Would any of the CKII players of the board be interested in a shattered world succession type game? I.E one player starts as a random character, and gets to play as long as that character is alive. Upon death you have to pass the savegame to the next person and he gets to pick another random character and so on. Ironman will be off so it will be possible to choose an other ruler when the savegame is loaded. It would be interesting to see how the world would look like after a few play troughs. I think the only prerequisite would be that you have the Holy Fury DLC.
Crusader Kings II - Paradox Entertainement (02/12)
- Thread starter Tellus
- Start date
Maybe a quick setup to show the game rules and preffered start date. does anyone mind if we start in 769? Or should we just start in 1066 to keep the save accesible for people who do not have the Charlemagne DLC.
Maybe it would be cool if we post a screenshot of at the start and end of a character's reign
As for the game rules, my preferred setup is:
Aztec Invasion: Off
I do have the Sunset Invasion DLC, but hardly ever play with this game rule on. I do not know if the other invaders like the Turks or Mongols spawn in a shattered world game.
Generate Families: On
This is mainly to avoid a premature game over, as it is not as fun playing as a 70 something years old count who has no heir.
Exclave Independence: Harsh
To avoid border gore and absurd exclaves.
Shattered Retreat: Off
I also have this turned to off all of the time. I simply do not like this mechanic.
Supernatural and Absurd Events: Unrestricted
This will give the AI access to weird or unusual events and will surely spice up things
Adventures: Rare
Provincial Revolts & Revolt strength: Rare & Default
These three rules are pretty much grouped together. The game spits out way to much adventurers, these go on to raid holdings. Sacking temple holdings and lowering the religions MA, up to the point that it hovers just above zero. Spawning heretic doomstacks and further pummeling the religions MA into the ground.
I do have the Sunset Invasion DLC, but hardly ever play with this game rule on. I do not know if the other invaders like the Turks or Mongols spawn in a shattered world game.
Generate Families: On
This is mainly to avoid a premature game over, as it is not as fun playing as a 70 something years old count who has no heir.
Exclave Independence: Harsh
To avoid border gore and absurd exclaves.
Shattered Retreat: Off
I also have this turned to off all of the time. I simply do not like this mechanic.
Supernatural and Absurd Events: Unrestricted
This will give the AI access to weird or unusual events and will surely spice up things
Adventures: Rare
Provincial Revolts & Revolt strength: Rare & Default
These three rules are pretty much grouped together. The game spits out way to much adventurers, these go on to raid holdings. Sacking temple holdings and lowering the religions MA, up to the point that it hovers just above zero. Spawning heretic doomstacks and further pummeling the religions MA into the ground.
Consolidation: Enabled (25 years)
Great Conquerors: Enabled (4)
Cultures & Religion: Default
Great Conquerors: Enabled (4)
Cultures & Religion: Default
I prefer Shattered Retreat on (ping-ponging armies to death is so gamey) but I'm cool with it. Maybe up the # of Great Conquerors?
I'm okay with leaving Shattered Retreat on, We could up the Great Conquerors up to 6 maybe, also should we enable Defensive Pacts?
I have no real issues with any of that, though I admit I agree with @The Tai-Pan on shattered retreat. I don't really have a problem with 769, but I prefer the Old Gods start. Bit more chaos to work with. I vote yes on defensive pacts.
I’d say no defensive pacts; I understand adding a challenge, but they make the game just a bit too hard, what with how the entire world will join if you so much as declare one holy war, including members of your own faith.
I’d also argue against enabling the Turkic and Mongol invasions; since we’re not following history anyway since we’re starting in a shattered world, it would be much more interesting to let those areas of the world develop on their own without any predetermined invasions. I’d let the Great Conquerors take the role of the Seljuks/Ghaznavids/Timurids.
I’d also argue against enabling the Turkic and Mongol invasions; since we’re not following history anyway since we’re starting in a shattered world, it would be much more interesting to let those areas of the world develop on their own without any predetermined invasions. I’d let the Great Conquerors take the role of the Seljuks/Ghaznavids/Timurids.
I just finished an invasion of China with my Khazar Tengri Horde, and boy was it fun. There is nothing quite like seeing the Emperor brought 172k event troops to deal with your 30k army :V
Although, I was somewhat underwhelmed by the spoils. I didn't even get a Bloodline, and when I used my 5000 Grace to have China invade the Ummayad (who were being their boring blobby self, although to spice things up a bit they had managed to take back the Sunni Caliphate) and they literally sent 700 soldiers to Hispania, with predictably underwhelming results
Srill, clearly the most fun I've had in a CK2 game in a while. Nomads are a lot more fun than I remember - Conclave really made them more interesting with the Council dynamic.
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Since the new update is out, I picked our favourite incest simulator up again.
As the Orsini lineage, I decided to dismantle the Papacy from within, first by expanding into southern Italy and making the Pope grant me all of his fiefs but Rome itself, then by declaring independence, crowning myself King, usurping the Duchy of Latium, taking Rome for myself and of course nominating my own pet Anti-Pope. The result? His remaining vassals switched their allegiance to my Anti-Pope, leaving him without any land whatsoever.
In the meantime, a crusade for Jerusalem was waged, and then another one was waged when the crusader kingdom was starting to lose land to the green blob. However, the reclaimed land was not handed over to the Hauteville king of Jerusalem, but to anothermember of the same dynasty.
The lone orange county is somehow a direct Frisian vassal, and my heir is the king of Navarre.
Planet of Hats
Donor
Haven't done one of these in awhile.
* Wlodzimierz II, or Wlodzimierz the Glorious
Emperor of Slavia (October 8, 1182 - June 12, 1215)
King of Pòmòrskô (October 8, 1182 - June 12, 1215)
King of the Danes (October 8, 1182 - June 12, 1215)
* Wlodzimierz II, or Wlodzimierz the Glorious
Emperor of Slavia (October 8, 1182 - June 12, 1215)
King of Pòmòrskô (October 8, 1182 - June 12, 1215)
King of the Danes (October 8, 1182 - June 12, 1215)
Wlodzimierz II, thrust suddenly into empire, quickly wrapped up his father's war for Latgale even as he hastily saw to his burial. He quickly moved to arrange a splendid coronation for himself, paying out more than a thousand gold to the Church to ensure that he would not repeat his father's humiliating battlefield coronation.
Not the genius his grandfather was, Wlodzimierz was nevertheless a talented administrator who made up for his lack of tact or guile with intense administrative prowess and deep knowledge of faith and lore along with a strong sense of justice and a deep humility. Following his coronation, Wlodzimierz eschewed splendid gatherings and went about his realm on a program of building, shoring up the land's hospitals and churches in an effort to win the favour of the faithful.
Catching the Duchess of Saxony conspiring against him, Wlodzimierz revoked her title and reallocated it to a loyalist. But he allowed the Count of Weimar to go free, hoping to warm relations with the Holy Roman Empire.
Affairs in Sweden drew Wlodzimierz's attention in 1186 upon the occasion of a rebellion for elective monarchy. Wlodzimierz ordered a small army north to quell this uprising. The rebellion was quashed by a relatively simple application of winged hussars; with the rebels unable to mass their forces, the hussars criss-crossed Sweden, massacring four small armies to a man, while a smaller infantry army besieged Skara. The rebels were quickly brought to heel, and the rebel Sigurd was jailed.
In 1188, Wlodzimierz imprisoned and divorced his queen, Sisenanda, after finding she'd developed a pox, which he blamed on cuckoldry. Pressure built on Wlodzimierz to remarry; while he had three daughters, he had not yet produced a boy heir. After months of delay, he finally married Antipatra Kavallarios, daughter of the Doge of Amalfi, much to the surprise of a faction in his court seeking to wed the Emperor to Princess Ide of the Holy Roman Empire. But Wlodzimierz had no interest in claims on the land of the Germans, having no interest in subjecting his descendants to the nonsensical succession law known as "princely elective."
Another Swedish revolt drew the winged hussars to Sweden in 1189 as Wlodzimierz was again obligated to step in to support the disgustingly weak King Bengt. The hussars quickly stormed off the ships to intercept half the rebel army in Uppland, quickly capturing the son of the rebel Duke Rikulf. The war ended quickly when the hussars swung north to ambush Duke Rikulf's main army in Rovanieni, butchering them to a man.
The birth of a fourth daughter, Ksenia, was followed soon by the death of Wlodzimierz's firstborn, Vaclava, after being bitten by an animal and frothing at the mouth. This left his second daughter, Roza, as his heir designate.
The establishment of the Teutonic Order in 1192 left Wlodzimierz with a new complication: A group of knights out to suppress "the pagans of the north" and convert them by the sword. But most of those pagans, save the Khazars, had already embraced the cross. Reaching out to Hochmeister Erich, Wlodzimierz found the Germans eager to gobble up land - and they began by setting their sights on Tver, deep in Khazar territory. Just as the campaign began, Wlodzimierz was met with news of the birth of his son, Tadeusz, and returned to Rana to organize a sumptuous baptism for the bouncing baby boy.
The war in the heart of Rus' led to the creation of a Teutonic State, centred on the city of Tver. Erich set up shop there, evidently intent on waging a one-order war against the heathen Jewish Khazars. This was somewhat offset by Queen Premyslava of Galicia-Volhynia being toppled by a palace coup; the new king, Demid the Usurper, refused to acknowledge Wlodzimierz as his suzerain.
Wlodzimierz's reign was a time of investments in infrastructure and great works; the famous Gardens of Rana began under his reign, and in 1196, ground was broken in Rastoku on the grand Cathedral of Saints Leszek and Mscislaw.
A revolt in Sweden in late 1197 saw Wlodzimierz dispatch the Winged Hussars and the regulars of Rana northward to do battle with the rebellious Duke Filip. By the end of 1198, the war was over, the rebels soundly crushed. But another rebellion broke out in 1199, obligating the Winged Hussars to again go north.
Afflicted with a mild case of gout, Wlodzimierz traveled in 1201 to Crimea, intent on a pilgrimage. He returned wounded after an encounter with bandits and set to work continuing to build, opening vineyards and water gardens in the already lush gardens of Rana as he set about transforming the islands into a big manicured park. His work was interrupted by another Swedish revolt in 1207, which ended when the Winged Hussars captured the rebel leader's son and heir on the field.
News arrived in 1210 that Wlodzimierz's daughter, Queen Hanna of Finland, had been kidnapped by rebellious tribes and enslaved. Furious, Wlodzimierz mustered the entire host of Slavia and declared war on the rebels' liege, the Emperor of Britannia. With Aquitaine joining on the side of Britannia, the war turned into the first major conflict in generations to take place in the Pomeranian heartland. British and Aquitanian troops landed in Pomerania, but encountered two armies of 25,000 men, led by half of the Winged Hussars. A third army of 20,000 sailed to the British Isles to lay siege in Essex.
By 1211, the other half of the Winged Hussars had stormed the British capital at Northampton, burning several buildings to the ground. A treaty was finally signed on Christmas of that year, and Princess Hanna was returned to Pomerania, unharmed and grateful.
Just days later, a Crusade was called to drive the Saracens out of Anatolia.
In truth, the Dofharid holdings in Anatolia were few and mostly inland, and Wlodzimierz would have preferred to strike at Trebizond. Instead he sailed his men north to lay siege to Sardis and the surrounds. But Wlodzimierz spent much of the campaign furious at his fellow Christian kings, with more of Slavia's men lost to starvation than battle as careless monarchs trekked their armies through thinly-provendered inland valleys and mountains. Finally mustering his men on the coast of Trebizond, he landed his remaining 40,000 men there, under his son Tadeusz, and there came to grips with a horde of 40,000 Muslims led by war elephants from India - but before he could complete the battle, a truce was called, and the Dofharids withdrew their men from Anatolia on the 28th of March, 1214.
Exhausted, tired and flush with triumph after years of wars he never wanted, Wlodzimierz did the only thing he believed was right: He crowned his daughter Hanna Queen of Anatolia, and gave her a brilliant Greek husband as her consort.
He had little time to celebrate, however: En route home from Anatolia, Wlodzimierz contracted scurvy, and it worsened as his army diverted to crush a revolt in Sweden. He died sick aboard a ship on a crisp summer's day in 1215.
Not the genius his grandfather was, Wlodzimierz was nevertheless a talented administrator who made up for his lack of tact or guile with intense administrative prowess and deep knowledge of faith and lore along with a strong sense of justice and a deep humility. Following his coronation, Wlodzimierz eschewed splendid gatherings and went about his realm on a program of building, shoring up the land's hospitals and churches in an effort to win the favour of the faithful.
Catching the Duchess of Saxony conspiring against him, Wlodzimierz revoked her title and reallocated it to a loyalist. But he allowed the Count of Weimar to go free, hoping to warm relations with the Holy Roman Empire.
Affairs in Sweden drew Wlodzimierz's attention in 1186 upon the occasion of a rebellion for elective monarchy. Wlodzimierz ordered a small army north to quell this uprising. The rebellion was quashed by a relatively simple application of winged hussars; with the rebels unable to mass their forces, the hussars criss-crossed Sweden, massacring four small armies to a man, while a smaller infantry army besieged Skara. The rebels were quickly brought to heel, and the rebel Sigurd was jailed.
In 1188, Wlodzimierz imprisoned and divorced his queen, Sisenanda, after finding she'd developed a pox, which he blamed on cuckoldry. Pressure built on Wlodzimierz to remarry; while he had three daughters, he had not yet produced a boy heir. After months of delay, he finally married Antipatra Kavallarios, daughter of the Doge of Amalfi, much to the surprise of a faction in his court seeking to wed the Emperor to Princess Ide of the Holy Roman Empire. But Wlodzimierz had no interest in claims on the land of the Germans, having no interest in subjecting his descendants to the nonsensical succession law known as "princely elective."
Another Swedish revolt drew the winged hussars to Sweden in 1189 as Wlodzimierz was again obligated to step in to support the disgustingly weak King Bengt. The hussars quickly stormed off the ships to intercept half the rebel army in Uppland, quickly capturing the son of the rebel Duke Rikulf. The war ended quickly when the hussars swung north to ambush Duke Rikulf's main army in Rovanieni, butchering them to a man.
The birth of a fourth daughter, Ksenia, was followed soon by the death of Wlodzimierz's firstborn, Vaclava, after being bitten by an animal and frothing at the mouth. This left his second daughter, Roza, as his heir designate.
The establishment of the Teutonic Order in 1192 left Wlodzimierz with a new complication: A group of knights out to suppress "the pagans of the north" and convert them by the sword. But most of those pagans, save the Khazars, had already embraced the cross. Reaching out to Hochmeister Erich, Wlodzimierz found the Germans eager to gobble up land - and they began by setting their sights on Tver, deep in Khazar territory. Just as the campaign began, Wlodzimierz was met with news of the birth of his son, Tadeusz, and returned to Rana to organize a sumptuous baptism for the bouncing baby boy.
The war in the heart of Rus' led to the creation of a Teutonic State, centred on the city of Tver. Erich set up shop there, evidently intent on waging a one-order war against the heathen Jewish Khazars. This was somewhat offset by Queen Premyslava of Galicia-Volhynia being toppled by a palace coup; the new king, Demid the Usurper, refused to acknowledge Wlodzimierz as his suzerain.
Wlodzimierz's reign was a time of investments in infrastructure and great works; the famous Gardens of Rana began under his reign, and in 1196, ground was broken in Rastoku on the grand Cathedral of Saints Leszek and Mscislaw.
A revolt in Sweden in late 1197 saw Wlodzimierz dispatch the Winged Hussars and the regulars of Rana northward to do battle with the rebellious Duke Filip. By the end of 1198, the war was over, the rebels soundly crushed. But another rebellion broke out in 1199, obligating the Winged Hussars to again go north.
Afflicted with a mild case of gout, Wlodzimierz traveled in 1201 to Crimea, intent on a pilgrimage. He returned wounded after an encounter with bandits and set to work continuing to build, opening vineyards and water gardens in the already lush gardens of Rana as he set about transforming the islands into a big manicured park. His work was interrupted by another Swedish revolt in 1207, which ended when the Winged Hussars captured the rebel leader's son and heir on the field.
News arrived in 1210 that Wlodzimierz's daughter, Queen Hanna of Finland, had been kidnapped by rebellious tribes and enslaved. Furious, Wlodzimierz mustered the entire host of Slavia and declared war on the rebels' liege, the Emperor of Britannia. With Aquitaine joining on the side of Britannia, the war turned into the first major conflict in generations to take place in the Pomeranian heartland. British and Aquitanian troops landed in Pomerania, but encountered two armies of 25,000 men, led by half of the Winged Hussars. A third army of 20,000 sailed to the British Isles to lay siege in Essex.
By 1211, the other half of the Winged Hussars had stormed the British capital at Northampton, burning several buildings to the ground. A treaty was finally signed on Christmas of that year, and Princess Hanna was returned to Pomerania, unharmed and grateful.
Just days later, a Crusade was called to drive the Saracens out of Anatolia.
In truth, the Dofharid holdings in Anatolia were few and mostly inland, and Wlodzimierz would have preferred to strike at Trebizond. Instead he sailed his men north to lay siege to Sardis and the surrounds. But Wlodzimierz spent much of the campaign furious at his fellow Christian kings, with more of Slavia's men lost to starvation than battle as careless monarchs trekked their armies through thinly-provendered inland valleys and mountains. Finally mustering his men on the coast of Trebizond, he landed his remaining 40,000 men there, under his son Tadeusz, and there came to grips with a horde of 40,000 Muslims led by war elephants from India - but before he could complete the battle, a truce was called, and the Dofharids withdrew their men from Anatolia on the 28th of March, 1214.
Exhausted, tired and flush with triumph after years of wars he never wanted, Wlodzimierz did the only thing he believed was right: He crowned his daughter Hanna Queen of Anatolia, and gave her a brilliant Greek husband as her consort.
He had little time to celebrate, however: En route home from Anatolia, Wlodzimierz contracted scurvy, and it worsened as his army diverted to crush a revolt in Sweden. He died sick aboard a ship on a crisp summer's day in 1215.
I had to restart the game because bugs, however I have no regrets since my old character sired a Child of Destiny - a young girl that, at the age of 22, single-handedly conquered Jerusalem from the Abbasids and has now conquered Mecca and Medina as well. Meanwhile, my current character is a lunatic fuck with a bad case of syphilis who thinks he's a werewolf and started a little Hellenic revival group while a vassal of the Pope. 
I had to restart the game because bugs, however I have no regrets since my old character sired a Child of Destiny - a young girl that, at the age of 22, single-handedly conquered Jerusalem from the Abbasids and has now conquered Mecca and Medina as well. Meanwhile, my current character is a lunatic fuck with a bad case of syphilis who thinks he's a werewolf and started a little Hellenic revival group while a vassal of the Pope.
If you're lucky enough, he might establish a legendary bloodline.
THE BENGALI TIGER
Monarchs of Bengal (755-1028)
Monarchs of India (1028-1332~)
755~769: (Pala) GOPALA I
The founding of the Pala dynasty has been attributed to Gopala I, who united a group of chieftains and pre-feudal lords to establish the first kingdom of Bengal in approximately 755. A near-mythical figure, Gopala is believed to have established the Bengali capital at the fortress-city of Laksmanavati as well as the famous monastery complex at Odantapuri; Odantapuri would develop as the second-oldest Mahavihara in India, preceded only by the university of Nalanda in Gaya. With his powerbase mainly focused around the north of Bengal Gopala was able to secure the new state, and by the time of his death in 760 he bequeathed his sizeable holdings in Bengal and Bihar to his 16-year-old son Dharmapala I.
769-850: (Pala) DHARMAPALA I
Despite taking the throne at a young age Dharmapala I quickly established himself as an effective administrator, militarist and theologian. He led Bengal into the Tripartite Struggle, pitching the Buddhist Pala against the Hindi kingdoms of Northern India to unite all of de-jure Bengal between 700 and 775 (with the Ayudha fortress of Kumarakhali besieged no fewer than five times). The momentous victory over the Hindus in Kosala following the Battle of Kenduli accompanied the collapse of the Rashtrakuta dynasty in the south, and the Ayudha would never again prove a major obstacle to Bengal. (A seperate tributary Buddhist kingdom in Kosala was established under the Hammiravarman dynasty in 828). Elsewhere, a series of protracted campaigns against the Somavamsi and Bhanja led to the Buddhist usurpation of Orissa, while a coalition of Hindi forces were unable to prevent the annexation of Gondwana in 828. Buddhist surged in Northern India, and Dharmapala sponsored substantial works to the great monasteries along the Ganges. Bhikkhus were granted significant political power and new Mahavihara were founded at Satkhira in 783, at Mainamati in 788 and Candranatha in 799. The Buddhist holy sites of Sarnath and Lumbini were also annexed by Dharmapala - the latter following the annexation of Nepal in 843 - while he placed an important role in the strengthening of the Savaka-Sangha. Relations with the Tang dynasty were established, and quickly swelled into a strong economic relationship; Bengal received preferential status from the Han court regarding trade along the Silk Road, and after a visit to China in the mid-800s Dharmapala introduced primogeniture inheritance across all of his kingdoms in 802.
[In 809 the near-200-year-old Purgyal dynasty collapsed in Tibet, leading to the rapid disintegration of the Tibetan Empire and the beginning of the First Warring States Period. Encroached upon by Manichean Uyghur nomads and constantly hindered by political assassinations and civil wars, Tibet was unable to defend Kamarupa from Pala invasions in 822 and the imperial court eventually fled from Lhasa to Qamdo. With the Buddhist annexation of Nepal and the Pala conquest of Bhutan in 847 the empire truly collapsed, and the emperor lost his final territories in 848].
Dharmapala I became the first Emperor of Bengal in 849 - uniting the thrones of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Kamarupa, Gondwana and Nepal into a new imperial state. He died a year later, but having established a reputation as perhaps the greatest Pala monarch (and certainly the longest living). He had few children, but his eldest son succeeded him as Dharmapala II.
850-895: (Pala) DHARMAPALA II
A young linguist, Dharmapala II was quickly faced with domestic unrest; he backtracked upon the policies of his father and sought to restrict the power and influence that holy men played at court. Following the collapse of imperial power in Tibet the Bön religion had found considerable favour upon the lords of Bengal - Dharmapala crushed a short rebellion by the Govindapalid dynasty in 868. Having reestablished order he enacted sweeping reforms to the Bengali bureaucracy, establishing non-hereditary viceroys to administer the nine kingdoms of the empire (in the style of the Chinese) while retaining personal power in Bengal only. By smoothing over his many ducal vassals in favour of a centralized system with his governors, Dharmapala overnight removed the threat of conspiracy while simultaneously strengthened his position and that of his political allies. It was a masterstroke of domestic policy, and the viceroy system - 'Gabharnara' - remained in place for the remainder of Pala rule in India. The announcement was followed by a mass amnesty for those imprisoned under the old system with several major opponents banished from Bengal but spared their lives. Others were granted freedom in exchange for their conversion to Buddhism.
Dharmapala played an important role in the Chinese civil war, as he defeated the rogue General Pan Tao after his arrival in India in 853. At the Battle of Numaligarh Dharmapala scored a tactical victory, forcing the large Han force back until he finally (and decisively) defeated them near Bumthang in January 855. By alleviating pressure on the western frontier, Dharmapala was credited by some as playing a decisive role in the eventual Tang victory. The Samrat visited China on kowtow shortly after, and he continued to encourage Han to live and work at the Pala court in Laksmanavati. He conquered the Hammiravarman kingdom of Kosala in 686, and installed the Buddhist Indradatta Ruddha upon the throne of Maharastra in 876. Grateful for the assistance Indradatta swore fealty to the Bengali Empire, but then was unexpectedly assassinated by Hindi loyalists. The power vacuum in the region quickly devolved into chaos, and the Pala restored order by force. Dharmapala II declared himself the Maharaja of both Maharastra and Telingana and secured Bengali control over Central India. (Maharastra would later develop as one of the most powerful Pala vassals until the 949 civil war). The Chawda and Chalukya were invaded in 883; neither state had previously fought the Pala, and consequently they proved strong opponents. The Buddhists were able to defeat the Chawda at the narrow Battle of Bhambhagiri, although this proved only a minor victory as Gujarati forces were able to continuously harass the Bengalis as Dharmapala lay siege to Sarasvata in 886. Upon the fall of the city he defeated a combined force at Patta, resulting in the capitulation of the Chawda in 887. The Chalukya lasted a little longer, although their war effort was only truly disrupted by the assassination of Mahalla III and the ascension of his infant son Mahalla IV. With their annexation of Konkana the Bengalis gained a western coastline for the first time, although only accessible via a narrow strip at Devagiri and Nasikya. In 890 Dharmapala moved to place Atitta Palava on the throne of Andhra in exchange for his allegiance to Bengal. This gave Pala control of all southern India, with the exception of the interior Sinda kingdom (itself wracked by civil war) and the island of Lanka.
Dharmapala II died of a heart attack in 895 at the age of 61. He was succeeded by his fourth son, Dasharathapala I.
895-939: (Pala) DASHARATHAPALA I
Just 28 upon taking the throne, Dasharathapala was an erudite scholar - more interested in the micromanagement of rule rather than great military campaigns. His rule would prove to be a peaceful one, overseeing the continuing economic prosperity of his empire. Like Dharmapala I he was a member of the Savaka-Sangha and found himself well-suited for the solitary and meditative lifestyle of devout Buddhism. He quickly established himself as a philanthropist and sponsor of the arts and was most famously known for founding many leper colonies. His commitment to medical research was useful, and during his reign there were several epidemics. Dasharathapala presided over a new golden age of Buddhism, as the religion went from strength to strength. However, while it was strong across northern India and into Tibet among the newly-conquered regions in the centre of the sub-continent Hinduism (and to a lesser extent Jainism) remained the dominant force. Conversion efforts intensified to ensure that Hinduism and Jainism continued to decline in newly-conquered territories. Malwa was conquered in 907, while Delhi and Karnata followed suit in 927 and 936 respectively. At the same time the Mahendrasinghid dynasty – governors of Tamilakam – conquered the island of Lanka. Dasharathapala was keen to continue his long-running reforms, and in 937 declared that while the Gabharnara would remain installed with agnatic primogeniture the imperial title would institute agnatic-cognatic succession (meaning that women could inherit if there were no eligible male heirs). This was well-received by many, encouraged by the continuing progressivism of the Buddhism faith. It is said that the move was partly inspired by the accidental death of Gopala, the eldest grandson of Dasharathapala and potential future emperor.
Despite early clashes with the Tang Dasharathapala I would become infamous in the Islamic world for the role he played in the shattering of the Abdulid Caliphate in 904 and 905. A series of lengthy meetings with Chinese envoys and diplomats regarding the further encroachment of Islam into the Steppe via the growth of the Bajanid Sultanate, as well as their pushing into Gujarat, prompted action. A large force from the Tang launched a full-scale invasion of the Caliphate, with Pala forces opening a lengthy second front in Sindh. The action was well-timed, as Caliph Mukhtar was facing a series of rebellion and civil wars that had greatly decreased the military and cultural strength of his position; the arrival of Chinese troops in Persia terrified the weakening Caliph, and the Muslims fell victim to defeat after defeat. Soon morale collapsed completely, and the Caliphate began to fall apart. By the time of the Treaty of Yazd, which essentially dissolved the Abdulid state, it was already disintegrating. As Tang and Pala troops returned east, Mukhtar established himself only as the religious Caliph of Islam in Baghdad, and the Caliphate was no more. (Ironically the war failed to address the main cause of the war – the expansion of the Bajanids – but it did break out the Abdulid political stranglehold over Central Asia. The Bajanids remained a major player in the region until their conquest by the Nestorian Karlukid empire in 946).
The outbreak of famine in China in 939 placed Bengal in an advantageous position, as Dasharathapala continued to position Bengal as an emerging power in Asia. He would not live to see any more his work come to fruition, though, as he died in 939 at the age of 71. He was succeeded by his only living child, Dasharathapala II.
939-954: (Pala) DASHARATHAPALA II
Dasharathapala II, at 46, was the oldest monarch upon taking the throne. A strong warrior, he was a drastic physical contrast to his father and proved a confrontational monarch. A civil war raged in Orissa and Telingana until 943, and Dharmapala soon began to drink in excess. His vengeful nature was noticed by his viceroys, who gave him a wide berth, and he became increasingly tyrannical and unjust. Nevertheless, he was an experienced duelist, and often challenged his opponents in combat (besting them despite usually being drunk). This came to a head in 949, when the western governors of Maharastra and Malwa – the two most powerful in the empire – rebelled against Dasharathapala in a bid to place his cousin, Rajrajendranarayan Mukundanarayan, on the throne. A large rebel force met the Samrat personally at Rajura and were inflicted a devastating loss from which they never truly recovered. A Pala campaign into the heart of Maharastra led to the complete collapse of popular support for the rebellion, and Dasharathapala dealt out harsh punishments for those responsible.
In 941 the Tang emperor Li Ningzong died and was succeeded by the isolationist Li Zhenzong. The subsequent outbreak of civil war in China and the closure of the country to foreign trade was a major setback and Bengal was soon enduring an economic downturn. Ningzong only lasted a year on the throne, as Li Shangzong (also an isolationist) inherited China in 942 and in 952 news arrived in the west that a deadly plague had broken out in the east. Dasharathapala chose to pressure the weakened Tang into reopening the Silk Road. This surprisingly proved successful, with Dasharathapala dispatching advisors to the east to coordinate the reopening, as well as relief efforts with the plague. The reopening of the Silk Road and the establishment of ‘preferred status’ for the Bengali routes was perhaps the greatest achievement of the troubled reign of Dasharathapala II. He died in 954, shortly after his diplomatic successes with China, and his only surviving son inherited the empire as Dasharathapala III.
954-958: (Pala) DASHARATHAPALA III
Few were optimistic about the reign of Dasharathapala III. Although only 22 upon taking the throne he was already obese and seemed to have very little interest in governing. Interestingly he had married a member of the Abbasid dynasty (the former ruling family of the Caliphate), and hence his only daughter was mirza – matrilineally descended from the Prophet Muhammad. His rise to power was almost immediately contested, as most of his vassals (who had vociferously opposed his father) declared him a pretender in a bid to place his uncle – also named Dasharathapala - on the throne. It was the largest civil war in Bengali history and a major threat to the legitimate Pala bloodline. Forced to meet a huge rebel force head-on despite being outnumbered, Dasharathapala just managed to secure a victory at the Second Battle of Kandra in 956. However, just a few months later at Etawah the imperial forces were defeated and Dasharathapala was severely injured. Despite this his forces were able to begin a counter-assault around the city of Delhi, using local rebellions as assistance to whittle down his opponents. It was all for naught, as the Samrat succumbed to infection as a result of his wounds. His uncle (ironically) inherited the throne, rendering the entire rebellion moot.
958-960: (Pala) DASHARATHAPALA IV
Dasharathapala IV was a one-eyed former adventurer who had carved out a formidable reputation as a warrior during the Tibetan civil wars, as well as in the rebellion against his predecessor. Despite this rough upbringing now in later life (aged 57) he had little interest in being declared Samrat and was an emotionally fragile and fat man. He had served more as a figurehead for the rebellion rather than a legitimate option for the throne. However, after his coronation he sought to address some of the concerns of the viceroys and drafted a preliminary constitution that would eventually develop into the ‘imperial’ style of government more like the bureaucracy of the Tang or even the Eastern Roman Empire. He died in 960 after just a year on the throne (becoming the second-shortest-reigning Pala monarch) and his second son became Samrat.
960-981: (Pala) AGNIMITRA I
As he was only 12 at the time of his coronation, Agnimitra was the first Samrat to govern under a regency council. During this period the Biswajit dynasty, governing as viceroys in Delhi, conquered the small Muslim hermit state on their frontier and united the de-jure kingdom. Simultaneously the Tang chose to act on their western frontier, moving to shatter the Karluks for their continuing role in disrupting trade across the northern routes of the Silk Road and for threatening their tributary states in Tibet. The Monyul viceroy in Kamarupa also began the conquest of Kham and Ü-Tsang. Immediately upon the end of his regency Agnimitra showed signs of being a brilliant strategist, and further consolidated relations with the Tang by marrying Princess Li Mei in 964. Keen to bring the period of domestic instability to an end, Agnimitra quickly started his first war. The Bengali-Zhangzhung war in 966 was a clear victory for the Samrat and marked a revitalized interest in exerting influence over the slowly-uniting states of Tibet. In 970 he launched the first Bengali expansionist invasion since the reign of Dasharathapala II, annexing Lahore and Multan in 971. Agnimitra installed a viceroy in the Punjab, before being forced to flee eastwards to try and escape the oncoming Black Death. However, while the epidemic decimated Persia, Arabia and then Europe in just two years India was miraculously untouched. By 974 the disease was declining in Central Asia, and as a result the Silk Road began to recover. Regardless of this Agnimitra began to show signs of mental insecurity from around the same time and it is believed he began to suffer from a form of cancer that began to significantly hinder his decision-making.
As his mental condition continued to worsen Agnimitra became increasingly vulnerable to court intrigue and espionage. Many of the viceroys had objected strongly to the drastic curtailing of their powers under the last few monarchs, and in 979 a coalition of central Indian and Bengali vassals rebelled in another large civil war. Pala forces met them at a series of close battles in Telingana with two skirmishes at Kollipake and a marginal victory for the imperials at Pannagallu. While the battle was won, Agnimitra would not survive it as he fell on the field. With the death of their main antagonist both sides quickly lost morale, and after a procession of rapid assaults upon the main rebel fortresses the resistance collapsed. However, Agnimitra II was only 10 years-old upon becoming Samrat and hence another regency council was formed.
981-1027: (Pala) AGNIMITRA II
The nominated successor to Agnimitra I and his second son, Agnimitra II was clearly a genius. Many were optimistic for his reign and hopeful that he would be able to bring a period of lasting peace for the empire (both at home and abroad). It was a peaceful regency and the young Samrat came of age without domestic opponents and with a thriving economy. At the end of his regency Agnimitra II wasted no time in resuming the great conquests of his great-grandfathers. In a short campaign in 987 he swiftly annexed Gandhara, completing the conquest of Punjab. Simultaneously he established Pala rule over eastern Gujarat – the conquest of the remainder of the peninsula was complete by 1013. In 988 the Muslim kingdom in Sindh fell into civil war; a Bengali campaign into Anartta led to the rapid capitulation of the rebels controlling the area. Without stopping Agnimitra involved Bengal in the Zhangzhung civil war, hoping to weaken the hostile Nyang dynasty for the Pala-supporting Tenzin Kong. From the moment Bengal intervened the Nyang were doomed, and in 991 the Kong were victorious in forcing the abdication of Thenwa Nyang. After a lengthy period of peace Agnimitra invaded the Jalilid Sultanate in Sindh, and after a quick campaign annexed the southern region to Sindh (including the mouth of the Indus). A shorter war captured the province of Vijnot for Rajputana in 1011, in conjunction with the larger campaign by the viceroy that conquered the entire region of Bhakkar and unified all of Sindh under Bengali control.
The reign of Agnimitra II was another period of great growth for Buddhism. Having committed himself to self-enlightenment via the teachings of the Savaka-Sangha Agnimitra became Arahnat in 999. Across the turn of the millennium there was a surge in unrest, mainly in Karnata, although this was only a minor distraction for Agnimitra and was easily defeated. Hinduism remained a majority religion in several Karnata provinces, contributing to the unrest, so Agnimitra personally oversaw conversion efforts in central India. In 1001 women were legally granted the right to hold public office, although they had held minor positions of government for many decades. In 1003 Agnimitra established a new Bengali administration in Kashmir, although it first it remained under the jurisdiction of the governor of Punjab. After the surprising conquest of Makran by the viceroy of Malwa-Gujarat the viceroyalty of Kabulistan was also created; future conquests united all five Buddhist holy sites under Pala rule, enabling Agnimitra to form the ‘Chosen of Ashoka’. Named after the great Buddhist ruler (the first to unify India), they became a loyal Buddhist holy order committed to defending the empire from her religious enemies.
The ascension of Li Zhenzhong IV to the throne of China kick-started another positive surge in Bengali-Tang relations. With Taoism the new emperor was an avid reader of Buddhist theology and therefore sought to cultivate strong relations with the Pala (especially given that they were the guardians of the cultural and religious homes of Buddhism). Pala was almost immediately gifted preferential treatment on the Silk Road once again, and a revived technological exchange began between the two empires. Both were in ‘golden ages’ at the start of the 1000s. However, news of the unification of the Mongol tribes in 1011 was alarming to the Tang – and in the following year China itself came under attack from the horde. This brought the era of China prosperity to an abrupt halt. The collapse of the ancient dynasty in 1018 elevated Jingzu Borjigin (fourth son of the great khan Temujin) to the throne, and Agnimitra would take a firmer line with the new government. Bengal almost immediately began laying plans for further intervention in Tibet in a bid to restrict the influence of the Western Protectorate,but a tentative peace treaty was negotiated quickly between the two powers.
By the beginning of the 1020s all the subcontinent of India had been united under Pala, except for the independent holdings of Muslims lords in Somnath and Mansura. In 1024 Agnimitra led a campaign against these holdings, and while he was successful he was gravely injured in a skirmish in southern Sindh. Having lost an eye and suffered both medical complications and infection Agnimitra was unable to recover; he died in mid-August 1027. One of the greatest Bengali monarch,s he ruled over a golden age in Indian and Chinese history, positioning the Pala dynasty as one of the greatest in the world. He was succeeded by his eldest son.
The founding of the Pala dynasty has been attributed to Gopala I, who united a group of chieftains and pre-feudal lords to establish the first kingdom of Bengal in approximately 755. A near-mythical figure, Gopala is believed to have established the Bengali capital at the fortress-city of Laksmanavati as well as the famous monastery complex at Odantapuri; Odantapuri would develop as the second-oldest Mahavihara in India, preceded only by the university of Nalanda in Gaya. With his powerbase mainly focused around the north of Bengal Gopala was able to secure the new state, and by the time of his death in 760 he bequeathed his sizeable holdings in Bengal and Bihar to his 16-year-old son Dharmapala I.
769-850: (Pala) DHARMAPALA I
Despite taking the throne at a young age Dharmapala I quickly established himself as an effective administrator, militarist and theologian. He led Bengal into the Tripartite Struggle, pitching the Buddhist Pala against the Hindi kingdoms of Northern India to unite all of de-jure Bengal between 700 and 775 (with the Ayudha fortress of Kumarakhali besieged no fewer than five times). The momentous victory over the Hindus in Kosala following the Battle of Kenduli accompanied the collapse of the Rashtrakuta dynasty in the south, and the Ayudha would never again prove a major obstacle to Bengal. (A seperate tributary Buddhist kingdom in Kosala was established under the Hammiravarman dynasty in 828). Elsewhere, a series of protracted campaigns against the Somavamsi and Bhanja led to the Buddhist usurpation of Orissa, while a coalition of Hindi forces were unable to prevent the annexation of Gondwana in 828. Buddhist surged in Northern India, and Dharmapala sponsored substantial works to the great monasteries along the Ganges. Bhikkhus were granted significant political power and new Mahavihara were founded at Satkhira in 783, at Mainamati in 788 and Candranatha in 799. The Buddhist holy sites of Sarnath and Lumbini were also annexed by Dharmapala - the latter following the annexation of Nepal in 843 - while he placed an important role in the strengthening of the Savaka-Sangha. Relations with the Tang dynasty were established, and quickly swelled into a strong economic relationship; Bengal received preferential status from the Han court regarding trade along the Silk Road, and after a visit to China in the mid-800s Dharmapala introduced primogeniture inheritance across all of his kingdoms in 802.
[In 809 the near-200-year-old Purgyal dynasty collapsed in Tibet, leading to the rapid disintegration of the Tibetan Empire and the beginning of the First Warring States Period. Encroached upon by Manichean Uyghur nomads and constantly hindered by political assassinations and civil wars, Tibet was unable to defend Kamarupa from Pala invasions in 822 and the imperial court eventually fled from Lhasa to Qamdo. With the Buddhist annexation of Nepal and the Pala conquest of Bhutan in 847 the empire truly collapsed, and the emperor lost his final territories in 848].
Dharmapala I became the first Emperor of Bengal in 849 - uniting the thrones of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Kamarupa, Gondwana and Nepal into a new imperial state. He died a year later, but having established a reputation as perhaps the greatest Pala monarch (and certainly the longest living). He had few children, but his eldest son succeeded him as Dharmapala II.
850-895: (Pala) DHARMAPALA II
A young linguist, Dharmapala II was quickly faced with domestic unrest; he backtracked upon the policies of his father and sought to restrict the power and influence that holy men played at court. Following the collapse of imperial power in Tibet the Bön religion had found considerable favour upon the lords of Bengal - Dharmapala crushed a short rebellion by the Govindapalid dynasty in 868. Having reestablished order he enacted sweeping reforms to the Bengali bureaucracy, establishing non-hereditary viceroys to administer the nine kingdoms of the empire (in the style of the Chinese) while retaining personal power in Bengal only. By smoothing over his many ducal vassals in favour of a centralized system with his governors, Dharmapala overnight removed the threat of conspiracy while simultaneously strengthened his position and that of his political allies. It was a masterstroke of domestic policy, and the viceroy system - 'Gabharnara' - remained in place for the remainder of Pala rule in India. The announcement was followed by a mass amnesty for those imprisoned under the old system with several major opponents banished from Bengal but spared their lives. Others were granted freedom in exchange for their conversion to Buddhism.
Dharmapala played an important role in the Chinese civil war, as he defeated the rogue General Pan Tao after his arrival in India in 853. At the Battle of Numaligarh Dharmapala scored a tactical victory, forcing the large Han force back until he finally (and decisively) defeated them near Bumthang in January 855. By alleviating pressure on the western frontier, Dharmapala was credited by some as playing a decisive role in the eventual Tang victory. The Samrat visited China on kowtow shortly after, and he continued to encourage Han to live and work at the Pala court in Laksmanavati. He conquered the Hammiravarman kingdom of Kosala in 686, and installed the Buddhist Indradatta Ruddha upon the throne of Maharastra in 876. Grateful for the assistance Indradatta swore fealty to the Bengali Empire, but then was unexpectedly assassinated by Hindi loyalists. The power vacuum in the region quickly devolved into chaos, and the Pala restored order by force. Dharmapala II declared himself the Maharaja of both Maharastra and Telingana and secured Bengali control over Central India. (Maharastra would later develop as one of the most powerful Pala vassals until the 949 civil war). The Chawda and Chalukya were invaded in 883; neither state had previously fought the Pala, and consequently they proved strong opponents. The Buddhists were able to defeat the Chawda at the narrow Battle of Bhambhagiri, although this proved only a minor victory as Gujarati forces were able to continuously harass the Bengalis as Dharmapala lay siege to Sarasvata in 886. Upon the fall of the city he defeated a combined force at Patta, resulting in the capitulation of the Chawda in 887. The Chalukya lasted a little longer, although their war effort was only truly disrupted by the assassination of Mahalla III and the ascension of his infant son Mahalla IV. With their annexation of Konkana the Bengalis gained a western coastline for the first time, although only accessible via a narrow strip at Devagiri and Nasikya. In 890 Dharmapala moved to place Atitta Palava on the throne of Andhra in exchange for his allegiance to Bengal. This gave Pala control of all southern India, with the exception of the interior Sinda kingdom (itself wracked by civil war) and the island of Lanka.
Dharmapala II died of a heart attack in 895 at the age of 61. He was succeeded by his fourth son, Dasharathapala I.
895-939: (Pala) DASHARATHAPALA I
Just 28 upon taking the throne, Dasharathapala was an erudite scholar - more interested in the micromanagement of rule rather than great military campaigns. His rule would prove to be a peaceful one, overseeing the continuing economic prosperity of his empire. Like Dharmapala I he was a member of the Savaka-Sangha and found himself well-suited for the solitary and meditative lifestyle of devout Buddhism. He quickly established himself as a philanthropist and sponsor of the arts and was most famously known for founding many leper colonies. His commitment to medical research was useful, and during his reign there were several epidemics. Dasharathapala presided over a new golden age of Buddhism, as the religion went from strength to strength. However, while it was strong across northern India and into Tibet among the newly-conquered regions in the centre of the sub-continent Hinduism (and to a lesser extent Jainism) remained the dominant force. Conversion efforts intensified to ensure that Hinduism and Jainism continued to decline in newly-conquered territories. Malwa was conquered in 907, while Delhi and Karnata followed suit in 927 and 936 respectively. At the same time the Mahendrasinghid dynasty – governors of Tamilakam – conquered the island of Lanka. Dasharathapala was keen to continue his long-running reforms, and in 937 declared that while the Gabharnara would remain installed with agnatic primogeniture the imperial title would institute agnatic-cognatic succession (meaning that women could inherit if there were no eligible male heirs). This was well-received by many, encouraged by the continuing progressivism of the Buddhism faith. It is said that the move was partly inspired by the accidental death of Gopala, the eldest grandson of Dasharathapala and potential future emperor.
Despite early clashes with the Tang Dasharathapala I would become infamous in the Islamic world for the role he played in the shattering of the Abdulid Caliphate in 904 and 905. A series of lengthy meetings with Chinese envoys and diplomats regarding the further encroachment of Islam into the Steppe via the growth of the Bajanid Sultanate, as well as their pushing into Gujarat, prompted action. A large force from the Tang launched a full-scale invasion of the Caliphate, with Pala forces opening a lengthy second front in Sindh. The action was well-timed, as Caliph Mukhtar was facing a series of rebellion and civil wars that had greatly decreased the military and cultural strength of his position; the arrival of Chinese troops in Persia terrified the weakening Caliph, and the Muslims fell victim to defeat after defeat. Soon morale collapsed completely, and the Caliphate began to fall apart. By the time of the Treaty of Yazd, which essentially dissolved the Abdulid state, it was already disintegrating. As Tang and Pala troops returned east, Mukhtar established himself only as the religious Caliph of Islam in Baghdad, and the Caliphate was no more. (Ironically the war failed to address the main cause of the war – the expansion of the Bajanids – but it did break out the Abdulid political stranglehold over Central Asia. The Bajanids remained a major player in the region until their conquest by the Nestorian Karlukid empire in 946).
The outbreak of famine in China in 939 placed Bengal in an advantageous position, as Dasharathapala continued to position Bengal as an emerging power in Asia. He would not live to see any more his work come to fruition, though, as he died in 939 at the age of 71. He was succeeded by his only living child, Dasharathapala II.
939-954: (Pala) DASHARATHAPALA II
Dasharathapala II, at 46, was the oldest monarch upon taking the throne. A strong warrior, he was a drastic physical contrast to his father and proved a confrontational monarch. A civil war raged in Orissa and Telingana until 943, and Dharmapala soon began to drink in excess. His vengeful nature was noticed by his viceroys, who gave him a wide berth, and he became increasingly tyrannical and unjust. Nevertheless, he was an experienced duelist, and often challenged his opponents in combat (besting them despite usually being drunk). This came to a head in 949, when the western governors of Maharastra and Malwa – the two most powerful in the empire – rebelled against Dasharathapala in a bid to place his cousin, Rajrajendranarayan Mukundanarayan, on the throne. A large rebel force met the Samrat personally at Rajura and were inflicted a devastating loss from which they never truly recovered. A Pala campaign into the heart of Maharastra led to the complete collapse of popular support for the rebellion, and Dasharathapala dealt out harsh punishments for those responsible.
In 941 the Tang emperor Li Ningzong died and was succeeded by the isolationist Li Zhenzong. The subsequent outbreak of civil war in China and the closure of the country to foreign trade was a major setback and Bengal was soon enduring an economic downturn. Ningzong only lasted a year on the throne, as Li Shangzong (also an isolationist) inherited China in 942 and in 952 news arrived in the west that a deadly plague had broken out in the east. Dasharathapala chose to pressure the weakened Tang into reopening the Silk Road. This surprisingly proved successful, with Dasharathapala dispatching advisors to the east to coordinate the reopening, as well as relief efforts with the plague. The reopening of the Silk Road and the establishment of ‘preferred status’ for the Bengali routes was perhaps the greatest achievement of the troubled reign of Dasharathapala II. He died in 954, shortly after his diplomatic successes with China, and his only surviving son inherited the empire as Dasharathapala III.
954-958: (Pala) DASHARATHAPALA III
Few were optimistic about the reign of Dasharathapala III. Although only 22 upon taking the throne he was already obese and seemed to have very little interest in governing. Interestingly he had married a member of the Abbasid dynasty (the former ruling family of the Caliphate), and hence his only daughter was mirza – matrilineally descended from the Prophet Muhammad. His rise to power was almost immediately contested, as most of his vassals (who had vociferously opposed his father) declared him a pretender in a bid to place his uncle – also named Dasharathapala - on the throne. It was the largest civil war in Bengali history and a major threat to the legitimate Pala bloodline. Forced to meet a huge rebel force head-on despite being outnumbered, Dasharathapala just managed to secure a victory at the Second Battle of Kandra in 956. However, just a few months later at Etawah the imperial forces were defeated and Dasharathapala was severely injured. Despite this his forces were able to begin a counter-assault around the city of Delhi, using local rebellions as assistance to whittle down his opponents. It was all for naught, as the Samrat succumbed to infection as a result of his wounds. His uncle (ironically) inherited the throne, rendering the entire rebellion moot.
958-960: (Pala) DASHARATHAPALA IV
Dasharathapala IV was a one-eyed former adventurer who had carved out a formidable reputation as a warrior during the Tibetan civil wars, as well as in the rebellion against his predecessor. Despite this rough upbringing now in later life (aged 57) he had little interest in being declared Samrat and was an emotionally fragile and fat man. He had served more as a figurehead for the rebellion rather than a legitimate option for the throne. However, after his coronation he sought to address some of the concerns of the viceroys and drafted a preliminary constitution that would eventually develop into the ‘imperial’ style of government more like the bureaucracy of the Tang or even the Eastern Roman Empire. He died in 960 after just a year on the throne (becoming the second-shortest-reigning Pala monarch) and his second son became Samrat.
960-981: (Pala) AGNIMITRA I
As he was only 12 at the time of his coronation, Agnimitra was the first Samrat to govern under a regency council. During this period the Biswajit dynasty, governing as viceroys in Delhi, conquered the small Muslim hermit state on their frontier and united the de-jure kingdom. Simultaneously the Tang chose to act on their western frontier, moving to shatter the Karluks for their continuing role in disrupting trade across the northern routes of the Silk Road and for threatening their tributary states in Tibet. The Monyul viceroy in Kamarupa also began the conquest of Kham and Ü-Tsang. Immediately upon the end of his regency Agnimitra showed signs of being a brilliant strategist, and further consolidated relations with the Tang by marrying Princess Li Mei in 964. Keen to bring the period of domestic instability to an end, Agnimitra quickly started his first war. The Bengali-Zhangzhung war in 966 was a clear victory for the Samrat and marked a revitalized interest in exerting influence over the slowly-uniting states of Tibet. In 970 he launched the first Bengali expansionist invasion since the reign of Dasharathapala II, annexing Lahore and Multan in 971. Agnimitra installed a viceroy in the Punjab, before being forced to flee eastwards to try and escape the oncoming Black Death. However, while the epidemic decimated Persia, Arabia and then Europe in just two years India was miraculously untouched. By 974 the disease was declining in Central Asia, and as a result the Silk Road began to recover. Regardless of this Agnimitra began to show signs of mental insecurity from around the same time and it is believed he began to suffer from a form of cancer that began to significantly hinder his decision-making.
As his mental condition continued to worsen Agnimitra became increasingly vulnerable to court intrigue and espionage. Many of the viceroys had objected strongly to the drastic curtailing of their powers under the last few monarchs, and in 979 a coalition of central Indian and Bengali vassals rebelled in another large civil war. Pala forces met them at a series of close battles in Telingana with two skirmishes at Kollipake and a marginal victory for the imperials at Pannagallu. While the battle was won, Agnimitra would not survive it as he fell on the field. With the death of their main antagonist both sides quickly lost morale, and after a procession of rapid assaults upon the main rebel fortresses the resistance collapsed. However, Agnimitra II was only 10 years-old upon becoming Samrat and hence another regency council was formed.
981-1027: (Pala) AGNIMITRA II
The nominated successor to Agnimitra I and his second son, Agnimitra II was clearly a genius. Many were optimistic for his reign and hopeful that he would be able to bring a period of lasting peace for the empire (both at home and abroad). It was a peaceful regency and the young Samrat came of age without domestic opponents and with a thriving economy. At the end of his regency Agnimitra II wasted no time in resuming the great conquests of his great-grandfathers. In a short campaign in 987 he swiftly annexed Gandhara, completing the conquest of Punjab. Simultaneously he established Pala rule over eastern Gujarat – the conquest of the remainder of the peninsula was complete by 1013. In 988 the Muslim kingdom in Sindh fell into civil war; a Bengali campaign into Anartta led to the rapid capitulation of the rebels controlling the area. Without stopping Agnimitra involved Bengal in the Zhangzhung civil war, hoping to weaken the hostile Nyang dynasty for the Pala-supporting Tenzin Kong. From the moment Bengal intervened the Nyang were doomed, and in 991 the Kong were victorious in forcing the abdication of Thenwa Nyang. After a lengthy period of peace Agnimitra invaded the Jalilid Sultanate in Sindh, and after a quick campaign annexed the southern region to Sindh (including the mouth of the Indus). A shorter war captured the province of Vijnot for Rajputana in 1011, in conjunction with the larger campaign by the viceroy that conquered the entire region of Bhakkar and unified all of Sindh under Bengali control.
The reign of Agnimitra II was another period of great growth for Buddhism. Having committed himself to self-enlightenment via the teachings of the Savaka-Sangha Agnimitra became Arahnat in 999. Across the turn of the millennium there was a surge in unrest, mainly in Karnata, although this was only a minor distraction for Agnimitra and was easily defeated. Hinduism remained a majority religion in several Karnata provinces, contributing to the unrest, so Agnimitra personally oversaw conversion efforts in central India. In 1001 women were legally granted the right to hold public office, although they had held minor positions of government for many decades. In 1003 Agnimitra established a new Bengali administration in Kashmir, although it first it remained under the jurisdiction of the governor of Punjab. After the surprising conquest of Makran by the viceroy of Malwa-Gujarat the viceroyalty of Kabulistan was also created; future conquests united all five Buddhist holy sites under Pala rule, enabling Agnimitra to form the ‘Chosen of Ashoka’. Named after the great Buddhist ruler (the first to unify India), they became a loyal Buddhist holy order committed to defending the empire from her religious enemies.
The ascension of Li Zhenzhong IV to the throne of China kick-started another positive surge in Bengali-Tang relations. With Taoism the new emperor was an avid reader of Buddhist theology and therefore sought to cultivate strong relations with the Pala (especially given that they were the guardians of the cultural and religious homes of Buddhism). Pala was almost immediately gifted preferential treatment on the Silk Road once again, and a revived technological exchange began between the two empires. Both were in ‘golden ages’ at the start of the 1000s. However, news of the unification of the Mongol tribes in 1011 was alarming to the Tang – and in the following year China itself came under attack from the horde. This brought the era of China prosperity to an abrupt halt. The collapse of the ancient dynasty in 1018 elevated Jingzu Borjigin (fourth son of the great khan Temujin) to the throne, and Agnimitra would take a firmer line with the new government. Bengal almost immediately began laying plans for further intervention in Tibet in a bid to restrict the influence of the Western Protectorate,but a tentative peace treaty was negotiated quickly between the two powers.
By the beginning of the 1020s all the subcontinent of India had been united under Pala, except for the independent holdings of Muslims lords in Somnath and Mansura. In 1024 Agnimitra led a campaign against these holdings, and while he was successful he was gravely injured in a skirmish in southern Sindh. Having lost an eye and suffered both medical complications and infection Agnimitra was unable to recover; he died in mid-August 1027. One of the greatest Bengali monarch,s he ruled over a golden age in Indian and Chinese history, positioning the Pala dynasty as one of the greatest in the world. He was succeeded by his eldest son.
1027-1038: (Pala) AGNIMITRA III
Agnimitra II had been revered by most of his vassals, and as a result few were concerned about the rise of his equally-capable son. Agnimitra III was nevertheless keen to consolidate his rule, and on the first day of 1028 proclaimed himself Samrat Chakravartin (or ‘Emperor of Emperors’). The title embodied the concept of the ideal and universal world ruler in Indian tradition and established the Pala as rulers of near-godlike stature – under their tenth ruler since Gopala founded the dynasty. It was also a move to posture India as the new dominant power in the east after the collapse of the Tang and the arrival of the Mongols as a continental threat. Indeed, Agnimitra III sought to tackle Mongol influence head on, ending the two-century entente between the powers. However, just ten years after the Mongols had seized power in China they came under threat from the Jurchen peoples of the northeast, who invaded the Yuan dynasty in 1028. Tensions with the Mongol dynasty continued when Agnimitra refused a customary shipment of warhorses to China, resulting in an Imperial edict against Indian traders on the Silk Road. Agnimitra was keen to continue the political reforms that had continued to weaken the governors in favour of a centralized imperial power. In 1033 he moved to lawfully retract land from the governor of Nepal in Kashmir, resulting in an unexpected civil war. Many of the most troublesome provinces rebelled, mainly in the west. After a short yet difficult campaign, hampered by a typhus outbreak in central India, Agnimitra forced the rebels to surrender and began sweeping revocations of land. In the aftermath of the civil war he granted two provinces – Khuttal and Balkh – de-facto independence to create a border buffer between India and volatile Persia (under control of the Hafizid dynasty from 1034) as well as to limit the strength of his western troublemakers further. For all his life Agnimitra III had possessed a large figure, and he suddenly died in 1038 due to complications of his weight. The throne passed to his second son Agnimitra IV, overlooking his eldest due to his well-known cowardice and greed. However, his second son was not much better – a cynical yet trusting 29-year-old.
1038-1050: (Pala) AGNIMITRA IV
Agnimitra IV was an unimpressive figure, with very few noticeable skills or interests. He had a tense relationship with his older brother, who disapproved of his womanizing and in 1039 Agnimitra quietly moved to have him killed. The attempt failed, although word did not get out, but his brother was severely injured and lost a hand. (He died in 1040). In the first year of his rule he granted the newly-constructed temple complex at Rampur Boalia to the Chosen of Ashoka and established a permanent home for the order. In 1040 the short-lived reign of the Mongols in China came to an end, as Emperor Jingzu was smashed by the Jurchens and the new (Buddhist) Xia dynasty came to power under Cæjæid Taizu. Agnimitra immediately departed to the east to try and woo favour for a wider campaign against the Mongols, although China remained in an unsteady position. In 1046 Agnimitra launched a large invasion of Zhangzhung, plunging across the Himalayas to push his own right to the Nyang throne. A concurrent invasion of Shigatse hoped to unify the southern half of the plateau under Bengali rule, and at the Battle of Bainang the Indian invasion through Sikkim forced a defeat for the Nyang. A short campaign followed, although the Pala were struck with heavy attrition in the Himalayan region through the winter into 1046. In November 1047 however both Zhangzhung and Shigatse surrendered, and for the first time India stretched north into Tibet. Agnimitra proclaimed himself monarch of both Zhangzhung and Ü-Tsang (the latter ending Salïndïid control since 967). With the conquest complete, however, Agnimitra annexed the remainder of Kashmir and established the rest as a series of independent buffer states.
The emergence of the Black Plague in India from 1048 caused panic and mass causalities across the north of the empire. India had been spared the chaos caused by the initial epidemic in the mid-950s, and so the spread of the disease was rapid and totaling. The response at court was slow, and there were many fatalities. Among them was the 41-year-old Samrat who quickly died after contracting the disease in 1050. The throne fell to his 8-year-old daughter Agnimitrapali, who became the first Empress of India.
1050-1098: (Pala) AGNIMITRAPALI I
With the Plague still wracking chaos across northern India the regency council took over. It would take almost a decade for Bengal to recover from the outbreak, and the economy was badly hit. Agnimitrapali was quick to move against any potential threats after coming of age in July 1057. Her shrewd understanding of politics ensured that opponents were quickly repressed, although usually within legal means. Her early reign was largely a peaceful one, and in 1068 she became the youngest leader of the Savaka-Sangha for over 200 years (at the age of 26). Following the ‘Year of Four Khagans’ in 1070 (Kokochu, Chilagun, Nayaga and Yegu) this changed, as Agnimitrapali embarked upon a large conquest in the west. Launching a simultaneous invasion of the Jalilid kingdom in Sistan and the Mongolian Empire in Merv, Pala forces smashed the Muslims at the Battle of Kalat in early-1071. Kandahar had fallen by November, and the Bengalis continued to keep up the pressure on the failing Jalilid state. A second victory at the Battle of Farrah in January 1072 inflicted a mortal wound, capturing Shah Ghobad Muqannid of Khorasan (who was subsequently executed), and in mid-February the Jalilid dynasty fled Sistan to Arabia. Agnimitrapali was proclaimed the monarch of Sistan and sweeping land revocations disenfranchised all Muslims in the subjugated territories. Attention turned to the Mongols, and on November 19 a huge battle took place at Andkhud. The Mongols seized the upper hand and were only defeated thanks to sizeable reinforcements late in the engagement, overwhelming their tired forces and securing the tightest of victories for the Bengalis. A final engagement at Abiward in the summer of 1073 was an Indian victory despite stretching supply lines, consolidating the wider fall of Merv. Khagan Yegu was forced to concede defeat. The victory of Agnimitrapali in these two wars established India as the undisputed hegemon of Central Asia and signaled the beginning of the end for Islamic influence in the region. However, the conflicts did take a hefty toll on Indian manpower – necessitating a lull in further warfare for several years.
Agnimitrapali usurped the Shahdom of Khorasan from the Muqannid dynasty in 1074, establishing a new viceroyalty to watch over her north-western flank. In 1075 a large imperial carriage train departed for China, as Agnimitra finally chose to normalize relations with the Jurchens now ruling the Xia dynasty. This was mainly to attempt another coalition against the Mongols, although with the eclipse of the Borjigin in the Khaganate and the rise of the Batbayar it was clear that the legacy of Temujin was badly suffering. In 1078 the province of Tis was captured from an Ismailid revolt in southern Persia, uniting all Sistan under Indian rule. Following this success Agnimitrapali committed herself to a period of peace, granting women full legal rights equal to that of men across the entire empire. A new wave of Buddhism swept over the subcontinent, particularly in the few southern holdouts of Hinduism. On the last day of 1082 Cæjæid Taizu died and was succeeded by his eldest son Andahai. Andahai was committed to isolationism and immediately moved to close the Silk Road. However, Agnimitrapali – a self-appointed protector of the Silk Road and controlling much of the wealth of Central Asia – issued a counter-edict; traders were coerced back to their posts, kick-starting trade once again, and forcing the Xia dynasty to reconsider their position. It was a great diplomatic success for India – especially as subsequent negotiations forced China to remain open for a minimum of 50 years. Agnimitrapali fought off tensions with the religious orders when she insisted that a Sariraka bone, originally owned by the Savaka-Sangha, should be maintained by the imperial family in 1083. The same year the Byzantine Empire, led by the disfigured Basileus Theodoulos Skamendrenos, conquered Khozistan from the Ismailid and established a Roman presence on the Indian Ocean – the first time since the great Roman empires of old. It was signal the beginning of an Indian interest in the affairs of Constantinople, and the new territories of Sistan became a melting-pot between the four great empires of the medieval world (Byzantium, India, Mongolia and China). In 1086 the 20-year-old future-emperor Bosporios Akropolites, descendant of Germanos I, arrived as an invited representative of the Greeks in Laksmanavati – his role in future Byzantine politics would be highly-significant.
After a lengthy period of peace Agnimitrapali – now 54 and ageing fast – ordered the annexation of the remaining Persian kingdom. A large invasion pushed met a coalition of Muslim forces in Kerman, defeating them twice at Bampur and beginning a lengthy period of consolidation. The Ismailids were assisted by their regional rivals; newly-established Tabaristan, founded by the Shia holy order the Hashashin. The so-called ‘Fedayeen’ had declared themselves the defenders of Islam, and despite being sandwiched between the Byzantines and the Indians had quickly carved out a viable polity in north-western Persia and Daylam. They were defeated in a large pitched battle at Buzgan, forcing their capitulation in 1097 – their allies were soon to follow, and Agnimitrapali formally annexed the remainder of Persia in 1098. This now partitioned the once-great kingdom between the Bengalis, Greeks and the Hashashin. Muslim vassals were immediately disenfranchised, and their lands were distributed to those loyal to Buddhism. The conquest established an Indian presence on the Caspian for the first time and established the viceroyalty of Khorasan as one of the most important and wide-spanning within the Indian Empire. This final great victory in Persia was the last act of Agnimitrapali I, as she died at the age of 57 in 1098. Her legacy was one of the most significant of all the Pala monarchs, although highly-surprisingly she had only one child. Agnimitrapali II succeeded her mother at the age of 36.
1098-1128: (Pala) AGNIMITRAPALI II
Agnimitrapali II was a frail figure, addled with the Lovers’ Pox from early on in her sexual maturity. However, what she lacked in physique she more than made up for in cunning and used all her wiles to repress the sizeable opposition to her rule upon taking the throne. Her cousins – potential figurehead to rebellion – died in mysterious circumstances in 1099, while other threats were blackmailed, coerced or imprisoned. Public humiliations of political opponents became common. Her great-uncle was exiled to China, and in 1102 she also travelled east to meet Dezong at his court. The Emperor was unimpressed, however, and refused an audience; Agnimitrapali returned to Laksmanavati having refused to kowtow to just a bust, without the personal favour of the Jurchen dynasty. In 1103 the Isauros returned to power in Constantinople after almost three centuries away from the Purple, sponsoring a series of conquests in the Middle East. However, the declaration of a ‘jihad’ against the Greek holdings in Persia by ‘Caliph’ Abu-Bakr II would divert their attention from the Indian annexation of Mafaza in 1105. This conquest would establish the Greco-Indian border in Persia and was the limit of the westward push of the Indians prior to the conquest of the Byzantines. Throughout 1106 Agnimitrapali was afflicted by a very difficult pregnancy, forced to retreat from affairs of state and in a delirium for several weeks. In November she gave birth to another daughter (her fifth), although from an unknown father, but remained weak and feverish. Her pregnancy paralleled the Jurchen-Mongol War that wracked the Steppe throughout 1106, but Agnimitrapali recovered just in time to receive news that Khagan Jochi had been decisively defeated in 1107, fracturing his domains and ending the Mongol experiment with empire. The Tibetan plateau almost immediately fell into warfare, as the traditional states of Zhangzhung, Ü-Tsang and Kham sought to consolidate their positions over the newly-independent north throughout the Second Warring States Period.
In 1114 the heiress to the throne, the future Agnimitrapali III, came of age – and became the first Pala for many years to be engaged to a prince of China (the nephew of Dezong, Tunon). The Samrajni was increasingly disinterested in international affairs, retreating in her old age to enjoy her infidelity and hedonism. However, India engaged in a limited number of brush wars in Tibet and in 1115 the great city of Samarkand was annexed by the viceroyalty of Khorasan. The victory of the Muslims in their jihad for Byzantine Persia was successful in 1116, posing a new Islamic threat to India in the west. The Greeks were quick to respond, though, and by 1120 he reconquered all their lost territory as well as the collapsing Hashashin state. 1120 soon emerged as a year of crisis for Constantinople, however – Ioustinianos III was assassinated in May, and his successor Athanasios lasted a mere two days before he himself died unexpectedly. The 4-year-old Michael Oristani became Emperor behind closed doors as the court descended into suspicion and intrigue. With political chaos in Constantinople and a declaration of war from the Abd-al-Qays Sultanate in Arabia, India mobilized for war. After almost two years of staging, the Battle of Ramhormoz was a great victory for the Indians while a second narrower victory at Hashtgerd gave enough tactical space to begin an extensive occupation of Greek Persia and Khozistan. Across 1122 the Greeks attempted to tie down the Indian forces, although were defeated at the close battles of Aligoodarz and Salafehegan (both in October). With domestic support for the young Basileus disintegrating and facing off a full-blown Indian invasion of Anatolia the Oristani dynasty was forced to sue for peace. Michael abdicated, and Bosporios Akropolites took the Purple Throne. As a Buddhist his position was delicate, and he faced immediate resistance from his Orthodox vassals. Maintained only by the threat of further Indian militarism, upon the withdrawal of Pala troops from the imperial east the infirm Bosporios was immediately dethroned by factional demand. However, the War of the Akropolites established India as the sole power in the Middle East and showed that the political affairs of the Byzantine Empire were now subject to the approval of the Pala. (Bosporios himself died on the first day of 1123).
The last few years of the reign of Agnimitrapali II were bitter; intense rivalries had developed with the imperial daughters, and many vassals had grown tired of her disinterest and selfishness. (A lengthy scar across the nose of the future Agnimitrapali III was rumoured to have been caused by a fight in the royal chambers in 1126). She died in 1128, at the age of 66, and was succeeded by her third daughter who took the throne as Agnimitrapali III.
1128-1171: (Pala) AGNIMITRAPALI III
Agnimitrapali III, having taken the throne at 29, was probably the most capable Pala to be coronated in India history. With a strong physique and a ruthless intellect, as well as ambition and courageousness, she secured her position by generous brides to many of her viceroys. As had become the undeclared tradition Agnimitrapali committed India to a period of peace for the years immediately following her coronation. She negotiated with the Xia dynasty to secure a trade contract for the newly-installed Emperor Shangzong, although she remained wary about his intent to wage an expansionist foreign policy for China. Agnimitrapali established herself as a hands-on monarch, becoming the first Samrajni to slay a tiger at a hunt and lead troops in training. In 1135 she had a son, Paksirajapala – notable for being the first direct male heir to the throne for the best part of a century. Agnimitrapali followed in the footsteps of her grandmother by coming the Arhat of the Savaka-Sangha in 1139, at the age of 40.
The overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty in 1131 ended the last functional imperial state of Islam. The three sultanates of the Rahmanids (Syria), Abd-al-Qays (Arabia) and Qadirids (Egypt) remained largely intact, but it was clear that the religion was failing. Caliph Hasan Abdulid maintained his position in Yemen, but lacked any cohesive religious or political authority. Unlike her predecessors Agnimitrapali was keen to support positive relations with the Byzantine Empire, and reportedly maintained a strong correspondence with the young Apollonios II Syraneres throughout his regency. After the very public murder of Apollonios by Laurentios Isauros in 1140, however, Indian attitudes changed. Agnimitrapali was wary of the motives of the Isauros coup, and war broke out in 1141. Just a few months later a second coup saw Pelagios II Skamandrenos take the Purple Throne, who zealously sought victory against the Buddhists. Due to the lengthy mobilization time of the Pala the Byzantines were able to score early victories, most notably the siege of Qohistan. An Indian response at Gonabad crushed the northern invasion of Persia, however, and throughout 1142 the Byzantine front in Jibal virtually collapsed under the pressure. At the Second Battle of Salafehegan in September 1142 the Greeks almost secured a victory despite inferior odds, but it was at Sedeh five days later where the Byzantines were utterly and decisively defeated. Unable to continue any further offensive action, Pelagios II signed the Treaty of Qom; the treaty was drafted to prevent any further Greek threat to the Indian Empire, establishing Indian advisors in Constantinople and reducing the Eastern Roman Empire to a tributary state of the Pala. It was a domestic disaster for the Skamandrenos (resulting in their almost-immediate fall from power), but a great achievement for Agnimitrapali – who had not favoured war in the first place. Now with Indian influence in the Mediterranean and extending almost as far as Tunisia and the Baltic, the Age of Europe began to come to an end. With the war with the Greeks at a height, the conversion of Kafirkot to Buddhism in 1142 was largely overlooked. The last remaining non-Buddhist majority province in India, the final removal of Hinduism and Jainism from the Indian subcontinent was complete. Islam held out in the westernmost provinces of Persia, but quickly began to fade. By 1160 only the furthest periphery of the empire held out against Buddhism, but in 1169 the final province became Buddhist-majority. The religious unification of the empire was complete.
With peace with the Greeks restored Agnimitrapali restored good relations with the Ooryphas dynasty and granted Artemios II more authority than initially granted under the Treaty of Qom. A series of local wars took place in the late-1140s, mainly to eliminate any lasting Muslim holdings in Persia and in the Steppe, but in 1150 a new larger conflict broke out as once again a jihad was called by Abu-Bakr III for Persia. The Byzantines requested Indian assistance in defending their eastern front, and Agnimitrapali obliged with over 80,000 men. The rugged terrain of Jibal and Kurdistan proved hard to wage a mobile war, and as previous wars had shown made supply lines difficult. Initial success gave way to tactical retreats in a bid to weaken the large Muslim forces in the same way. An outbreak of the Plague in Greece further hampered the Byzantine ability to wage a proper counter-attack, and when it claimed the life of Artemios the new Basileus Apollonios III Touvakes was fat and disliked. The defence of Persia fell to India, and a blistering campaign led by Agnimitrapali herself pushed the Muslims back throughout the spring of 1153. The Battle of Khansar was a Bengali victory, and at Samavah a few weeks later a Muslim flanking manoeuvre through Arabia was pushed back. Trying to push home the advantage a 33,000-strong Indian force marched through the desert to meet the Arabs at the Battle of Hindiya. The final Indian battle of the war, at Qumm Oualad, was one of the greatest of the last century and resulted in the final Muslim abandonment of the conflict in May 1154.
By 1160 India had never been stronger; Agnimitrapali III had established a highly-centralized court, surrounded by a committed and loyal periphery of viceroys. In 1164 she reorganized her possessions in the steppe, forming the governorships of Oghuz and Transoxiana – weakening the role of Khorasan, which had for many decades been probably the most significant of all the western viceroys. In 1165 Agnimitrapali launched an invasion of Khotan in a bid to both unseat the ruling Yaredid dynasty but also dislodge the Xia tributary state. The Indians prepared for a lengthy campaign, but at the Battle of Atush Sultan Alam was captured and surrendered, abandoning the last Muslim holdout in Asia. Buddhist Uyghurs were elevated to rule the new Kingdom of Altishahr, with Khan Tüzmish Tüzmi acknowledging Indian suzerainty. At the end of her reign Agnimitrapali began to develop a foreign policy that relied on strong kingdoms separating China from India but serving as tributaries to the Bengali state. She also sought to eliminate a Mongol and Islamic influence in the steppe. As such through the mid-to-late-1160s India was a participant in several brush wars in the north. In 1169 the Vasudevid viceroys of Persia conquered Oman, beginning the Buddhist conquest of Arabia. By 1170 Agnimitrapali was 72 and beginning to feel her age. She was diagnosed with cancer, and while her physicians did an excellent job of mitigating her pain, she was rendered incapable and bedridden. Her husband Zenon Isauros died in March 1771 (passing on his claim to the Byzantine Emperor to his children), and the Samrajni Chakravartin only survived him until June. Her death ended one of the longest and greatest reigns in Pala history, in which Indian rule was secured over much of Persia and the Steppe, Islam was vanquished, and Buddhism truly became the greatest world religion. Paksirajapala, her only son, ascended to the throne.
1171-1199: (Pala) PAKSIRAJAPALA I
Already a middle-aged man at the time of his coronation, Paksirajapala was the first Emperor since the death of Agnimitra IV 121 years previous. He was the natural warrior to lead India for over a century, and immediately upon taking the throne embarked on a campaign to establish a tributary state in Kham (the largest of the states within the Second Tibetan Warring States period). He stamped out his credentials by a comfortable victory at Anini in north-eastern Kamarupa in July 1172, and Kham surrendered in 1173. This secured Indian influence over all of Kham but also up into the historical kingdoms of the Tangut in northern Tibet. He supported the rise of the Tangut Wangli dynasty in 1175, who replaced the outgoing Mongols. (Early in his rule Paksirajapala also took a strong dislike to the influence of the powerful merchant republic of Blemmyia, which had over a century emerged to extend an influence to the coast of Burma. Several trade posts were razed to the ground). In 1184 India invaded Ü-Tsang, establishing it as tributary the following year.
Another Byzantine civil war in 1181 was met with frustration in India, and although Paksirajapala diplomatically moved to support the Basileus no material or military aid was dispatched west. This proved to be a miscalculation, however, as Iordanes Chameas was forced from power in favour of his kinsman Sergios. Sergios declared the Eastern Roman Empire independent from any further Pala influence, and refused to offer up any further requirements under the terms of tributary. By 1188 the situation had continued to worsen, with the Isauros launching an attempt to destabilize the throne. Paksirajapala, seeking a true war after his petty middling in Tibet, launched a full-scale invasion of the Byzantine Empire, mobilizing the largest army in Indian history. Most of the troops were shipped to the Persian front lines by boat, drastically reducing the time it took to form the battalions to take on the Greeks. If Paksirajapala was seeking an epic struggle he would be disappointed, however; initial skirmishes against the Eugenios dynasty were limited, and most hostile troops were deployed elsewhere against the civil war. An extensive occupation of the recently-restored Kingdom of Babylon resulted in a complete capitulation of the Byzantines, and Paksirajapala became Emperor of the Greeks and Romans in addition to his lengthy titles in India. He had to finish off the civil war before his formal coronation, however, although that was wrapped up by mid-April 1192.
From early in his rule Paksirajapala took a heavy hand against monasteries and religious figures, usually to fund his personal projects and wars. His eldest son died in 1185, and was believed to be have been murdered by a disaffected bhikku. He donated the Sariraka bone in royal possession to the Xia dynasty in China. With the conquest of the Eastern Roman Empire, Paksirajapala began sweeping revocations of Greek and Christian-held lands. This inevitably began a second civil war, as while his conquest of the empire had crushed the imperial power structure the fundamental strength of the former Greek vassals had only been moderately impacted. Throughout 1192 campaigns in the east crushed the resistance and ushered in what the Greeks came to know as ‘the Terror’. Buddhist rule over the former territories of the Byzantine Empire would initially prove strict. Christianity, while not prohibited, made the holdings of a vassal forfeit. First to be revoked would be lands in the Middle East, finally uniting all of Persia under one viceroy. A series of civil wars in 1194 and 1195 resulted in Pala victories, leaving the new Buddhist administration free to act. Contrary to the beliefs of his Greek rivals Paksirajapala was not driven by a religious desire, but rather one of military practicality. He quickly consolidated his control over the Middle East, Georgia and Anatolia – at first granting significant political power to the viceroy of Trebizond. He was aware of the difficulty in defending such a large empire, and as such on the periphery Wallachia and Galicia-Volhynia were released (the latter with a Buddhist Maharaja). Against his better judgement Paksirajapala maintained Indian control over the Mediterranean vice-royalties of Sardinia and Sicily, although he knew these would prove difficult to defend should the need arise. Bulgaria also remained within the empire, primarily to serve as a strategic depth to protect the still-important city of Constantinople.
By the year 1197 Paksirajapala was able to return at last to Bengal, having spent the best part of a decade dealing with the chaos of the Byzantine annexation. 61, the Samrat had noticeably aged and – in a disastrous surgery – had lost his right leg. Throughout the 1190s China had fallen on hard times, with a disastrous smallpox epidemic leading to a widespread famine that crashed trade on the Silk Road. The conquests of the Greeks exposed India to new cultures with which they had not previously overlapped, such as the Germanic-speaking Saxons and Norse of northern Europe and – more crucially – the Pope. Primogeniture was re-established across the Byzantine possessions in 1198, securing a continuous inheritance, and this proved to be very well-timed. In awful shape, Paksirajapala nevertheless continued to attempt to duel in his old age. Having picked a fight with a much-younger challenger, Paksirajapala was murdered in 1199. He was succeeded by his eldest grandson.
Agnimitra II had been revered by most of his vassals, and as a result few were concerned about the rise of his equally-capable son. Agnimitra III was nevertheless keen to consolidate his rule, and on the first day of 1028 proclaimed himself Samrat Chakravartin (or ‘Emperor of Emperors’). The title embodied the concept of the ideal and universal world ruler in Indian tradition and established the Pala as rulers of near-godlike stature – under their tenth ruler since Gopala founded the dynasty. It was also a move to posture India as the new dominant power in the east after the collapse of the Tang and the arrival of the Mongols as a continental threat. Indeed, Agnimitra III sought to tackle Mongol influence head on, ending the two-century entente between the powers. However, just ten years after the Mongols had seized power in China they came under threat from the Jurchen peoples of the northeast, who invaded the Yuan dynasty in 1028. Tensions with the Mongol dynasty continued when Agnimitra refused a customary shipment of warhorses to China, resulting in an Imperial edict against Indian traders on the Silk Road. Agnimitra was keen to continue the political reforms that had continued to weaken the governors in favour of a centralized imperial power. In 1033 he moved to lawfully retract land from the governor of Nepal in Kashmir, resulting in an unexpected civil war. Many of the most troublesome provinces rebelled, mainly in the west. After a short yet difficult campaign, hampered by a typhus outbreak in central India, Agnimitra forced the rebels to surrender and began sweeping revocations of land. In the aftermath of the civil war he granted two provinces – Khuttal and Balkh – de-facto independence to create a border buffer between India and volatile Persia (under control of the Hafizid dynasty from 1034) as well as to limit the strength of his western troublemakers further. For all his life Agnimitra III had possessed a large figure, and he suddenly died in 1038 due to complications of his weight. The throne passed to his second son Agnimitra IV, overlooking his eldest due to his well-known cowardice and greed. However, his second son was not much better – a cynical yet trusting 29-year-old.
1038-1050: (Pala) AGNIMITRA IV
Agnimitra IV was an unimpressive figure, with very few noticeable skills or interests. He had a tense relationship with his older brother, who disapproved of his womanizing and in 1039 Agnimitra quietly moved to have him killed. The attempt failed, although word did not get out, but his brother was severely injured and lost a hand. (He died in 1040). In the first year of his rule he granted the newly-constructed temple complex at Rampur Boalia to the Chosen of Ashoka and established a permanent home for the order. In 1040 the short-lived reign of the Mongols in China came to an end, as Emperor Jingzu was smashed by the Jurchens and the new (Buddhist) Xia dynasty came to power under Cæjæid Taizu. Agnimitra immediately departed to the east to try and woo favour for a wider campaign against the Mongols, although China remained in an unsteady position. In 1046 Agnimitra launched a large invasion of Zhangzhung, plunging across the Himalayas to push his own right to the Nyang throne. A concurrent invasion of Shigatse hoped to unify the southern half of the plateau under Bengali rule, and at the Battle of Bainang the Indian invasion through Sikkim forced a defeat for the Nyang. A short campaign followed, although the Pala were struck with heavy attrition in the Himalayan region through the winter into 1046. In November 1047 however both Zhangzhung and Shigatse surrendered, and for the first time India stretched north into Tibet. Agnimitra proclaimed himself monarch of both Zhangzhung and Ü-Tsang (the latter ending Salïndïid control since 967). With the conquest complete, however, Agnimitra annexed the remainder of Kashmir and established the rest as a series of independent buffer states.
The emergence of the Black Plague in India from 1048 caused panic and mass causalities across the north of the empire. India had been spared the chaos caused by the initial epidemic in the mid-950s, and so the spread of the disease was rapid and totaling. The response at court was slow, and there were many fatalities. Among them was the 41-year-old Samrat who quickly died after contracting the disease in 1050. The throne fell to his 8-year-old daughter Agnimitrapali, who became the first Empress of India.
1050-1098: (Pala) AGNIMITRAPALI I
With the Plague still wracking chaos across northern India the regency council took over. It would take almost a decade for Bengal to recover from the outbreak, and the economy was badly hit. Agnimitrapali was quick to move against any potential threats after coming of age in July 1057. Her shrewd understanding of politics ensured that opponents were quickly repressed, although usually within legal means. Her early reign was largely a peaceful one, and in 1068 she became the youngest leader of the Savaka-Sangha for over 200 years (at the age of 26). Following the ‘Year of Four Khagans’ in 1070 (Kokochu, Chilagun, Nayaga and Yegu) this changed, as Agnimitrapali embarked upon a large conquest in the west. Launching a simultaneous invasion of the Jalilid kingdom in Sistan and the Mongolian Empire in Merv, Pala forces smashed the Muslims at the Battle of Kalat in early-1071. Kandahar had fallen by November, and the Bengalis continued to keep up the pressure on the failing Jalilid state. A second victory at the Battle of Farrah in January 1072 inflicted a mortal wound, capturing Shah Ghobad Muqannid of Khorasan (who was subsequently executed), and in mid-February the Jalilid dynasty fled Sistan to Arabia. Agnimitrapali was proclaimed the monarch of Sistan and sweeping land revocations disenfranchised all Muslims in the subjugated territories. Attention turned to the Mongols, and on November 19 a huge battle took place at Andkhud. The Mongols seized the upper hand and were only defeated thanks to sizeable reinforcements late in the engagement, overwhelming their tired forces and securing the tightest of victories for the Bengalis. A final engagement at Abiward in the summer of 1073 was an Indian victory despite stretching supply lines, consolidating the wider fall of Merv. Khagan Yegu was forced to concede defeat. The victory of Agnimitrapali in these two wars established India as the undisputed hegemon of Central Asia and signaled the beginning of the end for Islamic influence in the region. However, the conflicts did take a hefty toll on Indian manpower – necessitating a lull in further warfare for several years.
Agnimitrapali usurped the Shahdom of Khorasan from the Muqannid dynasty in 1074, establishing a new viceroyalty to watch over her north-western flank. In 1075 a large imperial carriage train departed for China, as Agnimitra finally chose to normalize relations with the Jurchens now ruling the Xia dynasty. This was mainly to attempt another coalition against the Mongols, although with the eclipse of the Borjigin in the Khaganate and the rise of the Batbayar it was clear that the legacy of Temujin was badly suffering. In 1078 the province of Tis was captured from an Ismailid revolt in southern Persia, uniting all Sistan under Indian rule. Following this success Agnimitrapali committed herself to a period of peace, granting women full legal rights equal to that of men across the entire empire. A new wave of Buddhism swept over the subcontinent, particularly in the few southern holdouts of Hinduism. On the last day of 1082 Cæjæid Taizu died and was succeeded by his eldest son Andahai. Andahai was committed to isolationism and immediately moved to close the Silk Road. However, Agnimitrapali – a self-appointed protector of the Silk Road and controlling much of the wealth of Central Asia – issued a counter-edict; traders were coerced back to their posts, kick-starting trade once again, and forcing the Xia dynasty to reconsider their position. It was a great diplomatic success for India – especially as subsequent negotiations forced China to remain open for a minimum of 50 years. Agnimitrapali fought off tensions with the religious orders when she insisted that a Sariraka bone, originally owned by the Savaka-Sangha, should be maintained by the imperial family in 1083. The same year the Byzantine Empire, led by the disfigured Basileus Theodoulos Skamendrenos, conquered Khozistan from the Ismailid and established a Roman presence on the Indian Ocean – the first time since the great Roman empires of old. It was signal the beginning of an Indian interest in the affairs of Constantinople, and the new territories of Sistan became a melting-pot between the four great empires of the medieval world (Byzantium, India, Mongolia and China). In 1086 the 20-year-old future-emperor Bosporios Akropolites, descendant of Germanos I, arrived as an invited representative of the Greeks in Laksmanavati – his role in future Byzantine politics would be highly-significant.
After a lengthy period of peace Agnimitrapali – now 54 and ageing fast – ordered the annexation of the remaining Persian kingdom. A large invasion pushed met a coalition of Muslim forces in Kerman, defeating them twice at Bampur and beginning a lengthy period of consolidation. The Ismailids were assisted by their regional rivals; newly-established Tabaristan, founded by the Shia holy order the Hashashin. The so-called ‘Fedayeen’ had declared themselves the defenders of Islam, and despite being sandwiched between the Byzantines and the Indians had quickly carved out a viable polity in north-western Persia and Daylam. They were defeated in a large pitched battle at Buzgan, forcing their capitulation in 1097 – their allies were soon to follow, and Agnimitrapali formally annexed the remainder of Persia in 1098. This now partitioned the once-great kingdom between the Bengalis, Greeks and the Hashashin. Muslim vassals were immediately disenfranchised, and their lands were distributed to those loyal to Buddhism. The conquest established an Indian presence on the Caspian for the first time and established the viceroyalty of Khorasan as one of the most important and wide-spanning within the Indian Empire. This final great victory in Persia was the last act of Agnimitrapali I, as she died at the age of 57 in 1098. Her legacy was one of the most significant of all the Pala monarchs, although highly-surprisingly she had only one child. Agnimitrapali II succeeded her mother at the age of 36.
1098-1128: (Pala) AGNIMITRAPALI II
Agnimitrapali II was a frail figure, addled with the Lovers’ Pox from early on in her sexual maturity. However, what she lacked in physique she more than made up for in cunning and used all her wiles to repress the sizeable opposition to her rule upon taking the throne. Her cousins – potential figurehead to rebellion – died in mysterious circumstances in 1099, while other threats were blackmailed, coerced or imprisoned. Public humiliations of political opponents became common. Her great-uncle was exiled to China, and in 1102 she also travelled east to meet Dezong at his court. The Emperor was unimpressed, however, and refused an audience; Agnimitrapali returned to Laksmanavati having refused to kowtow to just a bust, without the personal favour of the Jurchen dynasty. In 1103 the Isauros returned to power in Constantinople after almost three centuries away from the Purple, sponsoring a series of conquests in the Middle East. However, the declaration of a ‘jihad’ against the Greek holdings in Persia by ‘Caliph’ Abu-Bakr II would divert their attention from the Indian annexation of Mafaza in 1105. This conquest would establish the Greco-Indian border in Persia and was the limit of the westward push of the Indians prior to the conquest of the Byzantines. Throughout 1106 Agnimitrapali was afflicted by a very difficult pregnancy, forced to retreat from affairs of state and in a delirium for several weeks. In November she gave birth to another daughter (her fifth), although from an unknown father, but remained weak and feverish. Her pregnancy paralleled the Jurchen-Mongol War that wracked the Steppe throughout 1106, but Agnimitrapali recovered just in time to receive news that Khagan Jochi had been decisively defeated in 1107, fracturing his domains and ending the Mongol experiment with empire. The Tibetan plateau almost immediately fell into warfare, as the traditional states of Zhangzhung, Ü-Tsang and Kham sought to consolidate their positions over the newly-independent north throughout the Second Warring States Period.
In 1114 the heiress to the throne, the future Agnimitrapali III, came of age – and became the first Pala for many years to be engaged to a prince of China (the nephew of Dezong, Tunon). The Samrajni was increasingly disinterested in international affairs, retreating in her old age to enjoy her infidelity and hedonism. However, India engaged in a limited number of brush wars in Tibet and in 1115 the great city of Samarkand was annexed by the viceroyalty of Khorasan. The victory of the Muslims in their jihad for Byzantine Persia was successful in 1116, posing a new Islamic threat to India in the west. The Greeks were quick to respond, though, and by 1120 he reconquered all their lost territory as well as the collapsing Hashashin state. 1120 soon emerged as a year of crisis for Constantinople, however – Ioustinianos III was assassinated in May, and his successor Athanasios lasted a mere two days before he himself died unexpectedly. The 4-year-old Michael Oristani became Emperor behind closed doors as the court descended into suspicion and intrigue. With political chaos in Constantinople and a declaration of war from the Abd-al-Qays Sultanate in Arabia, India mobilized for war. After almost two years of staging, the Battle of Ramhormoz was a great victory for the Indians while a second narrower victory at Hashtgerd gave enough tactical space to begin an extensive occupation of Greek Persia and Khozistan. Across 1122 the Greeks attempted to tie down the Indian forces, although were defeated at the close battles of Aligoodarz and Salafehegan (both in October). With domestic support for the young Basileus disintegrating and facing off a full-blown Indian invasion of Anatolia the Oristani dynasty was forced to sue for peace. Michael abdicated, and Bosporios Akropolites took the Purple Throne. As a Buddhist his position was delicate, and he faced immediate resistance from his Orthodox vassals. Maintained only by the threat of further Indian militarism, upon the withdrawal of Pala troops from the imperial east the infirm Bosporios was immediately dethroned by factional demand. However, the War of the Akropolites established India as the sole power in the Middle East and showed that the political affairs of the Byzantine Empire were now subject to the approval of the Pala. (Bosporios himself died on the first day of 1123).
The last few years of the reign of Agnimitrapali II were bitter; intense rivalries had developed with the imperial daughters, and many vassals had grown tired of her disinterest and selfishness. (A lengthy scar across the nose of the future Agnimitrapali III was rumoured to have been caused by a fight in the royal chambers in 1126). She died in 1128, at the age of 66, and was succeeded by her third daughter who took the throne as Agnimitrapali III.
1128-1171: (Pala) AGNIMITRAPALI III
Agnimitrapali III, having taken the throne at 29, was probably the most capable Pala to be coronated in India history. With a strong physique and a ruthless intellect, as well as ambition and courageousness, she secured her position by generous brides to many of her viceroys. As had become the undeclared tradition Agnimitrapali committed India to a period of peace for the years immediately following her coronation. She negotiated with the Xia dynasty to secure a trade contract for the newly-installed Emperor Shangzong, although she remained wary about his intent to wage an expansionist foreign policy for China. Agnimitrapali established herself as a hands-on monarch, becoming the first Samrajni to slay a tiger at a hunt and lead troops in training. In 1135 she had a son, Paksirajapala – notable for being the first direct male heir to the throne for the best part of a century. Agnimitrapali followed in the footsteps of her grandmother by coming the Arhat of the Savaka-Sangha in 1139, at the age of 40.
The overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty in 1131 ended the last functional imperial state of Islam. The three sultanates of the Rahmanids (Syria), Abd-al-Qays (Arabia) and Qadirids (Egypt) remained largely intact, but it was clear that the religion was failing. Caliph Hasan Abdulid maintained his position in Yemen, but lacked any cohesive religious or political authority. Unlike her predecessors Agnimitrapali was keen to support positive relations with the Byzantine Empire, and reportedly maintained a strong correspondence with the young Apollonios II Syraneres throughout his regency. After the very public murder of Apollonios by Laurentios Isauros in 1140, however, Indian attitudes changed. Agnimitrapali was wary of the motives of the Isauros coup, and war broke out in 1141. Just a few months later a second coup saw Pelagios II Skamandrenos take the Purple Throne, who zealously sought victory against the Buddhists. Due to the lengthy mobilization time of the Pala the Byzantines were able to score early victories, most notably the siege of Qohistan. An Indian response at Gonabad crushed the northern invasion of Persia, however, and throughout 1142 the Byzantine front in Jibal virtually collapsed under the pressure. At the Second Battle of Salafehegan in September 1142 the Greeks almost secured a victory despite inferior odds, but it was at Sedeh five days later where the Byzantines were utterly and decisively defeated. Unable to continue any further offensive action, Pelagios II signed the Treaty of Qom; the treaty was drafted to prevent any further Greek threat to the Indian Empire, establishing Indian advisors in Constantinople and reducing the Eastern Roman Empire to a tributary state of the Pala. It was a domestic disaster for the Skamandrenos (resulting in their almost-immediate fall from power), but a great achievement for Agnimitrapali – who had not favoured war in the first place. Now with Indian influence in the Mediterranean and extending almost as far as Tunisia and the Baltic, the Age of Europe began to come to an end. With the war with the Greeks at a height, the conversion of Kafirkot to Buddhism in 1142 was largely overlooked. The last remaining non-Buddhist majority province in India, the final removal of Hinduism and Jainism from the Indian subcontinent was complete. Islam held out in the westernmost provinces of Persia, but quickly began to fade. By 1160 only the furthest periphery of the empire held out against Buddhism, but in 1169 the final province became Buddhist-majority. The religious unification of the empire was complete.
With peace with the Greeks restored Agnimitrapali restored good relations with the Ooryphas dynasty and granted Artemios II more authority than initially granted under the Treaty of Qom. A series of local wars took place in the late-1140s, mainly to eliminate any lasting Muslim holdings in Persia and in the Steppe, but in 1150 a new larger conflict broke out as once again a jihad was called by Abu-Bakr III for Persia. The Byzantines requested Indian assistance in defending their eastern front, and Agnimitrapali obliged with over 80,000 men. The rugged terrain of Jibal and Kurdistan proved hard to wage a mobile war, and as previous wars had shown made supply lines difficult. Initial success gave way to tactical retreats in a bid to weaken the large Muslim forces in the same way. An outbreak of the Plague in Greece further hampered the Byzantine ability to wage a proper counter-attack, and when it claimed the life of Artemios the new Basileus Apollonios III Touvakes was fat and disliked. The defence of Persia fell to India, and a blistering campaign led by Agnimitrapali herself pushed the Muslims back throughout the spring of 1153. The Battle of Khansar was a Bengali victory, and at Samavah a few weeks later a Muslim flanking manoeuvre through Arabia was pushed back. Trying to push home the advantage a 33,000-strong Indian force marched through the desert to meet the Arabs at the Battle of Hindiya. The final Indian battle of the war, at Qumm Oualad, was one of the greatest of the last century and resulted in the final Muslim abandonment of the conflict in May 1154.
By 1160 India had never been stronger; Agnimitrapali III had established a highly-centralized court, surrounded by a committed and loyal periphery of viceroys. In 1164 she reorganized her possessions in the steppe, forming the governorships of Oghuz and Transoxiana – weakening the role of Khorasan, which had for many decades been probably the most significant of all the western viceroys. In 1165 Agnimitrapali launched an invasion of Khotan in a bid to both unseat the ruling Yaredid dynasty but also dislodge the Xia tributary state. The Indians prepared for a lengthy campaign, but at the Battle of Atush Sultan Alam was captured and surrendered, abandoning the last Muslim holdout in Asia. Buddhist Uyghurs were elevated to rule the new Kingdom of Altishahr, with Khan Tüzmish Tüzmi acknowledging Indian suzerainty. At the end of her reign Agnimitrapali began to develop a foreign policy that relied on strong kingdoms separating China from India but serving as tributaries to the Bengali state. She also sought to eliminate a Mongol and Islamic influence in the steppe. As such through the mid-to-late-1160s India was a participant in several brush wars in the north. In 1169 the Vasudevid viceroys of Persia conquered Oman, beginning the Buddhist conquest of Arabia. By 1170 Agnimitrapali was 72 and beginning to feel her age. She was diagnosed with cancer, and while her physicians did an excellent job of mitigating her pain, she was rendered incapable and bedridden. Her husband Zenon Isauros died in March 1771 (passing on his claim to the Byzantine Emperor to his children), and the Samrajni Chakravartin only survived him until June. Her death ended one of the longest and greatest reigns in Pala history, in which Indian rule was secured over much of Persia and the Steppe, Islam was vanquished, and Buddhism truly became the greatest world religion. Paksirajapala, her only son, ascended to the throne.
1171-1199: (Pala) PAKSIRAJAPALA I
Already a middle-aged man at the time of his coronation, Paksirajapala was the first Emperor since the death of Agnimitra IV 121 years previous. He was the natural warrior to lead India for over a century, and immediately upon taking the throne embarked on a campaign to establish a tributary state in Kham (the largest of the states within the Second Tibetan Warring States period). He stamped out his credentials by a comfortable victory at Anini in north-eastern Kamarupa in July 1172, and Kham surrendered in 1173. This secured Indian influence over all of Kham but also up into the historical kingdoms of the Tangut in northern Tibet. He supported the rise of the Tangut Wangli dynasty in 1175, who replaced the outgoing Mongols. (Early in his rule Paksirajapala also took a strong dislike to the influence of the powerful merchant republic of Blemmyia, which had over a century emerged to extend an influence to the coast of Burma. Several trade posts were razed to the ground). In 1184 India invaded Ü-Tsang, establishing it as tributary the following year.
Another Byzantine civil war in 1181 was met with frustration in India, and although Paksirajapala diplomatically moved to support the Basileus no material or military aid was dispatched west. This proved to be a miscalculation, however, as Iordanes Chameas was forced from power in favour of his kinsman Sergios. Sergios declared the Eastern Roman Empire independent from any further Pala influence, and refused to offer up any further requirements under the terms of tributary. By 1188 the situation had continued to worsen, with the Isauros launching an attempt to destabilize the throne. Paksirajapala, seeking a true war after his petty middling in Tibet, launched a full-scale invasion of the Byzantine Empire, mobilizing the largest army in Indian history. Most of the troops were shipped to the Persian front lines by boat, drastically reducing the time it took to form the battalions to take on the Greeks. If Paksirajapala was seeking an epic struggle he would be disappointed, however; initial skirmishes against the Eugenios dynasty were limited, and most hostile troops were deployed elsewhere against the civil war. An extensive occupation of the recently-restored Kingdom of Babylon resulted in a complete capitulation of the Byzantines, and Paksirajapala became Emperor of the Greeks and Romans in addition to his lengthy titles in India. He had to finish off the civil war before his formal coronation, however, although that was wrapped up by mid-April 1192.
From early in his rule Paksirajapala took a heavy hand against monasteries and religious figures, usually to fund his personal projects and wars. His eldest son died in 1185, and was believed to be have been murdered by a disaffected bhikku. He donated the Sariraka bone in royal possession to the Xia dynasty in China. With the conquest of the Eastern Roman Empire, Paksirajapala began sweeping revocations of Greek and Christian-held lands. This inevitably began a second civil war, as while his conquest of the empire had crushed the imperial power structure the fundamental strength of the former Greek vassals had only been moderately impacted. Throughout 1192 campaigns in the east crushed the resistance and ushered in what the Greeks came to know as ‘the Terror’. Buddhist rule over the former territories of the Byzantine Empire would initially prove strict. Christianity, while not prohibited, made the holdings of a vassal forfeit. First to be revoked would be lands in the Middle East, finally uniting all of Persia under one viceroy. A series of civil wars in 1194 and 1195 resulted in Pala victories, leaving the new Buddhist administration free to act. Contrary to the beliefs of his Greek rivals Paksirajapala was not driven by a religious desire, but rather one of military practicality. He quickly consolidated his control over the Middle East, Georgia and Anatolia – at first granting significant political power to the viceroy of Trebizond. He was aware of the difficulty in defending such a large empire, and as such on the periphery Wallachia and Galicia-Volhynia were released (the latter with a Buddhist Maharaja). Against his better judgement Paksirajapala maintained Indian control over the Mediterranean vice-royalties of Sardinia and Sicily, although he knew these would prove difficult to defend should the need arise. Bulgaria also remained within the empire, primarily to serve as a strategic depth to protect the still-important city of Constantinople.
By the year 1197 Paksirajapala was able to return at last to Bengal, having spent the best part of a decade dealing with the chaos of the Byzantine annexation. 61, the Samrat had noticeably aged and – in a disastrous surgery – had lost his right leg. Throughout the 1190s China had fallen on hard times, with a disastrous smallpox epidemic leading to a widespread famine that crashed trade on the Silk Road. The conquests of the Greeks exposed India to new cultures with which they had not previously overlapped, such as the Germanic-speaking Saxons and Norse of northern Europe and – more crucially – the Pope. Primogeniture was re-established across the Byzantine possessions in 1198, securing a continuous inheritance, and this proved to be very well-timed. In awful shape, Paksirajapala nevertheless continued to attempt to duel in his old age. Having picked a fight with a much-younger challenger, Paksirajapala was murdered in 1199. He was succeeded by his eldest grandson.
1199-1219: (Pala) PAKSIRAJAPALA II
Despite his military inexperience Paksirajapala II was well-aware that the size of the empire posed problems. The time to deploy Indian forces to the west was sizeable, leaving the Pala holdings in Europe and Persia vulnerable in the meantime. His solution was to create the first standing army in imperial history, taking inspiration from the Byzantine retinue system, which was formed in 1201. It was hoped that this would create a highly-trained and mobile force loyal to the Samrat Chakravartin capable of addressing threats across Buddhist territory at minimum notice. (It was also designed to take some responsibility of troop levying away from the viceroys). These reforms resulted in a comfortable victory in 1208, when Indian troops assisted Kham in the final unification of the Tibetan plateau. During an outbreak of consumption in India Paksirajapala became known for his harsh line against those accused of witchcraft - known for his upholding of his own interpretations of Buddhist law, the young Samrat Chakravartin sent many to the stake. Frustrated with the inability of the empire to keep their holdings in the Steppe secure from raiders, Paksirajapala granted independence to Oghuz in 1212. This was the first part of his series of territorial reforms, rationalizing the empire and releasing parts of dubious value. The Samrat Chakravartin was not convinced that the Greek territories should have been incorporated into the empire, given their general proclivity towards Christianity and their distance from the Indian core. His moves to conquer Arabia reflected a desire to consolidate Eurasia at the expense of Europe, establishing a series of natural borders along the Red Sea, in Anatolia and north to the Steppe. In 1216 he abolished the position of Eastern Roman Emperor, ending a continuous line of Emperors since the time of Christ; this act is widely understood to be the end of the European Era. The westernmost governors would be granted complete independence; Sicily, Sardinia, Greece, Bulgaria and Anatolia were released as Buddhist kingdoms. India intervened in Kham (now ruled from Guge) in 1219 to ensure the Wangli dynasty victory in the civil war; Pala troops were instrumental in turning the tide of the conflict and maintain the Bengali tributary state. However, at the Battle of Drampa Gyang (a comfortable Bengali victory) Paksirajapala was shockingly killed. Believed to have been infertile, he had only one child – although she did not survive to adulthood. As a result, the crown passed to his uncle, Udanalankarapala, who was coronated at the age of 35.
1219-1220: (Pala) UDANALANKARAPALA I
Udanalankarapala first finished off the civil war that had killed his nephew, ensuring continued influence across the plateau. Travelling back home to court in Laksmanavati the following year, however, the royal procession was ambushed by a rogue bandit gang. Udanalankarapala, despite a brave and courageous last stand, was slain by one of the rogues. He had reigned for barely a year – the shortest of any of the Pala monarchs. (He was the third successive monarch to be killed in combat). He was succeeded by his eldest son, who governed under a regency for 11 months before coming of age.
1220-1255: (Pala) UDANALANKARAPALA II
Udanalankarapala II had a quiet and quick regency, notable for the Wangli restoration of the Tibetan Empire in 1221 (becoming the first Tangut emperor of Tibet, and the first emperor of any kind since 848). Immediately upon becoming of age he sought to embark upon a line of conquests in Arabia and annexed the small statelet of Palmyra in late-1222. However, the following year the new Caliph, Hafiz Musaid, declared a jihad to reclaim the Arabian Peninsula from the Buddhists. Unfortunately for the Muslims their invading army collided with a large peasant rebellion in Halaban, inflicting a surprisingly humiliating defeat. They were further hindered by the annexation of the emirate of Arabia by the viceroy of Mafaza, and Buddhist troops began the siege of the holy city of Mecca in April 1224. Throughout the rest of the year Udanalankarapala launched a counter-offensive, occupying the entire of Caliphal Arabia until Hafiz abandoned his campaign in 1225. It did not come too soon, as Udanalankarapala was forced to address the conquering concerns of a warlord in Central Asia; a young warrior named Timur sought to establish his own state in Merv, requiring a sizeable Pala response and a hasty withdrawal from Arabia. Making good headway against the insolent Mongol, Udanalankarapala defeated and captured him at the Second Battle of Abiward in October 1225. Despite not being a great warrior, his victories had already established a decent reputation for Udanalankarapala at the young age of 20. The victories continued; in 1130 Udanalankarapala launched an invasion against the Caliph, and in a series of heavy sieges captured the holy cities of Mecca and Medina from the Muslims in 1131. Caliph Shaiban was forced to flee to his sole holding in the city of Genevois, but the loss of the holy cities pushed the entire religion of Islam to the brink. When the infant Abdul-Gafur of Arabia converted to the Germanic faith at sword-point it was clear that Islam no longer exerted any real influence. The independent Lakshmichandrid kingdom of Anatolia conquered Jerusalem in 1242. The outbreak of civil war across India in 1135 was unusual, given that most of the previous emperors had not ha to contend with insurrection from the viceroys. However, the Vasudevid, controlling much of the Arabian Peninsula and Persia, chose to rebel against the central authority of the emperor. They were reinforced by several discontented figures who felt isolated at court, swelling the ranks of rebel forces with Punjabis and those from the central Indian governors. At Koraput in May 1236 Udanalankarapala narrowly avoided a defeat, but the successful capture of the rebel capital in Al Hasa resulted in their surrender. Having defeated the largest civil war for over a century, Udanalankarapala redistributed the balance of power in the Arabian territories.
Udanalankarapala was the first Samrat Chakravartin to be a known author, publishing a definitive history of Buddhist temples and monuments in 1236. He became the next Pala Arhat of the Savaka-Sangha in 1241. Four years later he granted the viceroyalty of Lanka to the Rajadinajid dynasty – notable for breaking the 300-year near-uninterrupted governorship of the Lambakanna, and for introducing Bengali leadership in the last non-Bengali province of the empire. A short campaign in 1250 reconquered the recently-independent kingdom of Transoxiana for Udanalankarapala; the Pala dynasty were still unsure the best way to govern the rugged Eurasian interior, and consequently the Samrat Chakravartin destroyed the independent title of Transoxiana and distributed all the constituent parts to the viceroys of Kashmir, Khorasan and Daylam. While troops were mobilized in the region Udanalankarapala pushed on to establish Oghuz as a tributary state in 1251, completing a line of tributaries all along his northern border (Tibet, Altishahr and Oghuz). However, in 1254 Tibet and Altishahr went to war, and India chose a position of neutrality. Unfortunately, this meant that they voided controlling Altishahr as a tributary, as voiding Tibet would have meant a great loss of influence in the north. Weakened by fasting, Udanalankarapala died somewhat unexpectedly while on campaign against rebels in Oghuz. Succeeded by his eldest son, Udanalankarapala III, he nevertheless played an important role in the collapse of Islam and the consolidation of Indian power in the Middle East.
1255-1265: (Pala) UDANALANKARAPALA III
Udanalankarapala III faced an immediate problem upon taking the throne; his half-brother Agnimitra sought to stake his own claim on the empire and levied a large army to defeat Udanalankarapala. Crossing Anatolia through 1257, Agnimitra arrived in the western provinces of India in January 1258 but his forward force was defeated by Udanalankarapala personally at Qamishhlo. The two brothers then met at Edessa, where Udanalankarapala secured another victory, and at the Battle of Owshank the usurper forces were finally defeated. Agnimitra was banished from India, abandoned his claim to the empire, and took up residence in Anatolia for the rest of his life. Udanalankarapala was a known scholar and devoted a significant amount of time and resources to his pursuit of scientific truth; in 1259 he developed a rotary system of understanding the solar system, but soon began showing signs of mental instability, and lengthy periods of mania. His imperial decrees were increasingly ignored by his vassals, especially given that some were barely coherent and even insane. Nevertheless, Udanalankarapala continued to conduct his duties as emperor, and at a visit to his standing army troops stationed in Armenia in 1265 he contracted typhoid. After a short but severe illness he died, leaving the throne to his eldest son at the age of 24.
1265-1307: (Pala) PAKSIRAJAPALA III
Paksirajapala had a quiet start to his reign, with no threats to his rise to power or discontented vassals. He passed the time as a serial philandering, siring many bastards across his empire. His long-suffering wife, Monon Cæjæid (a princess of the Xia dynasty), was known for her great hospitality at court – but was frequently embarrassed by her husband. More recent Indian monarchs had come to regret the disintegration of the lands conquered by Paksirajapala I in Byzantium, especially as the kingdoms of Anatolia and Bulgaria (in particular) had grown into powerful states in their own right. Paksirajapala therefore launched another invasion westward, pushing into the lands of the Khsetravridhid dynasty (on the throne of Anatolia since 1266) and defeating their forces at Komanal in August 1272. When the infant Maharaja Rambhadra II Singh Dev abdicated and Paksirajapala III usurped the Anatolian throne, rumbles circulated across the Mediterranean that the Indians were keen on becoming a European power once more. Also, of note was that the second Pala conquest of Anatolia abolished the once-might trading republic of Cyrus – by far the largest mercantile entity in Europe. The seizure of Greek assets across the island elevated the rival city of Karvuna to the supreme commercial city in the western Mediterranean. Taking inspiration from his father Paksirajapala III published a series of tomes on Indian feudal tactics and military strategies, compiled from accounts ranging back as far as Dharmapala I. It quickly became an important work for generals and those being trained in the Indian military.
Paksirajapala took a firm line of the adventurism of his viceroys, forcing those to engage in over-ambitious campaigns to hand over their land for redistribution. He was also unpopular among his lords for his now-infamous philandering. After the reestablishment of the Mongol Empire in 1280, under Husun Dörbet, the Samrat Chakravartin once again declared a cultural war against Islam. Combining forces with Tibet, Paksirajapala intervened in the Mongol invasion of Altishahr, refusing to allow the subjugation of such an important border nation. The Xia then entered the conflict, mobilizing troops from the Western Protectorate. At the Battle of Luohu the Samrat was severely injured and suffered a major defeat – infamous in Indian history. A few months later a Pala force met Husun himself at Wutanzili, this time securing a necessary victory. Dhirsinghapala, cousin to Paksirajapala, launched an invasion to stake his claim on Altishahr in 1287. He was defeated in Pangong in December, however. The Syrian viceroy conquered the last remnant of the Khsetravridhid Anatolian state in 1288, annexing Tripoli and uniting all of the Holy Land under Buddhist control. In response the Sunni Caliph, Abdul II Umayyad, launched the Second Jihad for Arabia in 1291. The war was a complete non-starter for the Muslims, however, as Paksirajapala launched a counter-offensive against the Umayyad before they had time to mobilize a force. Paksirajapala travelled with the Mediterranean fleet to lay siege to the Caliphal capital at Wajda – in doing so he led the way in the most-westerly Indian action at that point in history. Except for a large clash in the Nile Delta, the conflict was isolated to small skirmishes (partly due to the rapidity of the Buddhist response and also their controlling position at sea). Support for the Jihad disintegrated after just one year, and Paksirajapala proclaimed victory in July 1292. Paksirajapala then sponsored a Buddhist revolution in Egypt, launching an invasion across the Sinai in 1297. Haroun II en Marabout only controlled the provinces of Mafkat and Rakote, but his state of Kemet (Coptic-majority) became a Buddhist tributary of India.
Paksirajapala lost a leg in Cairo in 1297, and after his injury he became increasingly reliant upon drink to suppress the physical and mental pain. A lengthy infection further debilitated the Samrat Chakravartin, and in 1300 he also lost a gangrenous hand. Relations with his eldest son worsened dramatically as Paksirajapala neglected his feudal duties. In 1300 he contracted syphilis, worsening his condition, and by 1306 was suffering from bouts of insanity. The following year he became blind in one eye. The Jurchen revolution in Tibet placed Šagulizhen Šunctçingid upon the throne as Khatun, and her rule immediately ended Indian control of Tibet. However, the Indian court quickly established positive relations with the Šunctçingid regime – a bastard son of Paksirajapala, Udanalankarapala, was quickly married off to the new empress. Despite Jurchen successes in Tibet, however, by the early-1300s the golden age of Jurchen China had come to an end, as the Xia dynasty struggled with the effects of famine and plague. Due to his ill-health Paksirajapala was unable to oversee the rebellion in Georgia that broke out in 1301, nor did he supply any aid to Tibet to assist in yet another civil war. Indeed, Georgia was an interesting case; under Vijaysen Udirnakhadgid Buddhist colonies had been established along the banks of the Dniester in Wallachia, stretching as far north as Suceava. These colonies were granted independence as they were proving costly to upkeep and defend, but the duchy of Abkhazia also joined against the will of the Samrat – leading to an immediate Georgian war against the new independent Moldavia. In 1306 assistance was granted to the Copts as Paksirajapala, heir to the throne, pushed their claim for Alexandria.
With the Samrat doggedly clinging on to life, Caliph Husam Husamid – who had carved out a Shia state in Maghreb – declared another Crusade for Arabia. With Paksirajapala III obviously unable to lead a counteroffensive as he had in the past the honour fell to his son; as such, the to-be Paksirajapala IV was laying siege to the fortress-city of Fès when news of the death of his father reached him.
1307-1310: (Pala) PAKSIRAJAPALA IV
Paksirajapala IV inherited an empire more powerful than any before, but noticeably less centralized. His father had surrounding himself with lovers and loyal advisors, and so Paksirajapala immediately reformed his council with viceroys. Dull and fat, and with known Islamic sympathies, Paksirajapala was not known for his intellectual finesse – however, he committed himself well to the battlefield and increasingly became a fine commander. At the Battle of Aulef he was noted for his personal bravery, and in 1307 he became the first (and only) Samrat Chakravartin to sail in the Atlantic Ocean. Having completed the occupation of the small Caliphate in 1307 Paksirajapala forced Husam to surrender (as well as accept the execution of Muslim prisoners-of-war, prompted by his council). Paksirajapala was also concerned about the number of potential pretenders to his rule – his father had over 45 children, and at the first sign of disloyalty or political intrigue any potential rivals (legitimate or not) were imprisoned or cloistered. However, in 1308 he went a step too far – on advice of dubious provenance he had his brother burnt at the stake, ostensibly for apostasy - he became known as a ‘kinslayer’.
The mercantile republic of Blemmyia had been established in 1066, and during the 200-year interim had formed a powerful trading bloc stretching all the way to the coast of Bengal. However, the Pala monarchs had long opposed it as a backhanded route to spread Islam into India and take wealth from the Bengali possessions. Paksirajapala personally regarded them as pirates. In early-1309 Paksirajapala launched an ambitious amphibious assault from Arabia across the Red Sea and into the holdings of Blemmyia. Defeated near the capital city of Sawakin at first, rapid Buddhist reinforcement overwhelmed the city defences and began a comprehensive looting and occupation campaign across the entire Blemmyia coastline. By December the blockade had worked, and the governing Hadendowa family agreed to dismantle 62 trading posts across the Indian Ocean and pay over 5000 in reparations to the Pala. Returning home from Blemmyia Paksirajapala moved to reinforce the Buddhist kingdom in Kemet and engaged a roaming Muslim force at Abu Rowash. Unfortunately, the Samrat Chakravartin would be slain in a chaotic battlefield duel. After just under three years on the throne, Paksirajapala had managed to amass an impressive array of domestic enemies. His only son would take the throne as Paksirajapala V, at the age of 22.
1310-1332~: (Pala) PAKSIRAJAPALA V
Paksirajapala V had far more political cunning than his father and while he remained on campaign on the banks of the Nile, he dispatched orders for large bribes to reach the courts of his viceroys. He also sent emissaries to the newly-coronated Empress Xiaozong – only the second woman to ever sit on the Dragon Throne. Kemet annexed the city of Cairo (now renamed Kahiree) in 1310, and Paksirajapala returned to Bengal. In 1312 the Plague resurfaced in Gujarat and spread quickly through Central India. Partly to escape the epidemic Paksirajapala took his forces north and launched an invasion of Altishahr to place Šunctçing Šunctçingid on the throne. This raised the possibility of a personal union between Altishahr and Tibet, but more important as Šunctçing was matrilineally married to Nayanadevi Pala (cousin to Paksirajapala) a Pala looked likely to take the throne in the near-future. Paksirajapala was engaged by a numerically-superior force at Xiuxun in July 1314 but managed to secure an important victory. The Battle of Jiashi in the harsh winter conditions completed the defeat of the Altishahr Uyghurs, bringing an end to the reign of the Tüzmi dynasty (who had reigned in Altishahr since 1165). Restored as the kingdom of Khotan, Šunctçing immediately signed a non-aggression pact and subsequent alliance with India. Following his victory in Altishahr Paksirajapala became to show a quiet ruthlessness; in the next few years the Pala inheritance was shored up further by the disappearance or assassination of those in the line of succession without dynastic ties to the Pala (most notably the Tüzmi-Pala, heirs of his sister Agnimitrapali). When news that her nephew had taken power in Khotan reached Tibet, Šagulizhen Šunctçingid was said to go into hiding.
By 1315 the Germanic faith had virtually wiped out all that remained of the Christian and Islamic states in Central Europe and Iberia; the Saxons in England and the Irish had carved out large heathen empires, and increasingly encroached upon coastal states. Raiding in the former Holy Land was non-stop, and a significant amount of resources was deploying in maintaining security in Anatolia as well. The Buddhist states of Greece, Bulgaria and Sicily held on however, and further colonial efforts by the Georgians had reached the city of Lviv in Galicia. In 1322 Paksirajapala began to take a stand, marching a Pala force uncontested into Adrianopolis and annexing it outright for the viceroy of Thrace-Trebizond. In 1331 he annexed the English positions in Odessa and on the mouth of the Dnieper. The following year he conquered the northern half of Crimea and founded a new governorship far on the reaches of the empire – encompassing all of the Wallachian and Galician holdings into a distant viceroyalty. This was partly inspired by a desire to force the Germanic states out of the Black Sea. Paksirajapala, although personally of a kind disposition, increasingly took a firm line with his viceroys. In 1316 this resulted in a limited civil war as the Vasudevid family of Hijaz rallied together with their kinsmen in Kashmir and Khorasan. The revolt was sizeable – sporting over 33,000 men – and Paksirajapala was forced to return from Laksmanavati to the west, travelling by boat to besiege the former holy cities of Islam (now mere provincial towns on the edge of the empire). His campaign was part of a wider series of sieges, most notably those of the significant fortress of Lower Kashmir. Although the war was short and the rebels surrendered in 1317 it was bloody, as Paksirajapala relied on wasteful sieges to prevent any further traction from other discontent viceroys. The aftermath was no less strict, however, with Hijaz being redistributed to the governor of Jordan and the viceroyalty of Transoxiana being reinstated as non-hereditary in the steppe.
With order restored at home, Paksirajapala returned to his foreign policy commitments in Khotan. At the Battle of Piqan in January 1318 he single-handedly rescued Šunctçing Šunctçingid from certain defeat at the hands of the Mongol Empire, massacring most of the untrained Mongol tribesmen. There was great incentive to further crush the Mongols, given that they remained an island of Muslims in the north. (The neighbouring Isbarid dynasty were Messalian, but generally had positive relations with India). However, a lengthy attempt to pacify the Mongols came to a head at the Battle of Gorgol in January 1320; Paksirajapala was only rescued by timely reinforcements from the south, preventing a hair-raising defeat. Victory only came in 1320, and Khotan annexed Altay. China fell into civil war in 1324, with the decade of famine and plague finally forcing resistance against the Xia dynasty.
Šunctçing Šunctçingid died of dysentery in 1326, elevating the 15-year-old Dhirsinghapala to the throne of Khotan. With the Pala now installed the issue of a potential personal union with Tibet was high on the list of priorities, and with Šagulizhen Šunctçingid unlikely to have another heir it seemed like the unification of the great powers of Asia was inevitable.
Despite his military inexperience Paksirajapala II was well-aware that the size of the empire posed problems. The time to deploy Indian forces to the west was sizeable, leaving the Pala holdings in Europe and Persia vulnerable in the meantime. His solution was to create the first standing army in imperial history, taking inspiration from the Byzantine retinue system, which was formed in 1201. It was hoped that this would create a highly-trained and mobile force loyal to the Samrat Chakravartin capable of addressing threats across Buddhist territory at minimum notice. (It was also designed to take some responsibility of troop levying away from the viceroys). These reforms resulted in a comfortable victory in 1208, when Indian troops assisted Kham in the final unification of the Tibetan plateau. During an outbreak of consumption in India Paksirajapala became known for his harsh line against those accused of witchcraft - known for his upholding of his own interpretations of Buddhist law, the young Samrat Chakravartin sent many to the stake. Frustrated with the inability of the empire to keep their holdings in the Steppe secure from raiders, Paksirajapala granted independence to Oghuz in 1212. This was the first part of his series of territorial reforms, rationalizing the empire and releasing parts of dubious value. The Samrat Chakravartin was not convinced that the Greek territories should have been incorporated into the empire, given their general proclivity towards Christianity and their distance from the Indian core. His moves to conquer Arabia reflected a desire to consolidate Eurasia at the expense of Europe, establishing a series of natural borders along the Red Sea, in Anatolia and north to the Steppe. In 1216 he abolished the position of Eastern Roman Emperor, ending a continuous line of Emperors since the time of Christ; this act is widely understood to be the end of the European Era. The westernmost governors would be granted complete independence; Sicily, Sardinia, Greece, Bulgaria and Anatolia were released as Buddhist kingdoms. India intervened in Kham (now ruled from Guge) in 1219 to ensure the Wangli dynasty victory in the civil war; Pala troops were instrumental in turning the tide of the conflict and maintain the Bengali tributary state. However, at the Battle of Drampa Gyang (a comfortable Bengali victory) Paksirajapala was shockingly killed. Believed to have been infertile, he had only one child – although she did not survive to adulthood. As a result, the crown passed to his uncle, Udanalankarapala, who was coronated at the age of 35.
1219-1220: (Pala) UDANALANKARAPALA I
Udanalankarapala first finished off the civil war that had killed his nephew, ensuring continued influence across the plateau. Travelling back home to court in Laksmanavati the following year, however, the royal procession was ambushed by a rogue bandit gang. Udanalankarapala, despite a brave and courageous last stand, was slain by one of the rogues. He had reigned for barely a year – the shortest of any of the Pala monarchs. (He was the third successive monarch to be killed in combat). He was succeeded by his eldest son, who governed under a regency for 11 months before coming of age.
1220-1255: (Pala) UDANALANKARAPALA II
Udanalankarapala II had a quiet and quick regency, notable for the Wangli restoration of the Tibetan Empire in 1221 (becoming the first Tangut emperor of Tibet, and the first emperor of any kind since 848). Immediately upon becoming of age he sought to embark upon a line of conquests in Arabia and annexed the small statelet of Palmyra in late-1222. However, the following year the new Caliph, Hafiz Musaid, declared a jihad to reclaim the Arabian Peninsula from the Buddhists. Unfortunately for the Muslims their invading army collided with a large peasant rebellion in Halaban, inflicting a surprisingly humiliating defeat. They were further hindered by the annexation of the emirate of Arabia by the viceroy of Mafaza, and Buddhist troops began the siege of the holy city of Mecca in April 1224. Throughout the rest of the year Udanalankarapala launched a counter-offensive, occupying the entire of Caliphal Arabia until Hafiz abandoned his campaign in 1225. It did not come too soon, as Udanalankarapala was forced to address the conquering concerns of a warlord in Central Asia; a young warrior named Timur sought to establish his own state in Merv, requiring a sizeable Pala response and a hasty withdrawal from Arabia. Making good headway against the insolent Mongol, Udanalankarapala defeated and captured him at the Second Battle of Abiward in October 1225. Despite not being a great warrior, his victories had already established a decent reputation for Udanalankarapala at the young age of 20. The victories continued; in 1130 Udanalankarapala launched an invasion against the Caliph, and in a series of heavy sieges captured the holy cities of Mecca and Medina from the Muslims in 1131. Caliph Shaiban was forced to flee to his sole holding in the city of Genevois, but the loss of the holy cities pushed the entire religion of Islam to the brink. When the infant Abdul-Gafur of Arabia converted to the Germanic faith at sword-point it was clear that Islam no longer exerted any real influence. The independent Lakshmichandrid kingdom of Anatolia conquered Jerusalem in 1242. The outbreak of civil war across India in 1135 was unusual, given that most of the previous emperors had not ha to contend with insurrection from the viceroys. However, the Vasudevid, controlling much of the Arabian Peninsula and Persia, chose to rebel against the central authority of the emperor. They were reinforced by several discontented figures who felt isolated at court, swelling the ranks of rebel forces with Punjabis and those from the central Indian governors. At Koraput in May 1236 Udanalankarapala narrowly avoided a defeat, but the successful capture of the rebel capital in Al Hasa resulted in their surrender. Having defeated the largest civil war for over a century, Udanalankarapala redistributed the balance of power in the Arabian territories.
Udanalankarapala was the first Samrat Chakravartin to be a known author, publishing a definitive history of Buddhist temples and monuments in 1236. He became the next Pala Arhat of the Savaka-Sangha in 1241. Four years later he granted the viceroyalty of Lanka to the Rajadinajid dynasty – notable for breaking the 300-year near-uninterrupted governorship of the Lambakanna, and for introducing Bengali leadership in the last non-Bengali province of the empire. A short campaign in 1250 reconquered the recently-independent kingdom of Transoxiana for Udanalankarapala; the Pala dynasty were still unsure the best way to govern the rugged Eurasian interior, and consequently the Samrat Chakravartin destroyed the independent title of Transoxiana and distributed all the constituent parts to the viceroys of Kashmir, Khorasan and Daylam. While troops were mobilized in the region Udanalankarapala pushed on to establish Oghuz as a tributary state in 1251, completing a line of tributaries all along his northern border (Tibet, Altishahr and Oghuz). However, in 1254 Tibet and Altishahr went to war, and India chose a position of neutrality. Unfortunately, this meant that they voided controlling Altishahr as a tributary, as voiding Tibet would have meant a great loss of influence in the north. Weakened by fasting, Udanalankarapala died somewhat unexpectedly while on campaign against rebels in Oghuz. Succeeded by his eldest son, Udanalankarapala III, he nevertheless played an important role in the collapse of Islam and the consolidation of Indian power in the Middle East.
1255-1265: (Pala) UDANALANKARAPALA III
Udanalankarapala III faced an immediate problem upon taking the throne; his half-brother Agnimitra sought to stake his own claim on the empire and levied a large army to defeat Udanalankarapala. Crossing Anatolia through 1257, Agnimitra arrived in the western provinces of India in January 1258 but his forward force was defeated by Udanalankarapala personally at Qamishhlo. The two brothers then met at Edessa, where Udanalankarapala secured another victory, and at the Battle of Owshank the usurper forces were finally defeated. Agnimitra was banished from India, abandoned his claim to the empire, and took up residence in Anatolia for the rest of his life. Udanalankarapala was a known scholar and devoted a significant amount of time and resources to his pursuit of scientific truth; in 1259 he developed a rotary system of understanding the solar system, but soon began showing signs of mental instability, and lengthy periods of mania. His imperial decrees were increasingly ignored by his vassals, especially given that some were barely coherent and even insane. Nevertheless, Udanalankarapala continued to conduct his duties as emperor, and at a visit to his standing army troops stationed in Armenia in 1265 he contracted typhoid. After a short but severe illness he died, leaving the throne to his eldest son at the age of 24.
1265-1307: (Pala) PAKSIRAJAPALA III
Paksirajapala had a quiet start to his reign, with no threats to his rise to power or discontented vassals. He passed the time as a serial philandering, siring many bastards across his empire. His long-suffering wife, Monon Cæjæid (a princess of the Xia dynasty), was known for her great hospitality at court – but was frequently embarrassed by her husband. More recent Indian monarchs had come to regret the disintegration of the lands conquered by Paksirajapala I in Byzantium, especially as the kingdoms of Anatolia and Bulgaria (in particular) had grown into powerful states in their own right. Paksirajapala therefore launched another invasion westward, pushing into the lands of the Khsetravridhid dynasty (on the throne of Anatolia since 1266) and defeating their forces at Komanal in August 1272. When the infant Maharaja Rambhadra II Singh Dev abdicated and Paksirajapala III usurped the Anatolian throne, rumbles circulated across the Mediterranean that the Indians were keen on becoming a European power once more. Also, of note was that the second Pala conquest of Anatolia abolished the once-might trading republic of Cyrus – by far the largest mercantile entity in Europe. The seizure of Greek assets across the island elevated the rival city of Karvuna to the supreme commercial city in the western Mediterranean. Taking inspiration from his father Paksirajapala III published a series of tomes on Indian feudal tactics and military strategies, compiled from accounts ranging back as far as Dharmapala I. It quickly became an important work for generals and those being trained in the Indian military.
Paksirajapala took a firm line of the adventurism of his viceroys, forcing those to engage in over-ambitious campaigns to hand over their land for redistribution. He was also unpopular among his lords for his now-infamous philandering. After the reestablishment of the Mongol Empire in 1280, under Husun Dörbet, the Samrat Chakravartin once again declared a cultural war against Islam. Combining forces with Tibet, Paksirajapala intervened in the Mongol invasion of Altishahr, refusing to allow the subjugation of such an important border nation. The Xia then entered the conflict, mobilizing troops from the Western Protectorate. At the Battle of Luohu the Samrat was severely injured and suffered a major defeat – infamous in Indian history. A few months later a Pala force met Husun himself at Wutanzili, this time securing a necessary victory. Dhirsinghapala, cousin to Paksirajapala, launched an invasion to stake his claim on Altishahr in 1287. He was defeated in Pangong in December, however. The Syrian viceroy conquered the last remnant of the Khsetravridhid Anatolian state in 1288, annexing Tripoli and uniting all of the Holy Land under Buddhist control. In response the Sunni Caliph, Abdul II Umayyad, launched the Second Jihad for Arabia in 1291. The war was a complete non-starter for the Muslims, however, as Paksirajapala launched a counter-offensive against the Umayyad before they had time to mobilize a force. Paksirajapala travelled with the Mediterranean fleet to lay siege to the Caliphal capital at Wajda – in doing so he led the way in the most-westerly Indian action at that point in history. Except for a large clash in the Nile Delta, the conflict was isolated to small skirmishes (partly due to the rapidity of the Buddhist response and also their controlling position at sea). Support for the Jihad disintegrated after just one year, and Paksirajapala proclaimed victory in July 1292. Paksirajapala then sponsored a Buddhist revolution in Egypt, launching an invasion across the Sinai in 1297. Haroun II en Marabout only controlled the provinces of Mafkat and Rakote, but his state of Kemet (Coptic-majority) became a Buddhist tributary of India.
Paksirajapala lost a leg in Cairo in 1297, and after his injury he became increasingly reliant upon drink to suppress the physical and mental pain. A lengthy infection further debilitated the Samrat Chakravartin, and in 1300 he also lost a gangrenous hand. Relations with his eldest son worsened dramatically as Paksirajapala neglected his feudal duties. In 1300 he contracted syphilis, worsening his condition, and by 1306 was suffering from bouts of insanity. The following year he became blind in one eye. The Jurchen revolution in Tibet placed Šagulizhen Šunctçingid upon the throne as Khatun, and her rule immediately ended Indian control of Tibet. However, the Indian court quickly established positive relations with the Šunctçingid regime – a bastard son of Paksirajapala, Udanalankarapala, was quickly married off to the new empress. Despite Jurchen successes in Tibet, however, by the early-1300s the golden age of Jurchen China had come to an end, as the Xia dynasty struggled with the effects of famine and plague. Due to his ill-health Paksirajapala was unable to oversee the rebellion in Georgia that broke out in 1301, nor did he supply any aid to Tibet to assist in yet another civil war. Indeed, Georgia was an interesting case; under Vijaysen Udirnakhadgid Buddhist colonies had been established along the banks of the Dniester in Wallachia, stretching as far north as Suceava. These colonies were granted independence as they were proving costly to upkeep and defend, but the duchy of Abkhazia also joined against the will of the Samrat – leading to an immediate Georgian war against the new independent Moldavia. In 1306 assistance was granted to the Copts as Paksirajapala, heir to the throne, pushed their claim for Alexandria.
With the Samrat doggedly clinging on to life, Caliph Husam Husamid – who had carved out a Shia state in Maghreb – declared another Crusade for Arabia. With Paksirajapala III obviously unable to lead a counteroffensive as he had in the past the honour fell to his son; as such, the to-be Paksirajapala IV was laying siege to the fortress-city of Fès when news of the death of his father reached him.
1307-1310: (Pala) PAKSIRAJAPALA IV
Paksirajapala IV inherited an empire more powerful than any before, but noticeably less centralized. His father had surrounding himself with lovers and loyal advisors, and so Paksirajapala immediately reformed his council with viceroys. Dull and fat, and with known Islamic sympathies, Paksirajapala was not known for his intellectual finesse – however, he committed himself well to the battlefield and increasingly became a fine commander. At the Battle of Aulef he was noted for his personal bravery, and in 1307 he became the first (and only) Samrat Chakravartin to sail in the Atlantic Ocean. Having completed the occupation of the small Caliphate in 1307 Paksirajapala forced Husam to surrender (as well as accept the execution of Muslim prisoners-of-war, prompted by his council). Paksirajapala was also concerned about the number of potential pretenders to his rule – his father had over 45 children, and at the first sign of disloyalty or political intrigue any potential rivals (legitimate or not) were imprisoned or cloistered. However, in 1308 he went a step too far – on advice of dubious provenance he had his brother burnt at the stake, ostensibly for apostasy - he became known as a ‘kinslayer’.
The mercantile republic of Blemmyia had been established in 1066, and during the 200-year interim had formed a powerful trading bloc stretching all the way to the coast of Bengal. However, the Pala monarchs had long opposed it as a backhanded route to spread Islam into India and take wealth from the Bengali possessions. Paksirajapala personally regarded them as pirates. In early-1309 Paksirajapala launched an ambitious amphibious assault from Arabia across the Red Sea and into the holdings of Blemmyia. Defeated near the capital city of Sawakin at first, rapid Buddhist reinforcement overwhelmed the city defences and began a comprehensive looting and occupation campaign across the entire Blemmyia coastline. By December the blockade had worked, and the governing Hadendowa family agreed to dismantle 62 trading posts across the Indian Ocean and pay over 5000 in reparations to the Pala. Returning home from Blemmyia Paksirajapala moved to reinforce the Buddhist kingdom in Kemet and engaged a roaming Muslim force at Abu Rowash. Unfortunately, the Samrat Chakravartin would be slain in a chaotic battlefield duel. After just under three years on the throne, Paksirajapala had managed to amass an impressive array of domestic enemies. His only son would take the throne as Paksirajapala V, at the age of 22.
1310-1332~: (Pala) PAKSIRAJAPALA V
Paksirajapala V had far more political cunning than his father and while he remained on campaign on the banks of the Nile, he dispatched orders for large bribes to reach the courts of his viceroys. He also sent emissaries to the newly-coronated Empress Xiaozong – only the second woman to ever sit on the Dragon Throne. Kemet annexed the city of Cairo (now renamed Kahiree) in 1310, and Paksirajapala returned to Bengal. In 1312 the Plague resurfaced in Gujarat and spread quickly through Central India. Partly to escape the epidemic Paksirajapala took his forces north and launched an invasion of Altishahr to place Šunctçing Šunctçingid on the throne. This raised the possibility of a personal union between Altishahr and Tibet, but more important as Šunctçing was matrilineally married to Nayanadevi Pala (cousin to Paksirajapala) a Pala looked likely to take the throne in the near-future. Paksirajapala was engaged by a numerically-superior force at Xiuxun in July 1314 but managed to secure an important victory. The Battle of Jiashi in the harsh winter conditions completed the defeat of the Altishahr Uyghurs, bringing an end to the reign of the Tüzmi dynasty (who had reigned in Altishahr since 1165). Restored as the kingdom of Khotan, Šunctçing immediately signed a non-aggression pact and subsequent alliance with India. Following his victory in Altishahr Paksirajapala became to show a quiet ruthlessness; in the next few years the Pala inheritance was shored up further by the disappearance or assassination of those in the line of succession without dynastic ties to the Pala (most notably the Tüzmi-Pala, heirs of his sister Agnimitrapali). When news that her nephew had taken power in Khotan reached Tibet, Šagulizhen Šunctçingid was said to go into hiding.
By 1315 the Germanic faith had virtually wiped out all that remained of the Christian and Islamic states in Central Europe and Iberia; the Saxons in England and the Irish had carved out large heathen empires, and increasingly encroached upon coastal states. Raiding in the former Holy Land was non-stop, and a significant amount of resources was deploying in maintaining security in Anatolia as well. The Buddhist states of Greece, Bulgaria and Sicily held on however, and further colonial efforts by the Georgians had reached the city of Lviv in Galicia. In 1322 Paksirajapala began to take a stand, marching a Pala force uncontested into Adrianopolis and annexing it outright for the viceroy of Thrace-Trebizond. In 1331 he annexed the English positions in Odessa and on the mouth of the Dnieper. The following year he conquered the northern half of Crimea and founded a new governorship far on the reaches of the empire – encompassing all of the Wallachian and Galician holdings into a distant viceroyalty. This was partly inspired by a desire to force the Germanic states out of the Black Sea. Paksirajapala, although personally of a kind disposition, increasingly took a firm line with his viceroys. In 1316 this resulted in a limited civil war as the Vasudevid family of Hijaz rallied together with their kinsmen in Kashmir and Khorasan. The revolt was sizeable – sporting over 33,000 men – and Paksirajapala was forced to return from Laksmanavati to the west, travelling by boat to besiege the former holy cities of Islam (now mere provincial towns on the edge of the empire). His campaign was part of a wider series of sieges, most notably those of the significant fortress of Lower Kashmir. Although the war was short and the rebels surrendered in 1317 it was bloody, as Paksirajapala relied on wasteful sieges to prevent any further traction from other discontent viceroys. The aftermath was no less strict, however, with Hijaz being redistributed to the governor of Jordan and the viceroyalty of Transoxiana being reinstated as non-hereditary in the steppe.
With order restored at home, Paksirajapala returned to his foreign policy commitments in Khotan. At the Battle of Piqan in January 1318 he single-handedly rescued Šunctçing Šunctçingid from certain defeat at the hands of the Mongol Empire, massacring most of the untrained Mongol tribesmen. There was great incentive to further crush the Mongols, given that they remained an island of Muslims in the north. (The neighbouring Isbarid dynasty were Messalian, but generally had positive relations with India). However, a lengthy attempt to pacify the Mongols came to a head at the Battle of Gorgol in January 1320; Paksirajapala was only rescued by timely reinforcements from the south, preventing a hair-raising defeat. Victory only came in 1320, and Khotan annexed Altay. China fell into civil war in 1324, with the decade of famine and plague finally forcing resistance against the Xia dynasty.
Šunctçing Šunctçingid died of dysentery in 1326, elevating the 15-year-old Dhirsinghapala to the throne of Khotan. With the Pala now installed the issue of a potential personal union with Tibet was high on the list of priorities, and with Šagulizhen Šunctçingid unlikely to have another heir it seemed like the unification of the great powers of Asia was inevitable.
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Crossposting:
As King of Scotland, 75 years old, I married the daughter of the Duke of Northumbria, Lothian, and Lancaster.
As King, I'm prepared to die in 10 years. My 20-odd year son is Duke of Galloway. He is a OK heir.
I will leave him a greater kingdom so fuck the law, I conquer Lancaster (by mistake, meant Lothian). Usuroped the petty welsh kingdom, then took over duchy of Lothian. England and Christians not happy.
Middle of that war, I lose my son to sickness. His heir is a boy, I'm his guardian, I will teach him to be a good steward.
i launch a claim for the Oakney isles. Fuck Denmark and their English allies.
I have three German duchies, a Irish count, and France on my side!
The wives to the German dukes die. The French king dies. His elected successor is no kin of mine.
I die. My grandson is king. I have no allies.
Oh well. I'll white peace when I go back in. Sure my vassals won't like me and sure the Duke of Moray, son of my half-bastard brother (uncle, now, I guess?) is in open rebellion and has 6k to my very depleted 3k, but I have just enough gold to hire a mercenary band for a quick battle and then drop them harder than the Reconquista.
I guess I'll try and marry the king to the princesss/queen of England. They're abotu the same age. Hopefully it work. If not, plenty of English daughters to steal a claim for.
edit: Young new king, I'm tring to marry the queen of england. But she won't accept. I have money. I have an army. I've sent her gifts, dueling skills are sexy, and I control half of britain! WHY WON'T SHE ACCEPT MY MARRIAGE PROPOSAL!
Fuck the Dane prince. What's the boy got the king of scotland future king of england doesnt? How can I make her love me?
As King of Scotland, 75 years old, I married the daughter of the Duke of Northumbria, Lothian, and Lancaster.
As King, I'm prepared to die in 10 years. My 20-odd year son is Duke of Galloway. He is a OK heir.
I will leave him a greater kingdom so fuck the law, I conquer Lancaster (by mistake, meant Lothian). Usuroped the petty welsh kingdom, then took over duchy of Lothian. England and Christians not happy.
Middle of that war, I lose my son to sickness. His heir is a boy, I'm his guardian, I will teach him to be a good steward.
i launch a claim for the Oakney isles. Fuck Denmark and their English allies.
I have three German duchies, a Irish count, and France on my side!
The wives to the German dukes die. The French king dies. His elected successor is no kin of mine.
I die. My grandson is king. I have no allies.
Oh well. I'll white peace when I go back in. Sure my vassals won't like me and sure the Duke of Moray, son of my half-bastard brother (uncle, now, I guess?) is in open rebellion and has 6k to my very depleted 3k, but I have just enough gold to hire a mercenary band for a quick battle and then drop them harder than the Reconquista.
I guess I'll try and marry the king to the princesss/queen of England. They're abotu the same age. Hopefully it work. If not, plenty of English daughters to steal a claim for.
edit: Young new king, I'm tring to marry the queen of england. But she won't accept. I have money. I have an army. I've sent her gifts, dueling skills are sexy, and I control half of britain! WHY WON'T SHE ACCEPT MY MARRIAGE PROPOSAL!
Fuck the Dane prince. What's the boy got the king of scotland future king of england doesnt? How can I make her love me?
The After The End mod (or rather, its fan fork) just updated for 3.1 and it is really really great. Beyond the very cool post-apo setting (some unspecified catastrophe brought the world back to the Middle-Ages, and the game is set in North America + Central America), the mod features many situation and experiences that you don't get in the base game.
The Celestial Emperor of California, for example, is an analogue of the Zhou Emperors during the Warring States period of China: he only controls one province (the Imperial City of Sacramento) while 5 powerful kings (Socal, The Valley, Baja, Jefferson and Gran Francisco) competes around him for domination. He is only a figurehead, and as a result does not have the right to make wars to press his personal and de jure claims. However, he retains a bit of diplomatic power (ie, he can call all Californian independent states to his aid if he is invaded) and more importantly, religious power as he is the Head of the Cetic religion, followed throughout California.
It makes for a run that is very different from your usual, and very fun to roleplay as well: you get events to write and publish teachings that can raise or lower Cetic moral authority, for example.
And that's just a small part of this rather amazing mod. Heartily recommended if you haven't tried it yet.
The Celestial Emperor of California, for example, is an analogue of the Zhou Emperors during the Warring States period of China: he only controls one province (the Imperial City of Sacramento) while 5 powerful kings (Socal, The Valley, Baja, Jefferson and Gran Francisco) competes around him for domination. He is only a figurehead, and as a result does not have the right to make wars to press his personal and de jure claims. However, he retains a bit of diplomatic power (ie, he can call all Californian independent states to his aid if he is invaded) and more importantly, religious power as he is the Head of the Cetic religion, followed throughout California.
It makes for a run that is very different from your usual, and very fun to roleplay as well: you get events to write and publish teachings that can raise or lower Cetic moral authority, for example.
And that's just a small part of this rather amazing mod. Heartily recommended if you haven't tried it yet.
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