear rags instead.

In winter, everyone will be buried underneath layers of furs. Most will barely leave the house, if they can help it. Many poor men die in the winter. But it is summer now and there is work to be done.

You put on a sun hat made from straw to shield your head and shoulders from the heat of the sun. It covers your long, braided hair. Long hair in men is a sign of virility. You wear nothing on your feet. Other men wear moccasins. In the winter, snowshoes would be necessary.

Clothing in the classical period, censored for modern audiences[1]

It is fashionable for women to wear their hair in buns. Your wife carefully uses pins made from bone to put her hair up. Noble women have elaborate and impractical hair styles that make it so they can barely move their heads. Of course, they do not need to work, so the impracticality is the point. Your wife does need to work. Her hairstyle is practical.

Many people wear necklaces and hair pins made of exotic materials. They pierce their ears, noses, and lips to place rings and studs. They have tattoos, marking their place in society or just for decoration. On your bicep is the symbol of Manidoo. Its marks you out as a member of a priestly doodem, in your case the Omakakii doodem or frog clan. It signals to everyone that you are entitled to vote for the Mide.

Your wife has a fine leather necklace with a seashell on it. Whenever you see it, you remember making it and giving it to her on your wedding day. She has two ear studs in her left ear. These are merely decorative. She also has a tattoo of Manidoo on her upper arm. She is from the Nigig doodem or otter clan and also entitled to vote for the Mide.

Noble women paint their faces white with lead based paint. With prolonged use, it causes their eyebrows to fall out and their faces to wither. But, for a time, they are as pale as snow. They add red ochre to their cheeks and their lips for color. Charcoal powder is added under the eyes for contrast.

You put charcoal powder underneath your eyes to lessen the glare of the sun. Your wife goes without. She might wear elaborate makeup on special occasions (like your wedding day) but it was too expensive for everyday use. She is inside most of the day anyway.

Soon you are ready. Your wife has prepared a small porridge made from Kiinwaa [goosefoot] sweetened by the blackberries the city is named for. You stash a few sunflower seeds in your pocket in case you get hungry in the middle of day.

You live in a longhouse with your parents, brothers, uncles, and cousins. Other people live in longhouses with many non-family members. You do not. Your doodem has lived in the city since the beginning. So has your wife’s family.

The longhouse you live in is near but not inside the citadel. You, your wife, and your son share a single room apartment. It has simple accommodations: a bed, a fire for cooking, storage underneath the bed, and a small wooden table and set of chairs for work and play.

The bathroom is communal, near the end of the longhouse. It is little more than a hole in the floor connected to drainage pipes. The drains take the water and waste out of the city and into the nearby rivers. It is flushed using a jug of water that is always left next to the hole. Sometimes your family members will forget or be too lazy to refill the jug. That’s always frustrating.

You make your way out of the longhouse and into the street. Gutters carry water from the roofs of houses into drains by every road. The irrigation and drainage systems are run by the Mide and the priestly doodems, including yours. You carry your tools, made of stone and wood, with you as you walk.

Your job is to maintain and repair the drainage system of the city. Your father does the same thing. He taught you how to do it. You will teach your son how to do it when he is old enough. Your wife helps when the work must be done quickly or when an extra pair of hands is needed. Mostly, she stays home, raising your child and doing the domestic choirs.

In exchange for keeping the drains running, you are given a stipend of manoomin by the Mide. It is more than enough to feed you, your wife, and your son. Whatever is leftover you trade for the other necessities of life. The wives of your longhouse maintain a garden together. They share the produce equally and trade the excess. You will never become rich but you will not go hungry either.

You walk a predetermined route, checking the drains for damage. As you walk the city, you chat with your friends and neighbors. They live in the houses next to yours. You have known them and they have known you all your lives. They know what you are here to do and point out any problems even before you see them. Your route takes you through a large section of the city. Only a small portion of it is your responsibility but you would be expected to help any other maintenance worker if they needed it.

The houses cluster together to form kanata. Kanata is both the word for village and the word for neighborhood. In Kekionga, some of the kanata were villages before the city formed. They banded together to form a single government or were conquered by the nearby city. Others formed after the city had already begun.

Map of a kanata or neighborhood[2]

Kanatas are formed by ethnic ties, family units or by clusters of workers. Each one elects an Ogimaa and owes taxes as a unit. They each have their own well and communal open space. Some are home to members of a single clan but most hold many unrelated people. The land is owned and worked communally by each kanata in the city, just as it was by the rural villages.

You pass through the kanata of the beaver clan, who were all smiths. Like your ancestors, they had been in the city since it began. They worked metals: gold, silver, lead, and copper. The ones who worked copper had their hair turn green and their skin turn yellow. Even so, they were hot marriage prospects due to the wealth they had.

The next kanata you pass through is one of several that housed potters. They did not all come from a single clan nor did they all descend from founders. Some potters specialized in bowls and pots. Others made smoking pipes. A few made ceramic sickles. Most painted art on whatever they made. Even the poor would have a few pieces of pottery with simple artwork.

The potters mixed sand and freshwater mussel shells into the clay to make the ceramics strong. Then, they coiled the clay into shape[3] and used large, purpose built kilns to fire many pots at the same time.

Bowl made to resemble a falcon[4]

Some potters made mud bricks. Mud bricks were used to build houses, aqueducts (what you call asin ziibiwan or “stone rivers”), and, most importantly for you, pipes. Different cities had different standard brick sizes. You use bricks and quick lime made by the potters to repair the drainage system.

Originally women had been the potters and many of them still made small ceramics for their household. As the trade became commercialized, however, men took over running it. Your wife still occasionally makes bowls, using the straw and potsherds for tempering. She carefully shapes them, air dries them, and then fires them in the communal earthen oven. They weren’t as pretty and didn’t last as long as the stuff bought at the market but they helped to stretch the budget when times were tough.

The next kanata you passed housed tanners and their workshops. Poor men sold their urine to the tanners who used the ammonia to make leather from Wapiti skins. Like the potters, the tanners sold to everyone. Everyone needed leather.

As you walk the city, you see a few zhimaaganish warriors, distinguished by their hairstyle. All of their hair is plucked out except for a single long pony tail in the back. It singles them out to everyone they meet. But these are just individuals going about their daily lives. Kekionga and the Black Swamp Confederacy are strong. Here, there is peace.

In the heat of the day, many zagimeg [mosquitoes] bother you. The rice bogs [paddies] in the surrounding countryside ensure that they are everywhere in the city. You chew a few sunflower seeds.

The city of Kekionga lies on the portage between the Maumee and Wabash rivers. This is important because the Maumee flows into Lake Wabishigami [Lake Eire]. You saw Lake Wabishigami when you and other drain repairers were sent to help Wathipi [Toledo, OH] with major storm damage. The Wabash flows into the Ohiyo River (you have met people who have seen it but never seen it yourself) which flows into the Mishi River (which you have heard of by way of vague rumor) which flows into the Gulf of Chitti [Gulf of Mexico] (which you do not know exists).

The portage is about six miles. A healthy man can walk it in about one and one-third diba’igan (or about two hours). The road between the river landings forms the main boulevard of the city. It is wide, level and paved with stone. Houses line both sides of it.

There is also a road that heads west to Mishawaka [South Bend, IN] but it is not paved with stone. A similar road follows the Maumee River to Wathipi but it is only used when travelling upriver. The rural villages along the way are supposed to maintain those roads. Some of them do a better job than others. No roads head north to Miyamee [Detroit, MI], the enemy of Kekionga, but there are many paths in the wilderness.

Slaves owned by the Sagamos and Ogimaa sweep and clean the streets inside the city. While you check the drains for damage, you check for blockages. If you find a blockage, you direct one of the sweeping slaves to clear it. Such a job is too good for a man like you. It is fit only for a slave.

You see that the water level in the drains is low. You use a special machine to lift the water from a reservoir on a lower level and into the drains to wash away the filth.

This special machine is a lever, with a counterweight on one end and a bucket on the other. The end with the counterweight is short and the end with the bucket is long. With the right counterweight and lever length, you can fill and lift a heavy bucket full of water with barely any effort.

People half a world away, whom you have never met and will never meet, call this machine a shadoof. You call it ashagi moona’ibaan, or a heron well. The one you are using is even painted like a heron, its beak dipping into the water every time you fill the bucket.

A shadoof in use[5]

A horn blows, signaling that sunset is near. You have done all the work you can do today. You finish using the shadoof and gather your tools to head home. You decide to take a short cut through the citadel, which lies about halfway between the Wabash and the Maumee. The citadel is the center of the city. To the nobles, Sagmos, and priests who inhabit it, it might as well be the entire city. It is protected by a rammed earth wall.

You pass the citadel wall. Today the top of the rammed earth wall is empty. The gates are open and unguarded. On the outside of the citadel is a moat around the wall. Right now, it is a dry ditch. It would only have been filled when the city was threatened or after a rain. There are many nobles and peasants alike who have business in the citadel. There is no need to impede them when there is no threat.

Inside the citadel, all the roads are paved with stone and the houses are arranged in a grid. The houses all have running water, with pipes and aqueducts carefully constructed to carry clean water in and carry waste out. Many of them are built on mounds.

Temples dot the inside of the citadel, sitting on huge mounds. The temples are built from limestone. The limestone is quarried just a few miles away[6] by Paanii slaves. It is carved with gods and monsters acting out the sacred stories. They are brightly painted. Even brief glimpses awe and frighten you. Some days, you go to the temples to pray. Not today though. You keep walking.

Near the temples is the madoodiswan, or sweat lodge. This was the public bath, though many of the nobles had their own private baths. The madoodiswan was run by the Mide. Anyone could use it at any time, for a small fee. Boys and girls going through their man and womanhood ceremonies used it for free. During those ceremonies, the heat and humidity was increased in order to induce religious visions.

Today there are no ceremonies. As you pass the madoodiswan, you think how nice and relaxing it would be to enter it. But the sweat lodge is also notorious for the prostitutes, both male and female, that use the facility for their trade. Some of them pay the priests protection money. Some the priests even act as pimps. You do not approve of that. Few do but it keeps happening. You head home instead.

Not far from the citadel is the kisewa, a large area used for divining what day of the solar year it was. At its center was a large carved turtle. Its back was a water pool. A small hole in the mouth of the turtle let the water drain slowly out of the pool.

You know that the turtle is a water clock. The water drains from the pool at a known rate. Priests know how long it takes for the whole pool to drain. They use a sundial to know when to start draining the pool. There are marks on the walls of the pool at set distances apart, each one further down. The same amount of time elapses between each mark. The time between each mark is called a diba’igan. There are ten marks on the pool. Therefore there are ten diba’igan every day. That is how the priests knew when to blow the horn to signal the end of the day. The clock is not perfectly accurate because the rate of drainage varies slightly with the temperature. Even so, it is more accurate than any other way you know of keeping time.

Smaller amounts of time can be measured using a bowl with a small hole in the bottom. The time it takes for the bowl to fill was the same every time or near enough as to make no difference. This time was called a diba’igaans. Priests carefully measured the weight of the bowls and the size of hole to ensure there were ten dib’igaans for every dib’igan.

A simple water clock[7]

Past the kisewa is a large open space. This is where the market is. On market days, this is where merchants gather. The market of Kekionga was cosmopolitan. Siouan traders from the west, Ongweh’onweh traders from the east, and Tunica and Yuchi merchants from the south all came to Kekionga to buy and sell their goods. Some of the Sioux and Ongweh’onweh even live in kanata filled with their own kind.

The merchants paid their tolls upriver and then carried their goods to the market. The most valuable items would be carried by the merchant themselves. Their slaves and servants carried most of the items in large baskets on their backs. A few men used well trained elk to carry heavy loads but this was few and far between.

Permanent shops were also few and far between in the market. Most only set up their stalls on market days, a few times a month in the summer. At other times, festivals would fill the market with thousands of city dwellers. The rest of the time the field sat mostly empty. Today was not a market day and it was not a festival day so the market sat empty.

At last, you make it home. Your wife has made manoomin soup. It has summer squash from the garden. Flour made from bede [Apios Americana] thickens the broth. As you enjoy the meal, you entertain your wife and child with the story of the duck in winter that you heard from your grandfather when you were a child. They have heard it many times but enjoy hearing it told again. After dinner, you get ready for bed and fall asleep soon after.

Next time, we will discuss the elections and government of the Mishigami.

[1] Modified from: https://i.pinimg.com/736x/fd/6f/4e/...d82f0d2--american-indians-native-american.jpg
[2] Taken from: https://preview.redd.it/c61uo34xxt2...ed&s=f20d8dce3c1e3698d484760e3220bb75750e57c7 Actually a neighborhood in Cahokia
[3] They do not have pottery wheels yet. Or significant wheels of any kind for that matter.
[4] Taken from: https://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/pre/images/MB038_250.jpg
[5] Taken from: https://whbailey.weebly.com/uploads/1/5/7/3/15738528/header_images/1520559238.jpg
[6] Hanson Quarry, Fort Wayne, IN https://www.roadsideamerica.com/tip/54829
[7] Taken from: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/d9/ff/6c/d9ff6cc109f345bd84dacfcd9f8a8cc0.jpg

Long one today. I thought about breaking it up into multiple updates but I think it works better as a single, continuous story.

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Jul 31, 2023

Chapter 20: State Society

As cities grew larger, the government and organization of the cities and kingdoms grew more complex. Though they continued electing Sagamos and Ogimaa, who could vote was increasingly restricted.

Each city had a set of dibendaagozi, literally “members” but often translated as citizen. These were the descendants of the original inhabitants. They were the only people who could vote. It should be noted that both men and women could vote, so long as they were dibendaagozi. Even children were allowed to participate in elections, although their parents were expected to control them. The status of dibendaagozi was passed patrilineally, just like clan membership. In many places, dibendaagozi were marked with special tattoos only they were allowed to have.

Initially, the vast majority of people in cities were dibendaagozi but this changed over time. Freedmen, slaves, foreigners, immigrants from the countryside and their descendants made up a greater and greater proportion of the urban population. By the late classical period, no more than about 20% of the population were dibendaagozi.

Certain jobs could strip the status of dibendaagozi from a person. Prostitution, latrine cleaning and other ‘unclean’ jobs would remove a person’s ability to vote. However, their descendants and family would retain their vote. If a person changed jobs then they might be allowed to return to the status of dibendaagozi after a period of time and a ritual cleansing. If you sold yourself, your wife, or your children into slavery, however, you were stripped of that status permanently.

Crimes could remove the status of dibendaagozi as well. Depending on the seriousness of the offense, it might suspend the right to vote temporarily, forever, or even for your descendants. If, after a number of generations had passed and the ban was lifted, your descendants could petition for the status of dibendaagozi again.

Conversely, the status of dibendaagozi could be granted. The Sagamos could decree any person a dibendaagozi at any time. If a person who was not a dibendaagozi was initiated as a zhimaaganish warrior they became a dibendaagozi. Both of these were rare events but they did happen. When they did, their descendants would retain their status. There is a story from Mishawaka of a Sagamos granting dozens of people the status of dibendaagozi in order to influence the results of an election. The strategy did change the election but it also resulted in the Sagamos being forced out of office.

Each kanata or neighborhood elected their own Ogimaa. When an Ogimaa died or resigned, an election would be held. The election, called biinjwebinigewi, was a time of danger and opportunity. The ceremony itself was held in the courtyard of the kanata. There were no voting booths or secret ballots. All of the dibendaagozi of the kanata gathered together. They cheered for the candidates they supported and stayed silent for the people they did not support. The election was over when there were cheers for only one candidate. This is called election by acclimation.

A biinjwebinigewi election[1]

What were the qualifications to put your name forth? It’s simple really. You had to be a dibendaagozi of that kanata. There were no other requirements. Theoretically, anyone eligible to vote in the election could run. Usually, of course, the son of the previous Ogimaa was the only candidate. Other members of the ruling endaad, or sub-clan, might also run but this was not guaranteed. Dark horse candidates, unconnected to the previous Ogimaa, could and did win, although it was rare. And whoever won could hold the post for the rest of their life.

Many times, the elections were uncontested. But no matter who or how many were running, a lot of wealth was required to win an election. During the election, huge parties were held in the courtyard. In these parties, gifts, food and alcohol were handed out to the dibendaagoozi. If the election was uncontested, the party was more perfunctory. But it was all paid for by the candidates. The parties showed the wealth and power of a candidate. There are many stories where a candidate, assured of winning, was miserly and did not bother to fund the party. Then, during the election, they were challenged by a popular upstart and lost.

If there were multiple candidates, then the candidates would compete with each other on the size of their election party. They gave out magnificent gifts, prepared expensive food and drink, made promises of future policies, and even married in exchange for votes. There is one inscription which describes a candidate from Munising hiring prostitutes to sleep with voters. But it is said in such a way to make it clear that this was rare and considered unsavory. More commonly, gangs supporting one candidate or the other would roam the streets getting into fights. Wars even started over the breaking of election promises. A contested biinjwebinigewi election was a huge party where at any moment, violence could break out.

If no consensus was reached on the first attempt then the candidates would attempt to outperform each other in a variety of areas. Speeches were common, just as they are today. They even had debates, of a sort. Anyone from the crowd could ask a question of the candidates and the candidates would be required to answer to the best of their ability. This was more important in the election of a Mide, where knowledge of the aadizookaan (holy books) was critical.

Candidates might also perform feats of strength. Picking up large objects or running a circuit could be used to demonstrate the physical ability of the candidate. Ritualistic (non-fatal) duels between candidates or their supporters might even take place.[2] We might find such actions strange during an election but these acts allowed the populace to see who was blessed by Manidoo. Having the blessing of Manidoo was a sure sign that one was worthy of being an Ogimaa, Mide, or Sagamos.

The official charged with running the election was called the agindaaso or counter. They would ensure that violence and public drunkenness was not excessive during an election. They did this by hiring or being loaned zhimaaganish warriors to act as security.

The agindaaso would also listen for the cheers and certify the winning candidate using an oshtigwaanens, literally “little head” but meaning a stamp. Stamps were made from ceramic and carved with small symbols, usually the head of a doodem animal, in negative relief. When pressed into wet clay or filled with ink and put on birch bark paper, they would leave an identifiable mark. They functioned like signatures for the bureaucracy and nobility of the city. Each Ogimaa, Sagamos, Mide, and city official had an oshtigwaanens as a symbol of their office.

Oshtigwaanens stamp depicting a wapiti elk[3]

The agindaaso was expected to take their job very seriously. While everyone else in an election could be and often were inebriated, they were required to remain completely sober. They also could not accept gifts. Unlike other officials, the agindaaso was not appointed and dismissed by the Sagamos at will but rather appointed for a set amount of time, generally one year. Some histories even use the name of the agindaaso to differentiate the year. For example, a year might be called “the year that Bizaan of the elk clan was agindaaso” or something similar.

Failing to administer the election correctly or perpetrating deliberate fraud were not just legal violations but blasphemy. The penalty for such actions could be severe. An agindaaso from Cuyahoga pretended not to hear cheers and certified an Ogimaa who did not have unanimous consent. For his crime, he was torn limb from limb by the crowd, including by many who had cheered for the winning Ogimaa. More commonly, a cheating agindaaso would be stripped of their office or exiled.

The elections for Mide were notoriously rowdy and sloppy affairs because they included every dibendaagoozi of every priestly clan in the city. Rich men had a greater advantage in these larger elections because the cost of gifts and parties was so much higher. Conversely, the crowds were larger (and often drunker) and therefore they were more easily persuaded by populists and naysayers.

The election of a new Sagamos was not open to the public. Only the Ogimaa could attend. This was done to ensure that charismatic Ogimaa would not use the crowds to force the election result they wanted. Even so, the election of a new Sagamos was considerably more likely to devolve into violence. At least, this was true in cities where the Sagamos was more powerful than the city clans.

As cities grew in size and sophistication so did the government. Bureaucrats other than the Sagamos, Mide and a small group of Ogimaa were needed for administration. We have already mentioned the agindaaso. They were a part of the small group of nobles chosen by the Sagamos for certain jobs. This group was called the okwabiwag, or sitting group. Many had no formal position but were supposed to advise the Sagamos on various matters. As we have already discussed, the position of Agoiander among the Ongweh’onweh was similar to prime minister and was reserved for women. No equivalent position existed among the Menominee. However, in cities with powerful clans the Sagamos effectively acted like a Prime Minister who could be deposed by a majority of Ogimaa.

There were many other bureaucrats used by various cities. They included judges empowered to speak for Sagamos in minor disputes or in certain areas, priests in charge of granaries, and many other minor functionaries. Last time, we followed the day of one such minor functionary in charge of keeping the drains of the city clean.

Despite the view of many modern people that cities in the past were filthy and crime ridden, the reality was very different. The Sagamos and Ogimaa were expected to use slaves to clean the drains and sweep the streets. Cities in the Mishigami were small enough, interconnected enough, and interdependent enough that social ostracization and shame was an effective deterrent for most crimes. Only serious offenses would need to be punished by an Ogimaa or Sagamos. If you were put in front of a Sagamos or Ogimaa, punishments could be severe.

Regular people paid their taxes in the form of labor, food, and textiles to their Ogimaa. The Ogimaa would then pay any communal taxes to the Mide and Sagamos. This system allowed many Ogimaa to embezzle money and accumulate wealth. This was resented by many dibendaagoozi and might result in their sons loosing the next election. Of course, this was so removed from the graft that it was often not an effective deterrent. There was no mechanism, other than shame and threats, to force the resignation of a venal and ineffective Ogimaa. Other than death, of course, but that was rare.

The average person would rarely interact with government officials. When they did, it was usually no more than a minor functionary or their neighborhood Ogimaa.

Next time, we will discuss the proliferation of maize and its effects on the mishigami and beyond.

[1] Taken from: https://www.hurstwic.org/history/articles/society/pix/logretta_model.jpg actually a Norse thing assembly
[2] I think this is how modern elections should be done. A boring debate on the issues? No, Joe Biden and Donald Trump mud wrestling to determine who is favored by the gods. That would be much more dignified.
[3] Taken from: https://sadigh.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/7/5/12751077/5611783_orig.jpg Actually an ancient Persian seal depicting a stag

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Aug 7, 2023

Chapter 21: The Wonder Berry

By the time the classical period began, maize had spread to the Mishigami. Maize is more commonly called millet today. We will use the term “maize” to distinguish it from true millet, which is an old world crop. The menominee referred to it as mandaamin, or the “wonder berry”.

Maize is a tropical plant. This meant that it preferred to sprout in the winter because tropical areas are too hot to grow in the summer. It also means that its seeds would not sprout if the weather was even slightly cold. For obvious reasons, this made it difficult to grow in the Mishigami. When maize first entered the Mishigami, it was little more than a novelty. Too unreliable to be a staple, it was mainly grown by priests to make beer, if it was grown at all.

Maize varieties that could be grown in the Mishigami were developed in pre-classical times. They were insensitive to daylight hours, meaning they would sprout not long after planting, no matter what time of year that was. Types of maize that would sprout in colder weather were also bred. Further breeding would lead to the development of short season maize, which grows more rapidly but has a smaller yield. This was good, as the growing season in the Mishigami is much shorter than in tropical areas.

These varieties were bred and adopted by the Menominee slowly, over the course of hundreds of years. Most of the population of the Mishigami was subsistence farmers. To a subsistence farmer, a single failed crop could result in starvation. This makes them understandably reticent to change their agricultural practices. The first people to grow maize were the relatively rich and stable lowland manoomin farmers. They had the least to lose if the maize crop failed, as they had manoomin to fall back on. While they were the earliest adopters, they would not be the ones most affected by the adoption of maize.

An Anishinaabe woman milling maize[1]

For upland areas where manoomin was difficult or impossible to grow, maize represented a huge increase in the potential food supply. Whereas previously they had relied on sunflowers and kiinwaa [pitted goosefoot] they would now focus on maize, which had a much higher yield. Throughout the classical period, we see larger and larger villages and cities further and further from the rivers, lakes, and marshes that manoomin requires. The number of longhouses stagnates, with much of the population of upland areas instead choosing to live in small single-family homes. The number of lone homesteads versus communal villages also increased.

The most important early advantage that maize had was how little work was necessary to grow it. Manoomin is a labor intensive crop. You must clear and level the bog fields[rice paddies], dig irrigation ditches, as well as plant, harvest, thresh, and winnow. By contrast, maize relies on natural rainfall and does not usually require irrigation. The cobs can be picked right off the stalk, meaning that sickles to cut the stalk and flails to knock off the seeds were less necessary.

However, unlike manoomin, maize required milling in order to be consumed in large quantities. While modern sweet maize can be cooked and consumed directly, the menominee grew and ate flint maize. This type had a hard outer shell as hard as flint. It also had more starch rather than sugar. This made it able to be stored indefinitely or shelf stable. It also meant that eating it basically required milling it into flour. The flour would then either be made into porridge or turned into dough and then flat bread. Some upland women milled for so long and so often that damage can be seen in the toe bones from kneeling over.

These changes meant that the use (and therefore the production) of sickles and flails declined while the use and production of mortars and pestles increased. Sickles were still used to cut hay and flails were used on other crops. The relative frequency of these tools is used by archeologists to date the spread of maize farming.

Maize also presents several problems. The first, most obvious and most serious problem is that maize is less nutritious than most other cereal grains. This means that eating only corn for long periods of time will lead a person to develop pellagra, a vitamin deficiency similar to scurvy.

This problem is solved with nixtamalization. Nixtamalization is the process of boiling the kernels in an alkaline solution to increase nutrition and soften the outer shell of the maize. Alkaline solutions are made by mixing ground up limestone, sea shells, or deciduous tree ash into water. This process will keep pellagra at bay. It was either independently discovered or learned from Meso-Minisia traders not long after maize was adopted on a wide scale.

Raw vs. nixtamalized maize[2]

Another problem maize presents is soil exhaustion. Maize requires many nutrients from the soil and consumes them quickly. If you plant it in the same field over and over, it will not take long for the the field to become infertile causing the crop to fail. Manoomin did not have as much of a problem with this because the irrigation canals would bring soil and nutrients in from outside. The fish and crayfish that swam in the rice bogs [paddies] also contributed nutrients in the form of their waste. The solutions to the problem of soil exhaustion were well known to the menominee even prior to the introduction of maize. Fertilizer made from human and animal feces, egg shells, fish bones, straw, and other organic compost was spread on the fields prior to planting. This helped extend the life of a field.

However, maize’s soil exhaustion problems would persist until a new innovation was introduced: the two field system. Rather than simply plant the same field over and over again, farmers would switch between planting two different fields. In the first year, maize would be planted in Field A while Field B was left fallow. Then, in the second year, maize would be planted in Field B while Field A was left fallow. And so on. This allowed one field to “rest” while the nutrients returned to the soil. It also meant that you needed twice as much land for the same amount of food.

A new technique, previously unseen in Meso-Minisia, would end up being the true solution to the problem of soil exhaustion. The Menominee began companion planting maize and bede [Apios Americana]. Maize has shallow roots while bede needs the space below ground to grow its tubers. Bede also uses the stalks of maize as a trellis to grown on. This also helps stabilize the maize stalks in high wind. Bede is a nitrogen fixer while maize gets its nitrogen from the soil. Some believe that bede grown with maize will taste better, though this has not been scientifically proven. In addition, the two foods are complimentary and form a complete protein. This means that no other food need be consumed in order to get all the nutrients necessary for human survival. The companion planting is mythologized as “Father Maize” and “Mother Bede” in Menominee mythology.

The combined yields of these two plants allowed for some of the most efficient agriculture ever on earth. Even using stone tools and less efficient planting techniques, the agriculture of Minisia was much more productive than Europe or Asia.

Different types of maize were distinguished by their color. Sweet, sugary maize used to make alcohol was bred to have purple kernels. Southern, long season varieties tended to be redder. Northern, short season varieties tended to be more yellow.

Different colors of maize[3]

Upland kingdoms that relied on maize were more unstable than lowland manoomin-growing kingdoms. Soil exhaustion remained a constant problem. While bede did not use nitrogen, they did use the other minerals in the soil. Excess or reckless planting led to soil erosion and crop failures. This led to periodic famines and civil wars.

All of this meant that lands beyond the Mishigami began to rise in population and form large cities and kingdoms of their own. Ziibiing, the land of rivers, was truly born at this time.

Next time, we will discuss the building of the pyramids, mounds, and ziggurats of the Mishigami and Ziibiing. But first a supplemental on the other Meso-Minisian plants that were adopted in the Mishigami and Ziibiing as well as the southern plants that were being domesticated.

[1] Taken from: https://i.ebayimg.com/images/g/MFsAAOSwc4Fjseaj/s-l1600.jpg
[2] Taken from: https://www.mexicanist.com/content/images/2021/10/Nixtamalization.jpg
[3] Taken from: https://pfp.crowcanyon.org/images/directional_corn.jpg

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PeterEzgo · Aug 10, 2023

Supplemental: The Children of the Corn

Maize was not the only Meso-Minisian plant to arrive in Eastern Minisia before and during the classical period. Other plants also made their mark.

The most important early foreign plant to arrive in the Mishigami was tobacco. The stimulant proved very popular wherever it was introduced. It took its place beside sage, cedar, and sweet grass as a sacred medicine among the Menominee. Tobacco was also used as a pesticide. Its smoke was used to repel zagimeg [mosquitoes]. At other times, tobacco was boiled in water and then the water was painted onto rare plants to keep bugs from eating them.

Common Beans began appearing in the Mishigami and Ziibiing not long after the proliferation of maize. They were used as nitrogen fixers, alongside bede and hairy beans [fuzzy beans]. The use of hairy beans declined at this time, for the rather straightforward reason that common beans taste better.

Varieties of Meso-Minisian squash also made their first appearance at this time. They were less important because they were not that different from the existing Mishigami squashes.

Cotton entered the Minisian southeast, shortly after maize. Compared to linen, cotton was both easier to produce and made a better product. Its fibers were thicker and warmer for the bitter winter cold while remaining breathable in the summer heat. It could only be grown reliably in south, however, so the Mishigami remained dependent on linen and furs. Over time, it became a cash crop for southern elites. They would grow it and then export the raw cotton fibers north to the Mishigami for huge economic gains. More and more cotton clothing was used by the Menominee and the people further south.

Aji [peppers] came north along the trade routes by the middle of the classical period. While today they are best known for their spicy favor, they were also useful as a preservative to the menominee. Capsicum, the same chemical in peppers that causes them to taste spicy, kills bacteria and inhibits their growth.

Tomatoes spread north during the late classical period. Unlike modern day varieties these were small, barely larger than cherries. They were garden plants and were often used to make sauces.

These plants helped to transform the Ziibiing. It slowly became more populated and agricultural. As it did so, its people began domesticating plants of their own.

The bow wood bush [Osage orange or Maclura pomifera] began to be grown commercially for weapon production. It was also used as a hedge to define property lines. Its fruit was used a food source during famines.

Freshwater mussels were farmed for their meat and pearls. Iniki [Florence/Muscle Shoals, AL] became famous for their pearls. As we have already discussed, the shells of freshwater mussels were used to temper pottery.

Near the Gulf of Chitti [Gulf of Mexico], yaupon holly trees were used to make a caffeinated tea drink called Assi. Assi tea is drunk by priests in religious ceremonies, by elites during celebrations, and by warriors before battle. The leaves used to make the tea are a valuable trade commodity and luxury good. Yaupon holly was not domesticated but groves of trees were carefully cultivated as cash crops. They are closely related to the yerba mate, which was used in South America much the same way. There is evidence of elite consumption of Assi tea as far north as Hoshalaga [Montreal, QC].

Drinking Assi Tea[1]

Koha [Cane or Arundinaria Gigantea] is a relative of bamboo. It was used in much the same way. That is to make weapons and tools, including arrow shafts, fishing poles, fish nets, baskets, flutes, furniture, boats, candles, mats, blowguns, and pipe stems. It is an effective building material for houses. As mowin syllabics spread south, koha replaced birch bark as the most common writing material. It flowers irregularly and its flowers were considered as a symbol of death due to their tendency to flower during droughts.

Muscadine grapes were used to make raisons, jams, and wine. They generally tasted better than the musky frost grapes grown further north.

Manoomin and other Mishigami plants began moving south at this time as well. Manoomin naturally requires a certain number days in cold water before it will sprout. This is called vernalization. This was bred out over time. While it never made a particularly good tropical plant, it was used in sub-tropical regions like the Ziibiing. Heat tolerant types reached the Tanasi Valley [Tennessee Valley] by 1 CE, the Kusa Valley [Coosa River Valley, AL] by 100 CE, and the swamps of Chitti [Lousiana and the Mississippi River delta] by 250 CE.

Meso-Minisia was not unaffected by this trade either. Companion planting of bede and maize proved just as effective there as it was further north.

Next time we will discuss the mounds, pyramids, and ziggurats of the Mishigami and Ziibiing.

[1] Taken from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Lemoy011.jpg/640px-Lemoy011.jpg

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PeterEzgo · Aug 14, 2023

Chapter 22: The Mound Builders

Pyramidal architecture has independently arisen in civilizations all over the world. Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Rome, Meso-Minisia, and many other civilizations all built some type of large mound, ziggurat, or pyramid.

Why did so many different people from all over the world hit upon the idea to build pyramid shaped buildings? Cranks and conspiracy theorists will tell you that aliens built them or some other bit of nonsense. In reality, a pyramidal shape is simply the most efficient way to build something big and tall with the least amount of effort and expertise required. And people build big and tall things because big and tall things are impressive to look at. No aliens required.

Furthermore, it should be remembered that all of things we classify as pyramids are actually many different types of buildings. They were the outgrowth of different intellectual and architectural traditions. They used different construction techniques and architectural styles. They all converged on a rectangular base and triangular sides due to the simplicity and efficiency of construction. Not necessarily because they considered it more beautiful or meaningful.

Types of Pyramids from around the world[1]

The Anishinaabe word for the mounds, pyramids, and ziggurats of the Mishigami is wajiw, which literally means “mountain”. To differentiate them from natural mountains, they are sometimes referred to as minwaabikizi wajiw, which means something like “a good mineral or stone mountain” or more poetically “a mountain as good as gold”.

The building of wajiw is a very old tradition in the Mishigami. From the very first large scale communities and even before, people piled up earth to create large earthen mounds. During the pre-classical and classical periods, there were tens of thousands of wajiw built all over the Mishigami and Ziibiing. Large cities had dozens or even hundreds of them. Milliokee and Miyamee each had over 300 wajiw built in and around their citadels, though not all of them were occupied simultaneously.

Early archeologists assumed that wajiw were first built as a way to get rid of the excess dirt from building irrigation canals. Today we know this is false. Wajiw creation predates irrigation ditches by centuries. There are sites that never had rice bogs [paddies] but did have wajiw. There are even menominee sites with large depressions in the ground from digging up dirt for the wajiw that do not having any irrigation ditches at all.

Another theory is that wajiw grew from long term occupation of the same site. As the old longhouse decayed, it was ritually burned and buried beneath sediment. Over time, the mound the longhouse was built atop grew larger and larger. Natural debris and soil deposits would help this along. This theory is plausible for early wajiw but does not explain later wajiw and the largest types of wajiw.

The most likely explanation is simply that wajiw are cool. Once some people started building them, others were impressed enough to imitate them. The idea spread and spread until wajiw became the primary way that excess labor was used. The more people you had and the more labor they used the bigger and more impressive your wajiw would be. It was a way of showing off your wealth.

Platform Mound[2]

But it was not just a competition of size. Today, many wajiw look weathered, broken down, and dully colored. When they were first built, they would have gleamed. They were painted in bright (modern people might even say tacky) colors. They depicted mythological scenes of great beauty and significance. They were not mere piles of dirt but shining hills from which the nobility and royalty ruled.

Unlike Egyptian pyramids, wajiw were not (primarily) burial tombs. They were places for the royalty, nobility and clergy to live. Burials in wajiw did happen but people generally continued living on top of the grave. It was considered a mark of honor to be buried in a wajiw. It was also considered good luck to live atop the graves of your ancestors as their spirits could continue to guide you even after death.

The construction of a wajiw was planned by experts. Important wajiw were designed by the Mide of the settlement but any literate priest could use mathematical formulas from the various aadizookaan (holy books) as a guide to build a wajiw. Many aadizookaan spend pages detailing the best way to plan and build a wajiw. They detail the amount and types of dirt, stone, and labor necessary for different types of constructions.

Slaves were sometimes used for the physical labor of creating a wajiw but most were built by free men who were handsomely rewarded for their service. For most, it was a great privilege to be chosen to work on a wajiw. If the wajiw was being constructed by an Ogimaa or Sagamos, they might have their taxes forgiven rather than being paid directly. Only master craftsmen would expect to pay their taxes this way. Some doodem paid their entire annual tax debt just by constructing one piece of a wajiw.

The typical wajiw began as a simple rectangular earthen mound. The sides would be sloped and covered in mud bricks. Most wajiw of were between twenty and thirty feet tall. The wajiw of the Sagamos or Mide was usually over one hundred feet tall.

Typical wajiw[3]

Temple wajiw had a large, steep staircase would be built in the front which was used for ceremonial processions. Steps were often carved and painted to resemble the mythology of the god the temple honored. A more practical, and less steep, switchback staircase was built on the side or back to allow for a safer ascent and descent.

On the top of wajiw, huge palaces and temple complexes were built. They retained the look of a longhouse while being far more opulent. They were longer, taller, and wider than a typical longhouse. The most expensive were made of limestone or marble. Even the least rich whitewashed the top building so that it would shine in the sunlight.

During the classical period, the largest wajiw were in Milliokee [Milwuakee, WI], Miyamee [Detoit, MI], Kiskis [Memphis, TN], and Hoshalaga [Montreal, QC]. Each one was in excess of two hundred and fifty feet tall, if you add the height of the building on top. They were the living quarters for the most powerful Sagamos of the Mishigami and Ziibiing.

Other wajiw were not as tall but instead shaped into massive animal effigies. The falcon barrow in Cahokia [East St. Louis, IL] is over 1300 feet from wingtip to wingtip and the tallest section of it is over a hundred feet tall. The horned serpent wajiw in Chalakatha [Chillicothe, OH] s over a mile long, though fairly narrow. Its head is a more typical wajiw that is almost two hundred feet tall. The thunderbird wajiw in Taykopera [Madison, WI] is more compact (slightly less than a thousand feet from wingtip to wingtip) but its chest rises to a height of 225 feet.

Most wajiw were not built once and then never added to. Instead, each generation sought to make their wajiw bigger, grander, and more opulent. They made it taller by adding another layer. They built another building on top or extended an existing one. They expanded the base. There are many wajiw that sit half finished or collapsed due to inadequate funding by overambitious heirs trying to outdo their ancestors.

The idea that the nobility would live atop wajiw was so ingrained in Anishinaabe culture that the word for the aristocracy was agidajiw meaning literally “on top of the mountain”. It probably began as a word for the houses that were on top of wajiw before being transferred to refer to the inhabitants. We will discuss the lives of the agidajiw in detail at another time.

Next time, we will discuss the settlements and peoples of the Ohiyo river valley.

[1] Taken from: https://atlantisjavasea.files.wordpress.com/2019/05/pyramid-building.png
[2] Modified from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe...ippian_culture_mound_components_HRoe_2011.jpg
[3] Taken from: https://www.legendsofamerica.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/MississippiMound.jpg

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PeterEzgo · Aug 21, 2023

Chapter 23: The Beautiful River

The Ohiyo River Valley, called the Ohiyoong [Ohio and Western Pennsylvania along the Ohio] in Anishinaabe, was one of the most fertile and densely populated regions outside of the Mishigami during the classical period. It was one of the first places in Eastern Minisia outside of the Mishigami to adopt an agricultural and sedentary lifestyle. As maize and manoomin spread, the Ohiyoong became as highly populated and important as any region of the Mishigami.

During the classical period, the Ohiyoong was filled with city-states and petty kingdoms vying for control. The two most important and powerful of these states were Chalakatha [Chillicothe, OH] and Nepernine [Cincinnati, OH]. At times, Cuyahoga [Cleveland, OH], who we have already discussed, also attempted to build an empire. None of them were able to do so for more than a generation or so.

The city of Chalakatha did manage to build two things that lasted centuries: the Horned Serpent Mound (Mishi-Ginebig Wajiw) and the Great Road (Mishi Miikana). The Horned Serpent Mound was built and modified over decades and centuries. The Great Road was built in less than a decade. Its story goes something like this:

Sometime between 1 CE and 200 CE, the Sagamos of Chalakatha, named Skenandoa, ascended to the throne. He was a military genius. Over the course of ten years of fighting, he defeated the other city-states of the Ohiyo valley and forced them to send tribute to Chilakatha. Once his realm was at peace, Skenandoa decided to build a road to unite his empire. Each city that sent him tribute was forced to provide labor to build the road. They would each build the sections of the Great Road closest to their settlements.

The Great Road cut across the landscape and crossed various rivers at natural fords. It also utilized bridges specially designed and built by the master architects of Chalakatha. The Great Road was paved with stone between major cities but paved with logs in the quieter stretches. It ran from Ishpesiwa [Akron, OH] to Nepernine [Cincinnati, OH].

Not long after Skenandoa’s death, his empire collapsed. The Great Road continued to be used. Even though they were no longer required to, those cities that had formerly been under his control continued to maintain the road because it had proven such a boom for trade.

Let’s discuss each of the major city-states of the Ohiyoong in turn:

Ohiyoong, with north at the top this time

Name: Shanoppin

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Bine (“Turkey”)

Type: City-State

Shanoppin [Pittsburgh, PN] lies at the confluence of three rivers: the Ohiyo, Allegheny, and Monongahela. It is the eastern most city of the Ohiyoong and has long been the most culturally distinct. It had a reputation for being “half-barbarian” and filled with hill people. It was rare that it was ever brought under the control of an outside power and it had an independent streak. If you asked its inhabitants, they would probably say they were not part of the Ohiyoong.

Name: Ishpesiwa (“High Ground”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Gekek (“Hawk”)

Type: City-State

Ishpesiwa [Akron, OH] is the northernmost city of the Ohiyoong. It is often counted with the cities of Lake Wabishigami [Lake Eire]. In truth, it had a foot in both camps. As often as not it was a tributary of the city of Cuyahoga [Cleveland, OH]. I have chosen to count it as part of the Ohiyoong mostly because it is the head of the Mishi Miikana or Great Road.

Its name means high ground, a common name for a city. It grew around the falls of the Cuyahoga River and the resulting portage that was created.

Name: Chalakatha (“Principal Town”)

Population: Large

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Waawaashkeshi (“deer”)

Type: City-State and sometimes Kingdom

Chalakatha [Chillicothe, OH] was the most powerful city of the Ohiyoong. It controlled the Scioto River Valley all the way to the Ohiyo. This was one of the most fertile and productive areas of the Ohiyoong.

At various times Chalakatha was able to build a large kingdom but these attempts never led to lasting dominance. This was due in part because Chalakatha and Nepernine often undermined each other’s attempts at empire building. Instead it would be the building of the Mishi Miikana that would cement Chalakatha’s status as a great city in the Ohiyoong. As the Mishi Miikana, or Great Road, ran through Chalakatha it greatly increased the trade flowing through the city at the expense of Pikwa.

Name: Pikwa

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Waawaashkeshiweshkan (‘deer antler’)

Type: City-State

Pikwa [Columbus, OH] was the other major city of the Skenandoa River Valley, located on the north side of the valley as far away from Chalakatha as possible. After the building of the Great Road, trade moved further south to Chalakatha. As often as not, it was a tributary of Chalakatha.

Name: Msimi

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Gidagaakoons (“fawn”)

Type: City-State

Msimi [Dayton, OH] was a minor city upriver from Nepernine. It was usually a tributary of Nepernine. There were a few attempts to build a canal that connected Nepernine to Cuyahoga [Cleveland, OH] via Msimi but they always ended in disaster.

Name: Nepernine

Population: Large

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Ayaabe (“buck or male deer”)

Type: City-State and sometimes Kingdom

Nepernine [Cincinnati, OH] is located at the confluence of the Nepernine [Licking River] and Ohiyo Rivers. It was able to control the salt trade of the Ohiyoong due to the many saline springs in the area. It had a powerful riverine navy and controlled much of the trade on the Ohiyo River. It was also the terminus for the Mishi Miikana or Great Road.

Like Chalakatha, its attempts to build an empire for itself had been repeatedly frustrated. Nepernine attempted to emulate the achievement of the Mishi Miikana by building a canal from Nepernine to Cuyahoga [Cleveland, OH] but this repeatedly ended in expensive failure.

The only remaining region of the Middle West which we have yet to discuss is the Wabashaang [Indiana more or less] which is the region around the Wabash River. We will discuss the rise of the Shawnee and all that accompanies it when it happens chronologically, rather than discussing it here. Let’s get straight to discussing the city-states individually:

Wabashaang, also with north at the top

Name: Ishpadinaa (“High Point”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Giiwosewasim (“hunting dog”)

Type: City-State and sometimes Kingdom

Ishpadinaa [Terra Haute, IN] was the largest and most powerful city of the Wabashaang. It was also the only city in the Wabashaang actually located along the Wabash. It was never able to build a lasting empire but it often had great influence on the other city-states of the region.

Ishpadinaa was often derisively referred to as Ikwekala (the woman city) because the wives and mothers of the Sagamos tended to dominate its politics. It was whispered that they controlled the nobility through the use of poison, though this has never been proven.

Name: Wapeksippu

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Waagoshiinh (“fox”)

Type: City-State

Wapeksippu [Indianapolis, IN] was located along the Wapahani (“white sands”) River, a tributary of the Wabash. The Wapahani River is not easily navigable, which limited the growth of the city but also protected it from threats (especially from Ishpadinaa). For the moment, it was a minor city-state dominated by its more powerful neighbors.

Name: Opihale

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Misko-Bineshiinh (“Cardinal”)

Type: City-State

Opihale [Louisville, KY] is located on the Ohiyo River but is often considered part of the Wabashaang, just like Kansee. It has more similarities, culturally to the Wabashaang than to the Ohiyoong or Biinjijwanong [Southern IL, eastern MO].

It controlled the falls of the Ohiyo, a series of rapids that made river navigation difficult. The city charged a toll for skilled men to steer boats through the troubled waters. The falls of the Ohiyo also encouraged merchants to stop in the city. The resulting trade helped to make the city strong.

Name: Kansee

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian

Ruling Doodem: Zhiishiib (“Duck”)

Type: City-State

Kansee [Evansville, IN] is located on the Ohiyo River but usually considered part of Wabashaang, much like Opihale. It is on an oxbow of the Ohio River, which is where the river bends like a “U”, slowing the current. This gives the city a distinct crescent shape and encouraged trade while increasing the fertility of the land. It had a powerful riverine navy and controlled trade along a large section of the Ohiyo.

Next time, we will discuss the life of a zhimaaganish warrior. But first, a supplemental on the hero twins of Midewiwin legend.

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Aug 21, 2023

Tales from the Aadizookaan: The Hero Twins

Manidoo knows the future. He knows the good that will happen. He knows the bad that will happen. And he takes steps to ensure the future, good and bad, will happen as it is supposed to.

One thing he did to ensure the future would enfold as it should was to create Flint and Red Horn. He did this by seducing and impregnating Giizhigo-ikwe, the sky woman.

Manidoo seduced Giizhigo-ikwe by transforming into a beautiful heron. His mournful cries attracted Giizhigo-ikwe, who asked him what was wrong. In answer, Manidoo-as-the-heron danced a mating dance. Giizhigo-ikwe came to understand that Manidoo-as-the-heron had lost his lady love. Feeling sorry for the heron, Giizhigo-ikwe lay with Manidoo-as-the-heron. In this union, the twins Flint and Red Horn were conceived.

In the womb, Flint and Red Horn were conscious. Red Horn waited patiently for his birth but Flint chafed at confines of Giizhigo-ikwe’s womb. Red Horn tried to reassure him. Giizhigo-ikwe prayed to Manidoo to keep her tumultuous children in her womb until they were ready to be born. She still believed they were the children of the heron.

As Giizhigo-ikwe’s belly swelled with pregnancy, her mother Bagidanaamowin-noodin, Breath of the Wind, became angry. Giizhigo-ikwe should have remained a virgin. When Giizhigo-ikwe told her the story of the heron, Bagidanaamowin-noodin did not believe her. “If you lay with a heron, you should be laying eggs, not swelling in the belly,” Bagidanaamowin-noodin said.

That night, as Giizhigo-ikwe slept, Bagidanaamowin-noodin opened a hole in the sky all around the bed. When Giizhigo-ikwe woke the next morning and tried to place her feet on the sky-as-floor, she fell to earth.

The fall and the impact with the earth was enough for Flint. He fashioned a sharp flint knife from the water of the womb. Then he cut his way out of his mother’s womb, killing Giizhigo-ikwe. Thus were the great heroes Flint and Red Horn born. Thus was Sky Woman killed.

Effigy pipe made to resemble Red Horn, with human heads for earrings[1]

Flint is associated with winter, night, and death. He is the evening star. He is the one who brings chaos and destruction to the universe. He carries a flint knife with him always. Owls, a symbol of death, are his servants. He keeps a flock of them always nearby to be at his beck and call.

Red Horn is associated with summer, day, and life. He is the morning star. He is the one who brings order and stability to the universe. He wears human heads for earrings, showing his prowess in war. Falcons, a symbol of order, are his servants. He keeps a flock of them always nearby to be at his beck and call.

After they were born, Bagidanaamowin-noodin came to them. She was greatly sad due to the death of her daughter. At first, she thought the fall had killed Sky Woman, which she had not meant to do. She was overjoyed when she saw Flint and Red Horn, her grandchildren, alive and well beside the body of their mother. But when she saw that the womb was cut open from the inside, she demanded to know which of the twins had been so impatient as to kill Sky Woman rather than wait to be born.

Flint stated that Red Horn was responsible but Red Horn showed that Flint still had the knife that had done the deed. At this, Flint fled. Bagidanaamowin-noodin raged and raged but could not catch him.

Both Red Horn and Flint would go on to have many more adventures. Red Horn would marry an orphan girl, defeat giants in a game of chunkey and more. He fulfills the role of the classic strong and powerful hero, not too dissimilar to Hercules or Sampson.

Flint, in his adventures, would frequently bring death and destruction to people but he also brought rebirth and change. He is often likened to creative destruction. He fulfills the role of the naïve and destructive villain.

It should be noted that the Anishinaabe were aware that the morning star (which represents Red Horn) and the evening star (which represents Flint) are one and the same. For those unaware, the morning and evening star is the planet Venus. The twins were always associated with each other, though they were opposites in every way. We may talk of some of their stories later.

Next time, we discuss the life of a zhimaaganish warrior.

[1] Taken from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe...g/200px-Spiro_Big_Boy_effigy_pipe_HRoe_02.jpg

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Aug 28, 2023

Chapter 24: The Way of the Warrior

“I walk the warpath,”- common saying among Zhimaaganish warriors

The zhimaaganish warrior was a central part of the society of the Mishigami and Ziibiing during the classical period. The functioning of the warrior aristocracy determined historical events and shaped history.

In generally, the position of zhimaaganish was more meritocratic than most positions in Menominee society. While most zhimaaganish were the sons of zhimaaganish, you had to have physical strength and fighting skill to be a zhimaaganish warrior. If you did not, you could not join their ranks, no matter who your father was. Conversely, if you had sufficient physical strength and fighting skill, then you could become a zhimaaganish warrior no matter who father was. This was true theoretically, at least.

A series of physical tests and mental challenges were used to evaluate anyone who wanted to become a zhimaaganish warrior. If, in the judgment of the current zhimaaganish warriors, you passed, you became a zhimaaganish. If you didn’t, you weren’t. In reality, the sons of zhimaaganish had many advantages. They were trained from an early age to pass the tests and were often treated favorably by the evaluators. It was looked down upon to pass the sons of fellow zhimaaganish who could not complete the challenges but it still happened. Such legacy children were often resented if they could not pull their weight. On the flip side, an outsider generally had to greatly outperform their peers to be accepted. If an outsider was accepted, they became not only a zhimaaganish warrior they also became a dibendaagozi who could vote. A woman becoming a zhimaaganish was very rare, but not impossible.

Once accepted, you would need to perform a ceremony to become a zhimaaganish. You would ritually pierce your palms. This represented the pain and sacrifice you would go through as a zhimaaganish. This blood would then be collected and mixed with the blood of the other zhimaaganish on an altar to the city’s patron Ojichaag (aspect of Manidoo). This represented your commitment to the community and each other.

After that, all of your hair would be plucked out except a single strip in the center. This could be grown out and the back was often turned into a pony tail but the rest would have to be plucked periodically. This ensured that if you were scalped your soul would not be enslaved in the afterlife.

Zhimaaganish Warriors[1]

A zhimaaganish warrior was said to “walk the warpath”, meaning to live the life of a warrior every day in every action. They were paid in manoomin so that they did not have to take time to farm. They were expected to train every day. Since they were well fed and were their training was unsupervised, some zhimaaganish took advantage of this. The fat and lazy zhimaaganish is a negative stereotype in Menominee tales. It is used to show a person or city has decayed and become decadent.

Zhimaaganish went on every military campaign. They were the scouts, the commanders, and the ones who did the most dangerous jobs. They were expected to be brave, loyal, and ruthless. They ate at the table with the Ogimaa and Sagamos. They guarded them and kept them safe.

Most zhimaaganish preferred to use a ball club or bagamaagan. It was simple and effective. Other clubs were also widely used. Copper swords and armor were for rich men. Bows and arrows were also used but they were generally seen as weapons for hunters, not warriors. Whatever weapons they used, they were expected to be skilled at their use and to be able to use them to deadly effect.

When going into battle, zhimaaganish warriors wore face and body paint to intimidate their enemies. Individuals used special war cries that were instantly identifiable. Commanders and those who guarded the Sagamos in battle had tattoos and body piercings that marked their special status. Some even used hallucinogenic mushrooms to enter a state of fearless rage before battle, though this was rare.

Commanders would be expected to make or buy their own armor in order for other zhimaaganish to know who they were during battle. If a warrior was particularly brave, they might be given a bear skin cloak by the Sagamos. This was an honor that was given only to the bravest and most important zhimaaganish. Wearing a bear skin cloak without having earned it was simply not done.

A zhimaaganish was expected to abide by an honor code and system of vendetta called aazhida, literally meaning “to go back to the way things were”. It is similar to but distinct from western concepts such as chivalry or the bushido code in Japan. Like those concepts, later histories have mythologized the concept of aazhida. In reality, the conduct that is aspired to in aazhida was often ignored in favor of more practical or unsavory methods.

With aazhida, a zhimaaganish was held to a higher standard than other men. Loosing face or doing something shameful might require suicide in a zhimaaganish while a normal man would merely be fined or imprisoned. On the other hand, a zhimaaganish warrior had the right to duel his accuser rather than simply accepting the justice of a Sagamos. The winner of a duel was clearly favored by Manidoo and therefore in the right, whatever the evidence.

A zhimaaganish who died a shameful death was said to transform into a baykok. A baykok was a spirit that haunted old battlegrounds. They appeared as emaciated warriors or skeletons with glowing red eyes, wearing tattered clothing. It would make itself invisible and fly through the air, its piercing cry alerting everyone to its presence. A zhimaaganish warrior who shamed himself or others or otherwise broke the rules of aazhida could expect to become a baykok in the afterlife.

Death of a Zhimaaganish Warrior[2]

If a zhimaaganish was exiled or the community he served was destroyed, he was expected to wander the countryside and find a new patron. He would be called a babaa-ayaa zhimaaganish or literally “wandering warrior”. Like a knight errant in Western Europe or Ronin in Japan, a wandering zhimaaganish was romanticized. In legends, they would go from town to town, have adventures, and help the downtrodden. In reality, they were little more than mercenaries and often turned to banditry.

There were other warriors, of course. Not everyone who fought was a zhimaaganish. Most of the soldiers in a battle were levies that spent most of their time farming or doing the small but important jobs of a city dweller. The zhimaaganish were expected to lead, to always be ready for battle, and to be the best at it. They were not expected to do all the fighting all the time.

Next time, we will discuss the Tunica Empire of the Middle Mishi Valley.

[1] Taken from: https://www.dinna-fash-sassenach.com/en/mohawks.html
[2] Taken from: https://anishinaabeperspectives.weebly.com/blog/previous/2

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Sep 4, 2023

Chapter 25: Empire of the Sun

As maize moved north and manoomin moved south, new city-states, kingdoms, and empires began to arise in the Ziibiing. The most powerful of these was the Tunica Empire, centered on the city of Kiskis [Memphis, TN], which dominated the Middle Mishi Valley.

At its height in the 4th century AD, the city of Kiskis had a population of around 100,000, which would have made it the largest city in Minisia and one of the largest cities on earth. It controlled an empire stretching from Padukah [Paducah, KY] and Sipiwe [Cairo, IL] in the north to Yazu [Vicksburg, MS] in the south and from Senyi [Little Rock, AR] in the west to Iniki [Florence/Muscle Shoals, AL] in the east. It controlled the lower Tanasi River [Tennessee River], the middle Mishi River [Mississippi River], lower Ohiyo River [Ohio River], the Yazu River [Yazoo River], and the lower Kayas River [Arkansas River].

Map of the Tunica Empire

The rich earth on both sides of the Mishi River provided the abundant harvests that Kiskis would leverage into a large empire. On the west bank of the Mishi, the land was suitable for manoomin but required extensive irrigation canals. On the east bank, maize was grown. This mix of different staple foods ensured that Kiskis rarely suffered famine.

The city of Kiskis was situated on a bluff of the Mishi. It was surrounded on two sides by the river. The city’s inhabitants added a palisade on the third side to protect themselves. In time, Kiskis would no longer have any need for a palisade. They had grown too powerful to be threatened by the other powers of the Middle Ziibiing. The palisade would return at the end of the 5th century AD, as their power waned once again.

As the Tunica Empire expanded, they came to dominate trade in the Middle Mishi Valley. Salt, taken from the marshes of Chitti [~Louisiana], was taxed as it headed north. Freshwater pearls, farmed in Iniki [Muscle Shoals, AL], were taxed as they head west. Copper, taken from the Mishigami, was taxed as it headed south. Long distance trade goods passed from the Caddo Kingdom into the Tunica Empire by way of Senyi [Little Rock, AK]. They too were taxed as they made their way east. Amber was mined in the lands controlled by Kiskis and formed a kind of proto-currency in the empire.

Land of the Great Sun[1]

The city and later empire was ruled over by a Cheha or king. To many in the empire, the leader was referred to as the Great Sun (ko’o tahch’i). He, and it was always a “he”, was worshipped as a god on earth. Unlike the northern rice kingdoms, authoritarian militarism was the rule in the southern maize kingdoms. There were no elections and no consensus building. There was the Great Sun and the slaves of the Great Sun. No one else.

The most famous features of Kiskis were the Great Wajiw of Kiskis, the opulent palace on top of the Great Wajiw, and the Eternal Flame at the center of the palace. The Great Wajiw was over 250 feet tall, when you included the height of the palace on top. It had three levels, each with a steep staircase leading to the next. On each of these levels were the homes of the inner circle nobility of the kingdom, including many relatives of the Great Sun. On the top step, the palace of the Great Sun was a huge square building with a central courtyard. Even millennia after their demise, the palaces of Cheha Ko’o Tahch’i (King Great Sun) were included in myths as a symbol of opulence and decadence.

This is also the first instance of the wife of the king being called the God’s Wife and the father-in-law of the Great Sun being called the God’s Father. The family (both blood relatives and relatives of a bride). The most powerful God’s Father often wielded effective control of the state.

In the courtyard of the Great Sun’s palace, the Eternal Flame burned continuously. It was used as a funeral pyre and barbeque pit for human and animal sacrifices. Buffalo, wapiti, and prisoners of war were particularly prized. In great ceremonies, dozens or even hundreds of sacrificial victims (human and animal) were led to the top of the wajiw, sacrificed, and then ritually consumed by Great Sun and his nobility. It is likely that these tales were exaggerated by later inhabitants wishing to exaggerate the opulence of the Great Sun and by Europeans wishing to exaggerate the barbarity of the Tunica.

When the Great Sun died, his son or other close relative took over. This frequently caused civil wars. Many Cheha were buried with grave goods including sacrificed slaves and wives. Some of their tombs are important archeological sites.

Let’s discuss the major cities of the Tunica Empire:

Name: Padukah

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Algonkian and other (possibly Namana? [Comanche] though this is disputed)

Ruling Doodem: Mitig (“tree”)

Type: Tributary

Padukah [Paducah, KY] was located at the confluence of the Tanasi [Tennessee] and Ohiyo [Ohio] Rivers. It was originally a part of the Kingdom of Cahokia. A group of nomadic peoples from the west were defeated by Cahokia and forcibly settled in the region. As a result, the city’s ethnic makeup was unique. Who these people from the west actually were is disputed. Whoever they were, they became loyal subjects of Cahokia. When the burgeoning Tunica Empire defeated the Kingdom of Cahokia and drove them from Padukah, the loyalty of Padukah’s inhabitants was forcibly transferred.

Name: Sipiwe

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Sioux

Ruling Doodem: Gigoonh (“fish”)

Type: Tributary

Sipiwe [Cairo, IL] was located at the confluence of the Ohiyo and Mishi [Mississippi] Rivers. Like Padukah, it had been under the influence of Cahokia before the rise of Kiskis and the Tunica Empire. It was a successful settlement that took advantage of its position to control river traffic. Its size was limited by poor soil and frequent flooding.

Name: Senyi

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Tunica and Caddo

Ruling Doodem: None (different families appointed by the Tunica Emperor)

Type: Tributary

Senyi [Little Rock, AK] was located along the Kayas River [Arkansas River] from which it controlled trade with the Caddo people to the west. It was the westernmost city controlled by the Tunica Empire. It was originally a small settlement of Caddo people that was conquered by Kiskis. After the conquest, however, Tunica settlers moved into the city and quickly outnumbered the natives. Then a second wave of Caddo settlers arrived, seeking to become rich from the booming trade with the Tunica Empire. These “New Caddo” often clashed with both the ruling Tunica and the native Caddo.

Name: Kiskis

Population: Very Large

Ethnic Majority: Tunica

Ruling Doodem: Tahch’I (“sun”)

Type: Kingdom

Kiskis [Memphis, TN] was the largest and capital city of the Tunica Empire. Its history and geography is covered in more detail above.

Name: Iniki

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Muskogee

Ruling Doodem: Es (“shell”)

Type: Tributary

Iniki [Florence/Muscle Shoals, AL] was the easternmost city controlled by the Tunica Empire. It was most similar to the other cities along the Tanasi River. It was conquered quite late by the Tunica and only drew their attention due to their production and trade of freshwater pearls. They traded extensively with the Kusa and Muskogee Kingdoms of the southeast.

Name: Yazu

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Tunica

Ruling Doodem: Meli (“Black”)

Type: Tributary

Yazu [Vicksburg, MS] was located at the confluence of the Yazu River [Yazoo River] and Mishi River [Mississippi River]. It was the southernmost city controlled by the Tunica Empire. It was most similar to and had the most contact with the Kingdom of Macha in the land of Chitti. Yazu had controlled its own small kingdom before being defeated and subjugated by the Tunica.

Next time, we will discuss the canoes, boats and ships of the Mishigami and Ziibiing. But first, a supplemental on gender and sexuality in the Mishigami and Ziibiing.

[1] Taken from: https://www.museum.state.il.us/Rive...tory/archives/images/economy/ptecon49clr2.jpg

Comments? Questions?

PeterEzgo · Sep 7, 2023

Supplemental: Two Spirit

Gender and sexuality in pre-contact Minisia [North America] is a complex topic. We should remember that gender and sexuality in general is complex and multi-faceted. Keep in mind the saying “all models are wrong, some are useful.” Every way that we try to understand gender and sexuality is wrong. Some ways are useful. The ways that the native peoples of Minisia understood gender and sexuality was useful to them.

In Minisian society, men and women had assigned roles and rules. These roles and rules were not that different from those found throughout the world. Women (ikwe) were expected to have and take care of children. Men (inini) were expected to do hard physical labor and protect the family. There are many nuances to these rules but we are not going to go into them today. In Minisian society, not all people fell into these two groups.

Another group a person might fall into was called ininiikaazo. This means a person who was physically feminine but spiritually masculine. Conversely, a person might be called an ikwekaazo, someone who was physically masculine and spiritually feminine. This is why it is sometimes translated into English as “Two Spirit”.

The words ininiikaazo and ikwekaazo are literally translated as iniikaazo: "women who functioned as men" / "one who endeavors to be like a man" and ikwekaazo: "men who chose to function as women" / "one who endeavors to be like a woman”, respectively. If you were ungenerous, you could translate it as “someone who pretends to be a man/woman”.

We will use the term kaazo (which does not make sense in Anishinaabe but was adopted by English speaking anthropologists) as a catch all term for both. These people did not follow our modern understanding of “trans” any more than ancient Greek men who had sex with men followed our modern understanding of “gay”. Minisian culture had a completely different way of looking at the world.

Ikwekaazo and Ininiikaazo[1]

There is a misconception that ikwekaazo were routinely castrated. With the medical knowledge of the menominee, castration would often result in death so it was rarely done no matter the circumstances. There are stories of castrated ikwekaazo but they are clearly the exception. In one story, a Sagamos is said to have married an ikwekaazo who was later accused of impregnating another wife of the Sagamos. That ikwekaazo was castrated as punishment. This makes it clear that castration was not standard practice. However, men who were castrated were often called ikwekaazo in a pejorative sense. Castration forced them to be ikwekaazo, it was not something they were born with. Intersex people were also referred to in various similar ways. They were sometimes considered kaazo and sometimes not.

Kaazo could be a priest or a mide even if they were not in a priestly clan. They were allowed to perform ceremonies that were restricted to either men or women. This was especially important in smaller communities. Often kaazo from a larger city would travel to rural communities and were able to fulfill a role that usually required two priests. For example, man and womanhood initiation ceremonies were generally done by priests of that gender. A kaazo could perform both even though they would typically only undergo the ceremony of their spiritual side. This meant that small communities needed only a single priest for both roles.

Kaazo were considered more likely to be able to speak or commune with various aspects of Manidoo. This is why they were often used as soothsayers and prophets. On the other hand, they were also more likely to perform banned religious rituals, what Europeans would call “witchcraft”. There is a story of an ininiikaazo from Munising who worshipped wendigo in secret and was killed when found out.

Relationships, sexual and otherwise, with kaazo were not looked down upon. Although I should make it clear that kaazo were expected to have relations exclusively with people of the opposite spiritual manifestation of gender. So, an ikwekaazo (a biological man who was spiritually a woman) would only have relations with men and an ininiikaazo (a biological woman who was spiritually a man) would only have relations with women. Homosexual relationships, including those including at least one kaazo, were taboo. This could be worked around, however, with one side claiming to be kaazo. We do not know how often this happened.

Marrying a kaazo was generally considered good luck. Ikwekaazo who were members of the nobility were highly sought after marriage prospects, especially the better they conformed to female standards of beauty. Marrying someone who could not have children was a sign that you were rich enough to have an “extra” marriage solely for pleasure.

Pre-menopausal widows with children would sometimes marry ininiikaazo in order to take themselves “off the market”. Unlike men, who might marry many women, women could only marry one man. If that man was an ininiikaazo, they could focus on their living children without the threat of any future children competing with them.

In contrast, poorer kaazo often struggled to get married for the same reason. Their peers could not afford an “extra” marriage without the prospect of children. On the other hand, sexual relationships outside of marriage with kaazo would be common because there was no danger of pregnancy. This sometimes led to kaazo having a poor reputation because they were seen as inducing spouses to cheat. On the other hand, having a sexual relationship with a kaazo knowing that you could not afford to marry them was also seen negatively.

If it seems strange that we are speaking only of potential strategies in marriage, remember that love matches would have been uncommon at all levels of society. The vast majority of marriages were strategic in nature.

It should be noted that elections in the Mishigami meant blood inheritance was less important overall. Couples who could not or chose not have children often adopted cousins or nephews. This included couples that had one or more kaazo.

Next time, we will discuss the canoes, boats and ships of the Mishigami and Ziibiing.

[1] Taken from: https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/0...DVynAEhpsbTMd-_1SaB0hmlI56SOxccMqT3VThwopC=s0

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PeterEzgo · Sep 11, 2023

Chapter 26: In the Land of War Canoes

War, trade, and movement across water were very important to the Mishigami and Ziibiing. This should not be surprising as the names for both places translate as “Great Water” and “Place of Rivers”. Water was a dominating feature of life in both places.

There were no sails or sailing ships. This meant that boats either had to be paddled, poled or float on their own. On the Great Lakes boats could easily move back and forth using oars. On rivers, boats went downriver relatively easily but had trouble going back upriver, especially if they were too large.

Small canoes might be owned by an individual but most trading and fighting ships were owned by clans. High ranking clan members were appointed to manage the boat for the good of the clan. Profits and losses were shared equally amongst clan members. A ship captain would not expect their orders to be obeyed without question. Instead, his (and it was almost always “his”) crew was expected to operate independently without much need for oversight.

Dugout canoes used a single log that was burnt out and carved into the rough shape of a boat. It was said that to make a dugout canoe that you should take a tree and “remove all the parts that do not look like a canoe”. They were generally larger, heavier, and more stable than other boats.

Canoes might also be constructed from multiple pieces of wood and other materials. These were categorized into three types: large, medium, and small. The largest was called a rabaska. They were more than 30 feet long, 5 feet wide and carried a crew of ten or more as well as plenty of cargo. A rabaska could not easily traverse rapids and needed deeper water to avoid damaging the hull. A medium sized canoe was called a gizhiibide. It was around fifteen feet long, two and half feet wide, and carried a crew of two or three. It was quicker but carried much less than the rabaska. The smallest canoe was called a jiimaan. It fit only one or two people and little cargo but was very maneuverable. The deepest rivers and the Great Lakes had the largest ships.

Canoe construction[1]

Birch bark was the preferred skin of a multiple piece canoe as it was light weight, waterproof, and strong. Ash or cedar was preferred to make the structure and interior lining due to the wood’s pliability and strength. The frame was made and then the bark skin placed over it. The canoe was then sewn together with rope. Spruce sap glue was used to plug any holes and to ensure the pieces stayed together. Other types of trees were used when these was not available. Many clans maintained special forests to grow and harvest the material for the building of canoes.

Flat bottom barges made by quickly strapping together sets of logs were used to carry large volumes of trade goods. They were much larger than canoes but they were typically too large to row back up river though this depended on the flow rate of the river and size of the barge. This limited trade, especially in the Ziibiing. In some cities many houses were built using the remains of barges that had sailed downriver with valuable cargo and then been abandoned.

There are some places that boats cannot easily travel. They are generally places between watersheds or where rivers have rocks or rapids. Trade towns often formed in these areas and merchants would often unload and sell their cargo. Where this was either not possible or not profitable, boats were sometimes carried overland to the next body of water in order to continue the journey. This is called portage. If their boat was small enough, the crew could simply carry the canoe either on their backs or using their oars as handholds. If their boats were not small, other methods would be used.

Large canoes had holes drilled above the water line to place ropes through. Greased logs were laid in a path. Then, strong men and/or wapiti would pull boat and cargo. Wapiti pulling a boat on greased logs that spun as they moved may have been the inspiration for the invention of the wheeled cart, though that is still some way into the future.

The harness before the wheel[2]

Similarly, some rivers and canals used what are called towpaths. These are roads or paths built beside the river. Wapiti elk or people would walk on the path, pulling the boat upriver behind them. Portage and tow paths were the first systematic use of wapiti elk teams for labor. A team of powerful wapiti could pull all but the largest barges along a canal or upriver to their destination.

As people used rivers, canals, and lakes for transportation so they were also used for war. We already spoke briefly of how some zhimaaganish warriors used sharpened oars when travelling by canoe. During the classical period, some city-states began requiring trade clans to operate their boats during times of war as a form of tax.

Commanders would utilize awnings on their boats both in order to mark themselves out during the chaos of battle. Barges were used to transport levies to the fight. Smaller, more maneuverable canoes would paddle beside them, offering a level of protection from quick raiders. Archers on the barges would also use their arrows to repel any enemy attacks or to drive away defenders when landing on the shore. Some stone throwers carried “canoe breakers”, heavy stones meant to break the hulls of enemy vessels.

A fleet of warships[3]

We have also already spoken of how chains of logs were used to stop boat traffic at checkpoints. There were three ways of circumventing these chains. The first was to take an alternate route, either over water or over land, to avoid them. This was not always possible or desirable. The second was to land troops on the shore and take control of the chain’s anchor points on land. As this became more common, defenders built small fortresses to protect the anchor points and rope. The third way was to ram the chain, breaking it.

Ramming was risky and therefore was only done when a landing could not be made. There were specially made ramming boats, called bitaakoshin. Bitaakoshin had rams on the front. These rams were made of fire hardened wood or metal such as copper or lead. The rams were sometimes shaped like the heads of clan animals.

Bitaakoshin were narrow, in order to make them swifter in the water. The crew was made of rowers, archers, and marines. The archers, stone throwers, and marines were only to protect the rowers and stop other boats from getting too near.

When ready, dozens of rowers would begin to row in unison. A drummer on the back of the boat would set the pace, increasing the beat as they came near their target. Then they would hit the chain of logs. Sometimes the bitaakoshin was destroyed, sometimes the chain was. In any case, the chains would slow down the attacking fleet and perhaps provide enough time for a warning.

A Bitaakoshin war galley[4]

Bitaakoshin war galleys might also be turned on canoes. Duels between bitaakoshin, where the ships tried to ram each other without being rammed themselves, were usually only possible in the very largest rivers or on the Great Lakes. Ramming was usually aimed at damaging the oars and the crew, not the boats themselves. Once the two boats hit each other, brutal hand to hand fighting would ensue.

Some states, like the Three Waters Confederacy, maintained fleets of hundreds of ships and thousands of sailors. Others might have only a few or no permanent war ships, relying on converted civilian ships for defense.

Next time, we will discuss the land of Chitti and the Mishi River delta region.

[1] Taken from: https://d3d0lqu00lnqvz.cloudfront.net/media/media/e124a2c2-479c-46e9-a471-ac955b6338de.jpg
[2] Taken from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Towpath#/media/File:Trekkers_van_vrachtschip_Towing_a_ship.jpg
[3] Taken from: https://c8.alamy.com/comp/A64PK3/he...ief-aquixo-and-his-native-american-A64PK3.jpg Ignore Hernando De Soto in the foreground
[4] Taken from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Burmese_war-boat_-_ILN_1852-0327-0004.jpg Actually a Burmese war galley

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PeterEzgo · Sep 18, 2023

Chapter 27: The Land of the Living and the Dead

The Mishi River meets the Gulf of Chitti at a delta. This means, in effect, the Mishi River splits into multiple smaller rivers, called Bayouk [Bayous]. Which of these Bayouk is the primary outflow of the Mishi has changed throughout the years. Water flows downhill and will prefer the swiftest route downhill. However, the swiftest route downhill has changed repeatedly over time due to sea level changes and sediment deposits.

Deltas of the Mishi River; Purple is the Delta created by the Bayouk Macha[1]

The first outflows were in the west (orange and dark green in the picture). Then, it turned east as sea levels rose at the end of the ice age (pale green), and then turned south (purple) after the creation of Lake Okwata [Lake Pontchartrain]. Later it would turn back east (grey and beige). That is where it is today.

During the classical period, Bayouk Macha [Lafourche Bayou] in the center (purple) was the primary outflow of the Mishi River. It was here that the city of Macha [Thibodaux, LA] was built. During the classical period, it was the greatest and largest city of the land of Chitti.

At the height of the Kingdom of Macha, it stretched from Calcasieu [Lake Charles, LA] in the west to Biloxi [Biloxi, MS] in the east and from Itihumma [Baton Rouge, LA] in the north to the Gulf of Chitti [Gulf of Mexico] in the south.

The physical territory that Macha controlled was dwarfed by its indirect power over trade. The land of Chitti forms a key hub in trade between Meso-Minisia and the Mishigami. By controlling the Bayouk Macha, the city of Macha controlled all trade on it. Most of the city’s buildings were made from barges that had sailed down the Mishi carrying precious trade goods and been abandoned by merchants who could not take their barges back upriver.

As it grew in power, Macha also started asserting control over the coastal shipping trade. Shipping over the open sea was dangerous. Most did not dare to do so. Instead, merchant shipping hugged the coast, often hiding behind the many barrier islands that Minisia has. As Macha gained control over the coast so Macha gained control over the coastal shipping. So long as it sat at the nexus point of these two powerful trade networks, Macha would be powerful.

This did not mean Macha was without industry of its own. It was famous for the quality of its pottery and linens. It also produced large harvests of manoomin and maize. The production and consumption of crayfish in Chitti outstripped all other regions combined. Macha was so wealthy and powerful, many of those in the Mishigami had heard of it. In fact, when the Menominee of the Mishigami referred to Chitti they called it Aki Ashaageshiinh which means the Land of the Crayfish.

Most people in Chitti spoke a Tunica language, closely related to the one spoken by their neighbors in the Tunica Empire. The kingdom of Macha was friendly with the Tunica Empire. There are surviving examples of diplomatic correspondence between the Great Sun of the Tunica Empire and the King of Macha, each calling the other “brother”.

At its height, Macha had as many wajiw as any city in the Ziibiing. Its largest was the Temple of the Living and the Dead. This was both the palace of the King of Macha as well as the primary temple of the city. The priests who served the temple were marked by the tattoo of a skull on their face.

Modern Priest of the Living and the Dead[2]

The King of Macha was called Lord of the Living and the Dead. The king was supposed to be the reincarnation of all previous kings. Ancestor worship was an important part of Macha religion.

Human sacrifice was more important in Chitti than in most of the Ziibiing or Mishigami. Like in the Tunica Empire, ritual cannibalism was used to ceremonially increase the strength of the royalty and nobility. Sacrificed slaves were said to serve their masters in the afterlife. Some wajiw contain thousands of them. It is said the Wajiw of the Living and the Dead contains tens of thousands, though no modern archeological survey has been allowed.

Let’s discuss the major cities of the Kingdom of Macha and the Natchez:

Name: Natchez

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Natchez

Ruling Doodem: Uvsel (“sun”)

Type: Kingdom

Natchez [Natchez, MS] was the capital and largest city of the Natchez kingdom. Like the Tunica Emperor, the ruler of the Natchez was called the Great Sun. It is unknown which group used the title first. The Natchez kingdom was relatively small and weak compared to the more populous and powerful Tunica Empire and Kingdom of Macha. It survived by playing both sides off each other. Neither the Tunica Empire nor the Kingdom of Macha wanted the other to control the Natchez and would support the Natchez if the other invaded. In any case, the Natchez were quite poor and it was not generally considered worth it to send armies into their territory. The largest exports from Natchez were cotton and catfish.

Name: Biloxi

Population: Small

Ethnic Majority: Siouan

Ruling Doodem: Asaha (“white”)

Type: Tributary

Biloxi [Biloxi, MS] is named after its principal inhabitants, the Biloxi, who were a Siouan people that made a living off the coastal trade. The Kingdom of Macha dominated their city state, forcing them to pay tribute.

Name: Macha

Population: Large

Ethnic Majority: Tunica

Ruling Doodem: Esintahki (“skull”)

Type: Kingdom

Macha [Thibodaux, LA] was the capital and largest city of the kingdom of Macha. It is described in more detail above.

Name: Itihumma (“The Red Stick”)

Population: Medium

Ethnic Majority: Tunica

Ruling Doodem: Mili (“red”)

Type: Tributary

Itihumma [Baton Rogue, LA] is named after the kisewa pole painted red that lies at the center of its religious festivals. It controlled much of the trade that flowed up and down the Mishi River.

Next time, we will discuss the lives of the nobility in the Mishigami and Ziibiing. But first, a supplemental on the numeral system.

[1] Modified from: https://html.scirp.org/file/1-1660723x3.png
[2] Taken from: https://otwstatgraf.s3.amazonaws.com/skull-face-tattoo-lg.jpg

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PeterEzgo · Sep 21, 2023

Supplemental: Numbers and Numerals

The development of numerals began in the Mishigami at the same time as proto-writing. By the late classical period, a consistent system was common throughout the Mishigami and Ziibiing.

Like many languages, Anishinaabe uses a base ten system for counting. This means that numbers were put into groups the size of powers of ten (so 10, 100, 1000, 10000, and so on) just like Hindu-Arabic numerals. The Anishinaabe word for eleven translates literally as “one-and-ten”; the word for twelve as “two-and-ten” and so on.

Suffixes were used to mark the words for twenty, thirty and so on. So, the word for twenty looks like “two-(ten suffix)”. The numbers between were said equivalent to “three and twenty”. A different suffix was used to mark hundreds. So the word for four hundred look likes “four-(hundred suffix)”. Like in English, thousands were simply the words for the number and then the word for a group of a thousand.

Like many early numeral systems, the Anishinaabe numeral system was additive. This means that each symbol represented an amount and you would add each amount together to get the full number. The only exception to this was the strikethrough, which multiplied whatever symbol was struck through by ten. These are the basic symbols:

Quantities were read right to left (just like the writing and the opposite of the English language), with the smallest amount first and then the next largest and so on. Groups of the same symbol would be written in patterns. Three symbols would form a pyramid. Four would form a square. For example, the quantity three-and-forty-and-one-hundred (143) would be written:

The quantity 2654 could be written:

This adds to (4+50+100+50*10+200*10) = 2654.

This is not the only way 2654 could be written. Here is another way:

This adds to (4+50+600+200*10).

This kind of ambiguity, where numbers can be written in multiple ways, is common among early numeral systems. Traditionally, you should write any numeral with as few symbols are possible and you should avoid writing more than four of the same symbol if possible.

In general, the Anishinaabe numeral system was adequate for its intended purpose which was to track warehouse and granary inventory. It struggled with large numbers and could be ambiguous. There were regional variations throughout the classical period but the symbols we have talked about were the most common.

Most surviving examples of classical era numerals are found on pottery. The marks would show how much was stored in the vessel. A pictograph on the pottery was then used to identify the contents. Later, phonetic writing was used to label the content of pots.

Next time, we will discuss the lives of the nobility in the Mishigami and Ziibiing.

PeterEzgo · Sep 25, 2023

Chapter 28: Mountain Men

The term for the aristocracy of the Mishigami and Ziibiing was “agidajiw”, which literally means “on top of the mountain”. This refers to their living atop wajiw, or platform mounds. This was the defining feature of the Minisian nobility.

The legal status of agidajiw varied by region. In the so-called “rice kingdoms” of the north, the term agidajiw conferred no legal status or privileges. The only title that conferred legal status was dibendaagozi, often translated as citizen. However, most dibendaagozi were not agidajiw. It was also not a requirement that an agidiajiw be a dibendaagozi, although it was rare for them not to be. Nor was it a requirement that officials like an Ogimaa, Sagamos, or Mide be an agidajiw but it was extremely rare for them not to be.

In the so-called “maize kingdoms” of the south, the status of agidajiw was protected and restricted. Only those clans that were already living on wajiw could live there and no new mounds could be built without the permission of the king. There were no dibendaagozi and no elections in the maize kingdoms, only strong men and their lackeys.

We should also not confuse the terms agidajiw, who were the nobility, and zhimaaganish, who were the warrior elite. Most zhimaaganish were not agidajiw. Some agidajiw passed the tests and became zhimaaganish warriors but most did not. Agidajiw generally employed and utilized zhimaaganish. At other times, zhimaaganish warriors were able to leverage their position to accumulate wealth and power to marry into the agidajiw clans or even construct wajiw of their own but this was rare.

Agidajiw were often portrayed as fat, which was a sign of wealth and prosperity[1]

The traditional agidajiw were those who owned and controlled the rice bogs [paddies] where the majority of food was grown. They used the wealth generated by these rice bogs to build large wajiw from which they dictated the lives and laws of the rest of society. They clustered their houses in rammed earth citadels to protect them from enemy attack while leaving the houses of the majority of the populace to be protected by mere wooden palisades.

As maize became more widespread, which lessened the need for the rice bogs, and trade intensified, which lead to the rise of a new class of merchants, those clans who had once dominated society began to weaken.

In Mishigami society, the rich dreamed and schemed to live on wajiw and join the ranks of the agidajiw. You became a member of the agidajw by building or buying a wajiw. This took not only enormous wealth but more importantly time. Clans or individuals who became wealthy in a short period often did not live on wajiw. They might marry the daughters of agidajiw men and marry their daughters off in turn but actually joining their ranks was rare.

Not all agidajiw were rich either. Some impoverished people clung to their ancestral wajiw. They were sometimes able to leverage their status to regain wealth through marriage. In extreme cases, they could sell their wajiw to an up and coming family but this was rare and considered extremely humiliating.

Living on a wajiw brought you closer to the heavens and closer to Manidoo[2]

The physical location of a wajiw was also very important. The closer to the wajiw of the Sagamos and his clan, the more prestigious it was. Being inside the citadel was also very important. As we saw in the Tunica Empire, in some places clans that were particularly closely aligned or related to the Sagamos might live directly on the wajiw of the Sagamos. This was also true of other, less powerful clans, who might also have their followers live on the same mound as they did. This was another way for a lesser family to become an agidajiw. In some cases, the “follower” clans living on the wajiw were more powerful than the ancestral clan of the wajiw.

As the number of wajiw expanded throughout the classical period, more and more wajiw were built away from the Sagamos and outside the citadels. In some places, there was increasing pressure to slow or stop the building of wajiw by “unworthy” families who made their wealth through trade rather than through agriculture and land owning.

Each agidajiw clan competed for wealth, titles, and honor. They tried building their wajiw higher and their houses bigger. They pressured each other to display opulent wealth. They competed with each other during the festival of abundance or during elections. They forged trade connections with each other that could last generations. They started feuds with each other that could last centuries.

Many agidajiw men married multiple women. The richest men would marry dozens of women, usually a mix of agidajiw women and lower class women. Non-agidajiw women would have been expected to bring either beauty or wealth to the marriage. By law, no wife was favored above the others but the reality must have been very different. A number of prestigious but impoverished agidajiw clans replenished their coffers through strategic marriage alliances with wealthy merchant clans.

Skulls with Artificial Cranial Deformation[3]

In the Ziibiing and particularly among the Muskogee, agidajiw marked themselves out with artificial cranial deformation. This is where a rope is tightly bound around the head of an infant in order to lengthen and deform the skull. While some people believe that this either enhances or restricts intelligence, it does neither. Although the result can seem strange to modern eyes, it was common among the agidajiw of southeastern Minisia. In the southeast, nobles were sometimes called “round-heads” because of this. Among the Muskogee in particular, agidajiw began wearing turbans over their “round-heads”. Turbans have been independently invented many times throughout human history. In this case, turbans came to be associated with the nobility of the Ziibiing.

In some places, sumptuary laws restricted ostentatious displays of wealth by non-agidajiw. These types of laws were first written in the southeast, where the status of agidajiw was the most restricted and regulated. Although such laws were rare at the beginning of the classical period, by the end of the period most cities had them.

Sumptuary laws restricted the types and colors of cloth worn by non-agidajiw, and how large non-agidajiw houses could be built. They also restricted the display of jade, silver or gold jewelry. The use of obsidian weapons was restricted to the agidajiw and zhimaaganish. Rules surrounding the giving of gifts during the festival of abundance also came into effect. These laws were resented and often flouted by the increasingly rich and powerful merchant class.

Next time, we will discuss the land of the Muskogee and Kusa in southeastern Minisia.

[1] Taken from: http://wutheringexpectations.blogspot.com/2009/12/how-to-miss-evidence-obese-comanche.html
[2] Taken from: https://images.nationalgeographic.o...557/EducationHub/photos/hopewell-ceremony.jpg
[3] Taken from: https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/...-F2ZBKGC0L8HRYHXTTCNK/Schädel_der_Chongos.jpg

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