British Florida: the TL

[durante]

Ok. So this is going to be an ongoing thread eliciting opinions on one of my favourite alternate history topics, British Florida.

This is not my first time delving in to this idea, I have read all the threads on this site, and I also recommend @CeeJay 's Palmera: An African Resettlement TL, which was my original inspiration to write alternate history.

This TL will go down a different path for a couple of reasons, but the main one is that although I 100% sympathize with the sentiment of the TL, I believe it's a bit too optimistic with respect to a Freedmens colony. It's still not only my favourite alternate history, but one of my all-time favourite stories in any genre. Nothing but love for Palmera. But another reason to go down a bit of a different path is to differentiate it.

So my intention is to try to build the history from the Treaty of Paris forward...essentially, trying to remove any of my own biases to write an "objective" TL, insofar as that is possible. To this end, I will be splitting this up into "Chapters", because what is discussed in one part will necessarily impact what happens next.

So, the prelude is that Britain attained West & East Florida from Spain in 1763 at the conclusion of the Seven Years' War (as OTL). Development happens largely as OTL, but the Floridas are not returned to Spain with the 1783 Treaty of Paris. This is the PoD.

Because so much of this is the result of backroom deals in Europe, I think its fairly easy to hand-wave this outcome, although in another thread it is mentioned (I believe accurately) that the failure of the Spanish to take Pensacola (the capital of West Florida) would mean that, while Spain may claim the lands they held - West Florida south of the 31st parallel and west of the Perdido river (in other words, the portion of Louisiana east of the Mississippi as well as the OTL Mississippi and Alabama coasts), Britain would be unlikely IMO to cede West Florida if they retained control of Pensacola.

The first butterfly here is that the 13,375 Loyalists who arrived in East Florida OTL are not forced onward. This means Bahamas doesn't receive 8,000 Loyalists who triple its population, Jamaica doesn't receive as many, there are a few who OTL returned to Georgia/South Carolina after the war who don't here, etc.

The demographic snapshot after the arrival of the Loyalists is like this: [source for numbers: Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World. Jasanoff, Maya, 2011].

In East Florida, before the Loyalists, it was estimated there were approximately 3,000 non-indigenous settlers, including approximately 2,000 African slaves and 1,000 Europeans. The "vast majority" [c. 700?] are descendants of Andrew Turnbull's New Smyrna Colony...about 250 Greeks, 350 Catalans and about 100 Italians and Corsicans. Most of them reside in the area around the British Fort/Capital/Port, St Augustine. There are also about 300 British settlers and soldiers, some of whom are back-country Scots-Irish from Georgia & the Carolinas.

They are joined by 5,090 white Loyalists, of whom around 4,000 come from South Carolina and most of the remainder from Georgia. They bring with them 8,285 black slaves.

In West Florida, there were believed to be only "a few hundred" British/American settlers, generally soldiers at Pensacola and Scots/Irish backcountry folk in the hillier, less sandy soil adjacent the [OTL] US border. Total non-indigenous population of the West Florida coast was likely around 1,000; it appears there were more than 800 mixed-race French-speaking Creoles who formed the area's artisanal class. Only small numbers of Loyalists arrived in West Florida during the war, but the ones who did tended to be British on the coasts and more Scots-Irish in the hills.

So I guess here is where I'm going to take the first creative liberty - apparently, about 400 white Loyalists with about 2,600 slaves returned to Georgia or South Carolina after the war [from East Florida]. Now, of course it's entirely possible that these would've returned regardless of whether there was the option to stay, but I'm going to propose that "late Loyalists" from Georgia and South Carolina going the other way would cancel out this transfer.

But clearly, the 13,000 Loyalists would not all just stay in East Florida, and, based on what happened in Canada, I'm going to suggest that some 3,000 [approximately 400 whites and their 2,600 slaves] would head onwards to West Florida, so that the population balance of East and West Florida approximately restores itself.

If anyone has any arguments against this, I would love to hear it - that's why I've developed this thread.

So, to re-cap, after the arrivals:

West Florida has a population of approximately 4,000. Roughly 15% are British or American, 20% French creoles, and 65% black slaves.

East Florida has a population of approximately 13,500. Roughly 37% are British or American, 5% are "New Smyrnans", and the remainder are black slaves.

The biggest butterfly outside Florida at this point is the Bahamas, who's population has not tripled and so is somewhere around 4,000 rather than the 11,000 it rose to between 1783 and 1788 OTL. [In fact, since the Bahamas received the majority of the East Floridians IOTL, I believe the period between 1783-1815 in Bahamian history is quite instructive as to how Florida may have attempted to develop].

As Georgia was a Loyalist hotbed, it seems likely that the new governor of East Florida will try to encourage "Late Loyalist" migration as was done in Canada, in addition, it is known that the Loyalists who arrived in Bahamas, TCI, Jamaica, Belize and Dominica from East Florida IOTL imported thousands of African slaves over the next few years.

It is stated that the Bahamians tried to establish cotton plantations, but were unable to due to poor soil conditions.

Florida will be quite different in this regard.

And also, I came across this neat little butterfly:

Francis Levett - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

TLDR; Sir Francis Levett was a former trader for the Levant Company who settled in East Florida. He went to Georgia after the revolution. In 1790, his slaves became the first people to plant a strain of Egyptian cotton on the Sea Islands of Georgia. This cotton is now called "Sea Island Cotton".

It seems that ITTL, British Florida would get a jump on the high-end, long-staple Sea Island cotton.

My other butterfly is that Lord Dunmore isn't Governor of Bahamas from 1787-1796 [the Bahamas being a meaningless colony, much more like TCI at this point ITTL].

He's going to be put in charge of Florida.

Ok. So without bouncing around too much...

With Jay's treaty being negotiated in 1794 and signed in 1795...how likely is it that Britain cedes the part of West Florida north of the 31st parallel to the USA as "Indian Territory", in the same way they did with the Northwest Country? Would they want to fight to keep it for cotton plantations? Would they realistically be able to?

...and with 1790 being the height of the Nootka Crisis (with Spain and England both claiming the Pacific NW north of San Francisco Bay, and ultimately deciding to "agree to disagree" and leave the area disputed...

I'm curious as to how these negotiations may effect the Floridas...as I previously mentioned, I think it's possible that Britain and Spain have left the Western extreme of West Florida in dispute.

Please, any and all thoughts welcome.

 

[durante]

So Bowles had the goal of establishing an independent indigenous nation; in this he was supported by the British Crown. They supported his making an alliance with tribes in IOTL northern Florida and harassing Spanish and Americans (and British who traded with them). He was supported in this by Lord Dunmore, who was by then Governor of Bahamas.

McGillivray had the same goal; although he had more traditional prestige. He lived on a vast plantation near modern-day Montgomery, and IOTL negotiated treaties with the Spanish, British, and Americans.

Panton, Leslie & Company would still have the license to trade with the natives of the Southeast - so I actually think Bowles' involvement gets butterflied here. If the British keep Florida, the last thing they'd want is this guy causing trouble in the area.

It may have significant impacts on McGillivray though. I dont know if the British would be as enthusiastic as Spain in supporting the Creeks and Cherokees, against the Americans (then again, they might be).

Apparently it was British pressure on McGillivray that caused him to end the Creeks' involvement in the Cherokee wars in Tennessee in the 1780s.

ITTL, maybe they do, maybe they don't - it seems to me that Britain's main desire was to normalize relations with the USA (specifically, trade relations). But if they did want to keep West Florida above the 31st, McGillivray is a leader they could look to.

He died in 1793 IOTL at 43, so couldve lived longer - although if he does die young OTL, as he was by far the most Europeanized Creek of his time, maybe the British attempt to keep the area dies with him?

I know it may seem contrived, but the way I see it I think it's actually kind of likely that Florida ends up with its modern boundaries - the British cede the area north of 31 as part of Jay's Treaty (or something else around the same time), the British continue to disagree with the Spanish over the Westernmost part - and so the Americans inherit the claim with the purchase of Louisiana. This becomes the basis for the West Florida Republic, which declares its independence at the onset of the alt-war of 1812.

Republic of West Florida - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

 

[durante]

So, after the dust has settled, a trickle of "late Loyalists" of both the backcountry and more genteel variety arrive; importation of slaves begins in large numbers and the plantation economy develops, especially along the St John's River, with indigo and rice being important early crops.

There would be freedmen in the colony as well, but in an unofficial capacity (as few were evacuated by the British, they arent perceived as "Loyalists", but rather, "runaways").

I've seen on other threads people mention that they shopped around different locations before the Freedmen's colony in Sierra Leone was decided, but I can't find any evidence of this. Sierra Leone was a newly acquired colony, there was a large influx of free blacks into England in the wake of the revolution, and many people saw this as a way to establish the new colony and also remove them from England.

So unfortunately, I dont see Florida becoming the site of a Freedmen's colony at this stage - the Planters would not want this temptation. The freedmen in the colony would find themselves strongly encouraged to move to the Bahamas, or even Sierra Leone.

Of course, not all of them would, and Florida is a big place and relatively unpopulated at the time, so some Freedmen's villages begin to dot the interior.

Lovett begins his experiments with Sea Island Cotton...which in this TL becomes "Florida Cotton" or possibly "St Augustine Cotton".

The French revolution begins, which makes itself felt in a big way by 1793 - when France declares war on both Britain and Spain, and also, Haiti breaks out in revolution.

The British intervene in Haiti (Saint-Domingue at the time), and there is now impetus to sign Jay's Treaty with the Americans to keep them neutral in the wars against France.

Britain wont offer any Florida land, nor will the USA ask for any. The biggest effect of the Treaty on Florida will be opening it and the West Indies to limited amounts of American trade, and an increase in restrictions on American cotton imports. These will both have positive impacts on Florida's economy, although the effect is cumulative, not immediate.

IOTL, as British involvement in Saint-Domingue was ending, British ships evacuated several hundred former planters from northern SD. It is not mentioned where they were evacuated to, but the obvious location ITTL is St Augustine.

SD was dominated by sugar, but coffee and cotton were also grown - ITTL, the vast majority (over 15,000) of Saint Dominican refugees (primarily white and mixed-race) will still go to New Orleans, with most of the rest going to Cuba or DR, but I believe several hundred to possibly more than a thousand Saint Dominicans will settle in the Floridas. They will NOT be encouraged to settle in the Frencher West Florida - unless they have cotton growing experience, in which case they will be treated very kindly.

Now, I believe the majority of Saint Dominicans will settle in the St Augustine area, where they wont leave a huge lasting impact on the culture (over time they are likely to merge into the New Smyrnans).

But although only a minority settle in West Florida, that area has so many fewer whites already, that they will have a significant lasting impact on the local culture- which is heightened when several hundred more arrive in Pensacola during the wake of the Louisiana Purchase.

Now, we have a dilemma. IOTL, the American population of MS & AL increased from under 9,000 in 1800 to over 40,000 by 1810.

This will be concentrated now in the northern half of the state, although some of them will undoubtedly settle in British West Florida.

Meanwhile, the entire non-American, non-indigenous population of the West Florida coast is generously going to increase from about 6,000 to maybe 7,500 during the same period.

In 1806, Jay's Treaty's commercial terms expire and the new American government declines to negotiate. Tensions are rising. Impressment is occurring. Both nations will outlow the transatlantic slave trade, although both specifically allow interstate or intercolonial trade (and smuggling occurs).

I see a conflict coming.

 

[durante]

Jay's Treaty eventually opened up the Northwest Country to American settlement.

As the Americans pushed further west, indigenous apprehension grew. Ohio became a state in 1804; the Chief of the Shawnee, Black Hoof, urged the Shawnee to adapt to American customs, with the hope that they would gain a Shawnee territory in the Northwest Country.

By 1806, however, Tecumseh's younger brother, Tenskwatawa, began travelling the region, preaching a message of resistance to the foreigners, and of adherence to traditional customs and values. His message began to spread far and wide, and he became known as "the Shawnee Prophet"

Several important Shawnee warleaders became converts of this religious movement, including Blue Jacket and Roundhead. Indigenous people from many tribes began to settle near Tenskwatawa's home (near modern Greenville, Indiana). As "Prophetstown" grew, American anxieties increased, and Tecumseh initially tried to balance the anxieties of both groups.

However, governor of Indiana Territory, William Henry Harrison, negotiated the Treaty of Fort Wayne (OTL 1809) with some of the indigenous leaders of the area, purchasing nearly 12,000 sq km of land in what would be come Indiana and Illinois.

The indigenous leaders in the area who weren't consulted were livid; the reaction in Prophetstown was outrage, and Tecumseh began travelling farther and wider to pull together a "Confederacy" which could stand up to American aggression.

After travels through Upper Canada, Tecumseh headed south from Indiana in the summer of 1811.

Earlier that year, the Great Comet of 1811 had first been spotted. It was visible to the naked eye in the United Kingdom by August, and became conspicuous in the night sky of the United States by September. At this time, Harrison marched on Prophetstown with over 1,000 soldiers, and eventually forced the natives to evacuate Prophetstown.

Meanwhile, Tecumseh continued his journey through the southeast. The Choctaw, whose lands were split by Britain and the USA, refused his overtures and insisted on neutrality; the Chickasaws had friendly relations with the USA.

But many of the Muskogee Creeks felt the same concerns as the Shawnee - apprehension at increased American settlement on their traditional lands, as well as consternation with the loss of traditional culture by many of their own; as Tecumseh negotiated with the Creek leaders in the fall of 1811, he pointed to the Comet - he said that he was the "Shooting Star" of the Natives, and that his brother, the Shawnee Prophet, had predicted that he would lead a successful resistance against the Americans.

As Tecumseh headed north at the end of Novemeber, 1811, he assured the debating Creeks that all his Brother's prophecies would be proven true - and assured them that the Creator would send them a great sign to know he spoke the truth. Many were of course skeptical, and in the weeks that passed, his fiery rhetoric seemed to fade as the chances of a 'sign' seemed slim.

In the early hours of December 16th, 1811, many residents of New Madrid, Missouri Territory, (in the southeast corner of the territory, on the Mississippi river and across from the Mississippi territory), were awoken with violent shocks. Wave after wave spread out from the area, until it seemed the entire Mississippi Valley was convulsing. Could there be a more clear sign of the Creator's will then the devastating earthquakes, which lasted with aftershocks until February, and that were, to this day, the largest ever recorded east of the rockies?

To many of the Muskogee Creeks - there could not be a greater sign of the righteousness of the cause of resistance.

 

[durante]

I figure it's better to forge forward and retcon if necessary than to get stuck in the weeds.

I'll start moving forward with an alt-Wo1812 where New Orleans isn't captured; I can explore how things would be different if New Orleans is captured after.

The immediate impact of the War was a severe disruption of the economy of the Floridas, which had been in full cotton boom.

Thousands of Creek refugees and their slaves are forced out of Georgia and OTL northern Alabama into West Florida, while during and after the War many pro-American settlers in the Floridas would move to the USA.

As in Canada, after 1815, the Floridas ban immigration from the USA for several decades in an attempt to keep the area under British control.

At first, the American economy had actually suffered more (due to the effects of the successful naval blockade on foreign trade), and had a harder time bouncing back...the USA would stay in recession until about 1821.

The slow recovery of the USA's cotton exporting in fact helps Florida's recovery. During this period, as burned cities are rebuilt and forts upgraded, Florida begins to evolve into a wealthy, developed colony.

And progress is being made, albeit slowly, toward abolition. In 1822, it became illegal in the Mississippi Territory to kill your own slave without good reason (which, believe it or not, counts as "progress").

In 1824, although public slave auctions were already rare in the British West Indies, they became illegal, as did splitting up families and couples by selling one of them.

These must be seen as very minor impositions on the owners to have some semblance of human dignity, but to some of the planters, it is seen as a constraint on the exercise of their capital. (Restrictions on their sale lead to a reduction in their value, meaning wealthy slave owners would have a financial incentive to move to the USA, where their slaves are worth more, because they have fewer restrictions governing their sale and treatment).

From around this time, the Planters who most enthusiastically support slavery are more likely than the population as a whole to move north into the USA. The phenomenon of course is most noted after the Act Abolishing Slavery in 1833, but it began at least a decade earlier.

Prior to these double effects - the banning of American immigration and the improvement of the conditions of slaves in the Floridas - there would be little to no discernible difference in the racial attitudes of white Floridians compared to their American brethren in Georgia, Charleston, or Mississippi.

This would begin to change, every so slowly, after the war.

Slavery in the West Indies, however, was no benevolent institution, and slave revolts would have been just as frequent and bloody in the Floridas as elsewhere.

As happened in many West Indian colonies and American states, Free people of colour may lose their rights of citizenship (or have them restricted) in the years leading up to the War of 1812 as the plantation economy is expanding.

In 1831, perhaps in response to a wave of violent slave rebellions in the West Indies, the British Parliament passed a law which guaranteed free people of colour the same rights of citizenship (with the same property qualifications) as free white citizens.

Due to undemocratic nature of the colonies and the property qualifications for voting, this didnt mean a substantial increase in the political power of free blacks at first - but it did put them on a sound legal footing they had lacked before. They were citizens, and they were allowed to live in Florida.

Of course, this gave some extra punch to the Act Abolishing Slavery.

Passed in 1833, the provisions of the act were that beginning on January 1st 1834, all slaves in the British West Indies, British North America and Cape Colony would become indentured servants - with an indenture of six years, ending 1840. During this time they would not be paid, but would be limited to 9 hours of work per day, six days per week.

Slaveowners were entitled to compensation. The amount per slave was approximately 20 pounds (although this varied quite substantially, depending, it seemed, on how well liked one was by the Crown).

This was deliberately set significantly lower than the market value to avoid smuggling and "breeding" for profit.

Another stipulation was that, to get your compensation, a slave owner had to travel to London.

(It should be noted that compensation paid to the slaves was never considered).

Because of the cost of a trip to London, this meant that only the wealthiest planters could realistically travel to London to get their funds.

Since emancipation had also changed the nature of their livelihood or stood to shortly - the former slaveowners were in fact just as likely to sell their properties in Florida and stay in England or move on to some other location with their compensation.

There was also, as previously mentioned, a strong incentive to move with your slaves to the USA.

In East Florida, a smaller percentage of whites are slaveowners, and therefore the numbers of those who leave are smaller proportionally.

In West Florida, a higher percentage of the white population were slaveowners, and therefore a higher percentage leave - the planters being disproportionately Anglo, this has the effect of slowing French language attrition in West Florida.

There were of course those who would take their compensation and use it to try to start new business ventures in Florida - other types of plantation or even railway and canal building.

As the "apprenticeship" period was winding down, absenteeism increased. This wasnt much of a problem, because the sale of planters' property had itself induced somewhat of a downturn in the economy, reducing demand for apprentice labour.

By the time the period ended, and the freedmen were able to walk off the plantations for good, a glut in the global supply of cotton had already resulted in a severe depression in the USA cotton belt, which would last into the early 1840s.

At this time, many of the freed slaves left the towns and plantations to join the already established freedmen's villages which had dotted the interior for decades.

And, as word spread in the southern states about the freedom on offer in the Floridas, a high stakes game developed between southern militias, intent on securing the border and preventing any slaves from escaping, and the slaves, who, increasingly throughout the 1840s and 1850s would risk everything to make it to liberty in Florida.

 

[durante]

Lack of slave labour after abolition, combined with the glut in cotton production, and compensation paid to former planters probably leads to an earlier investment in primitive industrialization and mechanization.

With bales of cotton on the docks and declining prices, the former planters have an incentive to try to mechanize and create a modest textile manufacturing industry, assisted by the proliferation of railways, canals, and steam-powered boats and sawmills.

IOTL there was also a movement of planters from the Chesapeake area into Florida as the soils became exhausted; ITTL this movement is likely replaced by West Indian planters, including those receive compensation for slaves, coming north to Florida for similar reasons.

The Sugar Duties Act would accelerate this (which removed protections for British-colony produced Sugar). The act was passed IOTL in 1846.

The repeal of the Navigation Acts occurred in 1849 (which required all trade with Britain and her colonies to be conducted via British or colonial ships, kind of the equivalent of the Jones Act).

And, most importantly to Florida, duties on other agricultural products were reduced in 1853 (including cotton), and eliminated in 1860.

All these acts are going to undercut the plantation economy, leading to lower economic growth but also incentivizing mechanization and industrialization.

The acts are also part of a trend toward Free Trade and "Little England" sentiments which increasingly see colonies as a drain on the resources of the mother country.

At the same time, perhaps as a result, there is an increased call for "Responsible Government" - that is, a colonial cabinet appointed by the elected colonial lower house, rather than the appointed upper house.

 

[durante]

Because the Loyalist planters were so predominately from the South Carolina & Georgia low country, the plantation society that they developed up and down the banks of the Lower St John's River was very much an extension of Lowcountry culture, with the culture of the black population an extension of the Gullah-Geechee culture. This area experiences a "cotton boom" relatively earlier, as it is the location of Levett's Long-Staple cotton (which doesnt need a 'gin for processing), as well as the Haitian revolution driving up prices and the ongoing industrial revolution increasing demand.

This contrasted with West Florida. The northern portion was populated almost exclusively by Choctaws, Creeks and their slaves prior to the American revolution, although it would receive the bulk of the backcountry "late-Loyalists" in the years leading up to the second war.

West Florida's land is suited to short-staple cotton; the 'gin made necessary for this is patented in 1794 and spread slow by today's standards, so the "cotton boom" in West Florida starts a few years later (maybe 5-10).

Coastal West Florida had few planters before the boom; the West Florida cotton boom coincides with the refugees fleeing Haiti (and many of them being expelled from Cuba in 1809).

The triracial creole population is concentrated around the Biloxi-Pensacola area; the planter class that develops in the coastal area is perhaps equal parts Lowcountry Loyalist and Saint-Dominican refugee.

The process of establishing the plantation economy of the Gulf Coast leads to an "Africanization" of the area.

Because of the costs involved in travel from east to west Florida at the time, and because the Saint-Dominicans came with few slaves but imported many, the black population of the West Florida Gulf Coast has a unique culture representing dozens of African nations and regional African-American, Antillean and West Indian cultures.

Cotton depletes soil quickly, however, and this means that by 1815 East Florida is already seeing a decline in its long-staple production; there is a push that sees many second generation St John's River area planters move down the East Coast or push southwest toward the gulf into virgin land; but most commonly, especially as the West Florida lands become depleted in the 1820s, these planters move into "Middle Florida", between the Apolachicola and Suwanee rivers, which previously had been settled almost exclusively by displaced east-Muskogean speaking indigenous groups and runaway slaves, a grouping that evolved the ethnic identity "Seminole".

(The British response to the Seminoles is to try to fix them in place in reserves through a series of one-sided treaties, rather than pushing them ever further southward down the peninsula as OTL.)

That Middle Florida was settled primarily after immigration from the USA had been banned and the trans-Atlantic slave trade formally ended meant it developed it's own distinct culture.

Its planter class included some Saint-Dominicans but was mainly second generation Loyalist. The black slave population was primarily of the Gullah-Geechee culture but included many slaves imported from the West Indies (primarily Jamaica and Habana).

Freedmen's villages also dot the area. The largest ones would be the most distant from the more settled areas, although the more prosperous ones would be closer.

If Angola is anything to go by:

Angola, Florida - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

The Gulf Coast from Tampa Bay to Naples and inland to the Kissimmee is likely the area with the largest and longest lasting Freedmen's villages, which gain legality in 1831 and begin attracting freed slaves, runaways, and Free blacks from the USA after abolition.

In West Florida, the planters and freed blacks who leave the region after/during emancipation are disproportionately Anglo, and the Free people of colour arriving in West Florida after 1831 are disproportionately French, so West Florida will cultivate & maintain a distinct creole culture perhaps even longer than New Orleans ITTL.

As an aside: being cut off from the upper river trade will make West Florida and Middle Florida less prosperous ITTL.

It wont have the effect of making a rich area poor, necessarily, but it does mean that some cotton exports that IOTL were floated down the river to the Gulf will ITTL get pulled off at the border (or near it), and put on a pack-wagon to the Mississippi or Atlantic. This will eventually be replaced by a railway, and become less important after trade restrictions and tariffs are pulled down in the second half of the 19th century, but it would change things in the early years.

After emancipation, many of the wealthiest planters will leave for the USA, UK or other colonies, while some from the West Indies will relocate to Florida, primarily St Augustine.

The famine leads to an increase in Irish immigration in the lates 1840s just as the world cotton prices are picking up again (and as the southern-bound Underground Railroad intensifies), so labour is covered without the need for the importation of vast amounts of Indian and Chinese labour at this point - although some undoubtedly do arrive.

I imagine a total non-indigenous population of c. 17,500 in 1783 doubling to about 35,000 by the War of 1812; reaching 50,000 around 1830 and reaching 100,000 around 1860.

St Augustine may surpass Savannah in population as early as 1820 (St Augustine, as a colonial capital, doesnt decline as much as the American Lowcountry due to soil exhaustion).

The two major cities of the South during this time are Charleston and New Orleans, and in many ways Pensacola is a mini-New Orleans and St Augustine a mini-Charleston (with the Saint-Dominicans and New Smyrnans giving St Augustine a distinctive flavour compared to Charleston).

Final note: because Charleston and Savannah together contained more than half of American Jews on the eve of the revolution, I'm going to imagine that the number of Jewish loyalists is proportionate to their population of those states, and say that somewhere between 50 and 100 Sephardi Jews arrive in St Augustine with the other Loyalists. At the time there was already a small Sephardi congregation in Pensacola.

Florida truly would have been one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse British colonies of it's time.

 

[durante]

Chef’s note: I acknowledge that the term “Barbecuing” is commonly used to refer to “grilling” in all parts of the world – ie, heating a grill with a flame, usually to a high heat, and then cooking on that grill, usually for a relatively shorter period of time.

But I am going to be talking about barbecue¸ which traditionally and originally refers to a very specific type of cooking which is generally associated with North America more generally and the Southeast in particular.

This is a cooking method featuring indirect heating. In these circumstances, meat (it’s almost always meat) is cooked by roasting, and/or smoking over wood or charcoal (sorry Hank Hill, no propane here).

The word barbecue enters English from the Spanish word barbacoa, which is believed to be derived from barabicu, which is found in both the Arawak languages of the Caribbean and in the Timucua languages of Florida.

In Hispaniola, early Spanish colonizers encountered a unique style of cooking – involving placing meat, such as a whole hog, on a framework of sticks supported by posts. A pit is dug underneath for a fire made with rich wood, such as hickory, so that the rising heat and smoke slowly cook the meat. The smoky flavour is imbued into the meat, and the longer time and lower heat of this cooking style lead to a tender meat as well.

Regionally, a variety of different rubs and marinades were in use, including maguey cactus and peppercorn.

Barbecue has been a part of the culture of the South since the colonial era. The USA, which is somewhat famous for its distinct regional cultures, did not disappoint in generating several regional varieties.

Of the four main regional styles of barbecue, Carolina barbecue is considered by many to be “the original”. In this area, barbecue refers almost exclusively to pork, and often to a whole hog.

Both “wet” and “dry” style seasonings are common.

While barbecue referred originally to a style of cooking or the device used; jerk originally referred to the marinade or spice used, and it also originated with the Caribbean peoples, the Taino.

Modern Jamaican jerk evolved from traditional Taino cooking styles being developed in the Jamaican interior by the Maroons. The Maroons developed a seasoning which mixed scotch bonnet peppers with allspice (so called by the British because it tasted to them like a mixture of cinnamon, nutmeg, and clove).

Maroons also traditionally smoked or slow-cooked the meat (which was traditionally wild hog but now is much more commonly identified with chicken) over pimento wood.

Beginning in the 1960s, with urbanization, the traditional pit-style cooking of jerk was almost universally replaced by repurposed oil-barrels, which remain common in Jamaica.

 

[durante]

Variations of this indigenous cooking technique were found throughout the Southeast, and were known in the New England colonies by the 1700s.

Hogs are a relatively cheaper source of calories then beef, both because of the caloric conversion rate and because hogs can be left to forage for themselves in forests for additional sustenance or in hard times.

Of course, the more food that is foraged for a hog rather than fed to them, the leaner they will be - making the cooked meat tougher.

So for a variety of converging reasons, barbecue whole hog was a relatively cheap - if labour intensive - way to feed a large number of people. This could be convenient for a special event in the backcountry; or as the go-to method for serving the enslaved workers on the Southern Plantations.

While the cooking techniques and spices involved reflect diverse origins, the obvious must be stated: throughout most of its historical development, most of those involved in the actual work of barbecue, the cutting, roasting, smoking and pit-tending - were African-Americans (and Afro-Floridians), before and after the abolition of slavery.

And it was in this context that the distinctive Floridian barbecue region develops; although there are noted local distinctions within.

The increasingly West Indian and Jamaican-influenced culture of Afro-Floridians converged with established traditions. The distinctive addition of allspice (or a proprietor's blend of cinnamon, nutmeg and clove) to a vinegar/pepper sauce being considered the defining characteristic of "Flurregion Jerk Barbecue".

 

[durante]

An extended British period is a very different proposition from the OTL Second Spanish Period for a variety of reasons, but the most glaring one is transportation:

Most Florida scholars suggest that the road/path from Pensacola to St Augustine was in better condition in 1783 then in 1821.

Of course, the total non-native population during the Spanish period was probably never more than about 3,000.

Nevertheless, they still moved people and products between the two capitals.

There were three main routes between the two capitals, which were the largest and most important communities at the time.

The first route was to "round the Cape", travel via boat from one to the other. This method was quite dangerous, as the shallow and reef-laden waters around the south tip were known as perhaps the most treacherous and dangerous in the Caribbean.

As such, it was only really an option for the larger, more ocean-worthy vessels, which could also carry larger amounts of goods to make up for the longer travel time.

A second method was the overland method. A series of wagon roads and paths would lead one from Pensacola to the fort at St Mark's (south of Tallahassee, almost on the Gulf), and from there eastward to the St John's River, which they may Ford at Palatka or OTL Jacksonville (also "Wacca Pilatka", pilatka meaning "cow ford" in Timucua).

The most common method of travel, however, was to travel by sea to the mouth of the Suwannee river (OTL Suwannee, Florida). The Suwannee and one of its tributaries, the Santa Fe, are navigable by small boat or barge, northeast from Suwannee to the Santa Fe, and then easterly to near the Santa Fe's source, just to the northwest of OTL Alachua, Florida (and somewhat further northwest than OTL Gainesville).

From that point, it was pack horse and wagon to Palatka. From Palatka, you can ford the St John's and head on to St Augustine, or pack on barges headed up and down the river.

These roads, and the King's Road from the border with St Mary's, Georgia, south to New Smyrna, would be much busier and better maintained IOTL.

After the Louisiana purchase, and before the War of 1812, the route from the St John's River to the Santa Fe-Suwannee and out to the Gulf, would also become the primary method of transporting people and goods between Charleston or Savannah and New Orleans. These flows are restricted by post-War politics, reduced by increased settlement in the Southeast which makes the overland journey within the USA safer, and ultimately by railways, the first transportation method of bulk products that could compete with sea travel.

OTL Suwannee wouldve become a significant trade centre and port of the Panton, Leslie and Company (and later Forbes Company). As Panton, Leslie and Forbes are all Scottish, my favoured alt names for Suwannee are 'Dunedin' and 'Inverness', both names that appear (relatively) nearby.

St Augustine's location as a port is pretty questionable, because of the difficulty in navigating in and out of the shallow and shifting ocean inlet, and because strictly speaking it's not on the St John's River which is the main traffic outlet of the area.

There are two pre-industrial fording sites over the St John's onto the narrow strip of land that contains St Augustine, the two aforementioned Cowfords/Palatkas. (Jacksonville to the north and Palatka to the south).

IOTL, a St Augustine largely abandoned by the English remained the capital of West Florida until American administration. Americans travelling down the coastal road from Georgia and Carolina toward St Augustine would converge at the Cow Ford, and "Jacksonville" developed at this strategic location, which is closer to the mouth of the St John's.

However, the Americans did not have to consider an American invasion when laying out their town site.

During the Wo1812, the British will find that St Augustine's less than ideal port location will make it, in fact, an excellent fort and capital location- its virtually unassailable by sea (in an era with British naval dominance, anyway) and a few well positioned forts means any would be attackers have to narrowly file towards the settlement in a very tempting line.

The settlement on the north side of the St John's River at the Cow Ford (OTL Jacksonville) is likely to be burned to the ground during the Wo1812.

Its location is invaluable, but it is my belief that the "downtown core" would be shifted across the river, to what is now San Marcos, Florida.

This might seem like a trivial difference, but it's now on that same spot of land as St Augustine, and only about 25 miles away. IOTL, Jacksonville's population is about 1/3 on the south side and about 2/3 on the north side. If we were to flip that, we would see the area between Jacksonville and St Augustine as a highly urbanized and developed area.

The two cities are twin anchors of the capital region, and I like the idea of a King's College being built in just outside of San Marcos, with the "Cow Ford" being renamed the much more eloquent "Oxford" /s

As for the alt Wo1812 itself, I've come to a few more concrete conclusions:

West Florida can be split into 4 regions, with the dividing line between North and South being 31 and the dividing line between east and west being the Mobile river (or approximately the Miss-Ala border).

The northwest portion is Choctaw territory. The Northeast portion is Creek territory. The southeast area is the focus of British settlement, the southwest area the focus of American settlement.

At the outbreak of the War, Americans from New Orleans are likely to quickly take and hold the southwest area - and use it to move on to Biloxi and Mobile.

The Creek IOTL were divided between pro-American and pro-British (perhaps more accurately anti-American) factions; this resulted in a Civil War, before the victorious anti-American faction launched into war against the Americans. The result was almost the complete loss of Creek lands. These two factions evolved without the British technically even present in the region OTL, so ITTL, I imagine the Creek to be broadly pro-British. Because of proximity and less conflict, the Creek are more successful against the Americans - at least in the areas of West Florida.

The Choctaw IOTL were pro-American. ITTL, their lands are split between the Americans and British, so they suffer a similar fate of the Creeks - a civil war breaks out as American troops cross the Mississippi, and due to the chaos and the lack of British in the region, the area is likely eventually lost to the Americans.

I could see potentially another American capture of Mobile and another successful British defense of Pensacola.

I'm even kind of thinking this War ends the opposite of OTL - with a "Battle of Pensacola" where Andrew Jackson fails to take the city. (I would love to kill him off and make Davy Crockett President, I think that's a masterstroke of alternate history. But I won't, for means of keeping within the vaguely pessimist/realism I'm aiming for, and to try to differentiate from Palmera).

So War ends, Status Quo Antebellum.

But what was the Status Quo?

Surely, the Americans will argue, "Status Quo before the war was that we claimed everything West of the Perdido. Still do."

And on that basis, may refuse to withdraw from the southwest portion of West Florida. After all, what's Britain gonna do? Send an army to take Mobile?

I also think around this time, that the USA will begin looking at "North" west Florida, and the original Treaty of Paris 1763, and thinking, "officially neutral "Indian Country" can be begrudgingly accepted, but British colony? No."

Furthermore, there will be thousands of Creek and Choctaw refugees, and their slaves, which are fleeing into the the eastern parts of west Florida - or even to East Florida, and expecting British care.

Even if American troops withdraw from the Northern parts, American settlers can't really be controlled at this time.

The British, having lost Mobile twice in 30 years to powers they consider to be their inferior, consider it indefensible. And continued support for a neutral or Indian buffer state is starting to backfire as the British are increasingly called on to support their indigenous allies in ways which interfere with their own designs.

There won't be an Adams-Onis Treaty because the Americans don't border the Spanish. The Treaty of 1818 may go unsigned temporarily as the British and Americans can't agree to terms (the Americans wont want to settle the Northern border without settling the southern one.)

But at some point, the USA negotiates a treaty with Mexico that gives the USA Spain's old claims to the PNW. Britain recognizes Mexico around the same time.

It's generally believed in the PNW that the British could've got the Columbia River as the border in 1849 had they been more forceful in negotiations.

On that basis, I do really think there would be, in the early 1820s, a treaty which set the border between Canada and the USA (who knows, maybe a different parallel? 48th? 50th?), while also settling the Oregon Boundary dispute permanently, and abandoning, er - I mean "acknowledging the independence of" her former Native allies in the southeast.

The John Cary map has a couple of twists - it actually uses the Mobile river as the border, not the Perdido, and I maintain the possibility that the 31st parallel is used east to the proclamation line.

 

[durante]

As mentioned previously, most of Bahamas Loyalist settlement is butterflied ITTL by retaining Florida.

This means the Bahamas will have a population similar to the Turks and Caicos Islands at the time, and the combined population (at the time, they were one colony) is smaller than Bermuda's.

I think the Bahamas is likely to receive some Black Loyalist migrants ITTL, perhaps after Free Blacks in East Florida face a similar reception to the one they received IOTL Nova Scotia.

In addition, the Bahamas was chosen in 1808 as the location to drop off liberated Africans who had been intercepted by the British and Americans in the West Indies (Habana being one of the major import centers), to save the expense of a journey back to Africa.

I see no reason why this wouldnt be the case ITTL.

Once the British abolished slavery entirely in 1833, (and therefore they no longer had a West Indian slave trade of their own), American slave ships (often travelling to New Orleans) became fair targets for British anti-slavers, and the British and Americans would stop co-operating in anti-slavery efforts until after the American Civil War.

Due to the location and soil, however, the Bahamas and TCI wont support a large population or economy in this era. Many Bahamians, liberated Africans or their descendants would find work in Florida, especially after the abolition of slavery.

IOTL, growing resentment at the neglect felt by the Turks and Caicos Islanders led to their request being granted to become a separate colony in 1848. At the time their population was about 6,000 of the archipelago's 33,000 souls.

ITTL, the population will be maybe 5 to 6,000 out of about 15,000-16,000. So maybe there is less neglect and less resentment, and certainly less enthusiasm in London to split the colonies.

In 1874, Turks and Caicos was officially "attached" to Jamaica, completing the process of separation from the Bahamas, and the reason is because of mail.

Specifically, the steam ship service routes of mail vessels in the era. At the time, TCI mail was routed through Nassau (in the Bahamas), which is fine on the surface because of fairly frequent Provo-Nassau shipping.

However, Nassau-London shipping at the time was very infrequent and involved going through Bermuda and/or Halifax; the return voyage went the same way. Consequently, TCI had some of the worst mail service in West Indies, in an era in which mail the primary method of communication, and often, transportation.

This led to TCI requesting being attached to Jamaica, so their mail service would be routed through Kingston. Provo-Kingston service was also frequent, but Kingston-London was far better served in this era than Nassau-London.

However, ITTL, Nassau-London service is irrelevant, because St. Augustine-Nassau service will be frequent. And by the 1870s, St Augustine-London service will be far more frequent than Nassau was OTL.

Therefore, I believe the circumstance that led to TCI first being separated from the Bahamas and then attached to Jamaica both wont exist ITTL.

I think it's possible that they are made a separate colony, but it will either be merged back into the Bahamas in the 1870s (TCIs population barely grew at all during the meantime), or is attached to Florida, or both.

In any event, Bahamas wasnt considered economically viable by 1911, and being taken over by Canada was considered, although the Colonial Office apparently didnt want to merge a "white" Dominion with a "black" colony.

ITTL, both TCI and the Bahamas will be attached to Florida by 1911, and would probably remain part of Florida.

 

[durante]

The Treaty of 1820-something fixes the borders between the USA and British North America. East Florida is hardly affected, but West Florida has lost around 80% of its land area.

(Because of this change to the local history, I'm going to suggest that "Mississippi", as a state, is the area south of Tennessee and north of West Florida, while the former West Florida areas that don't go to Louisiana form the State of "Alabama". Based on the county population data from OTL, this change would essentially invert the demographic characteristics of the two states - it's actually eerie how similar the result is. The biggest difference would be of course that the Gulf Coast is only in one state, so that distinctive regional culture is virtually absent from "Mississippi". So let's practice: Birmingham, Mississippi. Talladega, Mississippi. Tupelo, Mississippi. Natchez, Alabama. Jackson, Alabama. Biloxi, Alabama. Mobile, Alabama.)

IOTL, when this happened to the Spanish, they transferred the portion of East Florida west of the Suwannee to the jurisdiction of West Florida (which had the whole Gulf Coast at the time).

I see a few problems with that, from a British perspective:

1) with the border now at the Mobile river, Pensacola is in a precarious position. The British may want a Capital further from the US border.

2) Under Spain, Pensacola and St Augustine had similar populations. Under Britain, St Augustine is much larger.

3) During this period, Britain was in a "joining" rather than "splitting" colonies mood.

So my prediction is that, to satisfy all parties, considering:

-St Augustine doesnt want anything that will diminish its position as the major city of Florida.

-Pensacola doesnt want to give up its status as Capital of West Florida, Americans be darned.

-the residents of the furthest west portions of East Florida may legitimately feel their interests arent represented in St Augustine

I suggest that during the 1820s, West Florida and East Florida are formally merged into the colony of British Florida, with its capital at St. Augustine (still the capital of a larger colony, satisfying its residents).

However, the new colony would be split into 4 administrative districts, for purposes of county courts and local administration:

Western District (Capital Pensacola, satisfying its citizens)

Midland District (Capital St Mark's, satisfying the local desire for more responsive government).
- the Midland district runs from the Apalichola river east to the Suwannee.

Eastern District (also possibly "Home District")(Capital St Augustine).

Southern District (Capital New Smyrna).

The Planters are the dominant political and social class. They receive appointments to the Upper House and Executive, are generally elected to the Lower House, and economically dominate the colony. It's like the Family Compact or Chateau Clique, but with slaves.

IOTL, these anti-democratic institutions created resentment which boiled over into the Rebellions of 1837-1838 in Canada.

Meanwhile, in the West Indies, scholars suggest that the smaller white populations avoided these rebellions - they were more concerned with black populations gaining control of the elected Lower House (which occured in Dominica in the 1850s). One by one, as it appeared that in spite of property qualifications, black citizens would gain control of the lower houses, the islands gave up their self-governing status in exchange for directly administered Crown Colony status.

Only Bermuda and Bahamas avoided this fate OTL, as they apparently had white populations which were a high enough percent that black populations were unlikely to control the legislature without universal suffrage.

I suspect the demographic profile to be somewhat similar to Bermuda's - majority black but with a substantial white population, perhaps 25-35%, (and fluctuating over time).

So, in the 1830s, without the threat of a black-dominated legislature, the political class of Florida will probably develop democratizing sympathies- this may even be spurred on by the abolition of slavery, as the decision was made without Florida's planters having any say.

After Nova Scotia became the first colony with Responsible Government, in 1848, other colonies joined quickly, and by 1856 every white-majority colony had Responsible government, with the possible exception of Western Australia (which would gain it in 1890).

The first colony without a white majority to achieve responsible government IOTL was the Cape Colony, in 1872, under the liberal Cap franchise. By 1893, Natal had become the first colony with a black majority to be granted Responsible government (with a heavily restricted franchise).

I suspect Florida makes history ITTL. I could see responsible government in 1856 as a possibility, but almost certainly by 1872. Canadian Confederation in 1867 will spur on some political conversations in Florida, and seeing as Bahamas, Barbados, and TCI have been at times linked to Canada, "Florida as a Canadian Province" is definitely going to be mooted in this area, although it will likely remain fodder for this TL's in-world alt-Historians.

I think the New Zealand Constitution, with a quasi-federal and/or the later unitary form of government, will be a greater model than the Canadian Constitution. Although Tbh they dont differ all that much.

I'm getting ahead of myself, though. Political developments and considerations shift considerably after the (inevitable) American Civil War.

Edit: failed to mention, the rising tensions over democratization happen concurrently with the end of slavery, leading to the real possibility of armed rebellions

 

[durante]

When reading about the life of Zephaniah Kingsley, Jr, you really get a sense of how much basic societal values have changed.

For his time, even within the British Empire, his views on slavery and (especially) race and racial "mixing" would've seemed quite radical, as would his lenient treatment of his slaves, and marrying and then freeing an African-born wife (and their 4 mixed-race children).

However, by today's standards, he's a racist and a pedophile.

I don't mean to be controversial, but he purchased his wife at the age of 13 and they had 3 children by the time she was 18. I understand that this wouldve mostly been considered acceptable at the time, but it is very difficult for me to sing his praises.

Let's give some background:

His father, Zephaniah Kingsley, Sr, was a Quaker from England. He is described by the wiki as an "affluent British merchant".

Zephaniah Jr. was born second of 8 children in 1765.

The family moved to South Carolina, "Charlestown" as it was then called, in 1770, where ZK2 was largely raised.

ZK1 became a "successful merchant of imported goods, owning several high end properties" including a rice plantation near Savannah, and thousands of acres, and many townhomes in Charlestown. (On his plantation, of course, he used black slave labour - he owned about 200 by the time of the revolution).

ZK1 remained Loyal throughout the American revolution, and although his family were forced to flee Charlestown in the late 1770s, when the British recaptured Charlestown in 1780, ZK1 was "appointed to a commission that helped promote loyalty to the British".

In this year, ZK2 was sent to London for his education (he's 15 at the time, which would be considered quite old to return for a "proper" education - in British India, for the so-called "Dolphin families", 8 was considered to be the upper limit to send a child back for a British education well into the 19th century, anything beyond that and they were liable to "go native").

However, it appears that ZK1s appointment made him a prominent target, (or possibly sending his children back to England), but when the rebels regained Charleston in 1782, they seized his extensive properties. He departed Charleston in mid December of 1782, apparently with several slaves from his plantation, (although it is unknown how many).

He didn't waste much time, though, as in 1784 he was back in the Americas - he arrived with a new line of credit in the new Loyalist colony of New Brunswick.

ITTL, many of his business connections and friends are resettled along the St. John's River (Florida), and IOTL he eventually moved his family to the North Carolina in 1791 (around the time BNA colonies were beginning to make restrictions on slavery).

So ITTL, he arrives in St. Augustine, where he obtains land grants available to him as a Loyalist, and became a prominent businessman. His family joined him OTL in 1785.

Perhaps not coincidentally, when his wife and 8 children arrived in the Saint John's River Valley, he petitioned (along with six other prominent citizens) governor Thomas Carleton for the creation of "an academy or school of liberal arts and sciences at Fredericton". This would eventually become the University of New Brunswick, although it would not gain the right to grant degrees by Royal Charter until 1827.

I'm curious about this twist if he arrives in Florida. The white Loyalist population of East Florida is about half that of New Brunswick, so there may not be the same desire or population to develop the school?

Furthermore, this would be quite revolutionary for it's time- as far as I can tell, there were no institutes of higher learning in the West Indies until the twentieth century.

I project Florida's white population to pass Jamaica's probably in the 1830s or 1840s at the latest (we're talking c. 15-20k), so it may become the logical spot for a College or Academy from this time. (For comparison, I currently project that Florida's total population is not likely to pass Jamaica's total population before the 1940s or 1950s).

I am comfortable with the creation of an Academy of East Florida at St. Augustine's, but assume that like UNB or UoToronto, 1827 is the earliest they could gain their own charter, probably later. When they do, it's likely to be called King's College, St. Augustine, and provide instruction in a high-Church Anglican environment.

 

[durante]

I'm not sure if the Kingsleys moved to North Carolina because of slavery or the weather, but in any event, I think that is enough to convince me they wouldve just settled in East Florida. Ironically, despite NB having twice as many Loyalists, the East Florida Loyalists come substantially from the planter class, and so the Kingsley's may actually be less prominent among the Floridians than they were in NB.

But in any event, in 1793 ZK2 moved from North Carolina back to Charleston, where he grew up. He adopted US citizenship and became a shipping merchant, primarily importing coffee from Haïti.

When his contacts and supplies were disrupted by the Haitian revolution, he briefly moved to the island, where he established new connections with the black and mixed race peoples who came to dominate the country afterward.

Around this time was the cotton boom, which increased demand for slaves. He began to travel to West Africa and became a slaver.

IOTL he temporarily lived in the Danish West Indies, where he operated as a slaver, before settling in then Spanish Florida in 1803.

Of course, ITTL, he never really left Florida. It's likely that he spent time in Charleston, and Haiti, and West Africa (the Danish West Indies seem a bit less likely), but the main difference is that his family are in Florida throughout this period, developing their own plantations up and down the St John's, where they grew oranges, sea island cotton, corn, potatoes, peas, indigo and okra.

In 1806, while on a trip to Habana to purchase more slaves, he purchased a 13-year old Wolof girl from what is now Senegal, named Anta Majigin N'Diaye, although she was called "Anna Jai" in records. He states be married her but there is no record of a ceremony.

The wiki states that ZK2 had started his own plantation with somewhere between 10 slaves from his family plantation given by his father to 74 slaves which he had acquired by trading, so who knows.

Anta stated in her memoirs that she was, over time, trained to manage the plantation. In 1811, when she was 18, ZK2 had her and their 3 (at the time) mixed-race children freed.

Ok at this point, things get a bit bonkers. He had some interesting yet contradictory ideas: he believed Africans were superior in their ability to work in hot climates, but also that they were happy as menial labourers (more happy than other races to do the same work). On the other hand, he believed mixed-race children (something he had) were superior to either blacks or whites.

If you're interested in reading in far more detail than I go here:

Kingsley Plantation - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org

The lowcountry plantations, were, in general, less oppressive (although this is relative) than the plantations that would develop in Ms & Al.

They operated under a "task" system, in which groups of slaves would be assigned a task to accomplish for the day, and once completed, would go tend to their own gardens or trades.

But beyond this, ZK2 built houses for his slaves, allowed them to choose who to live with, and allowed them to lock their doors and maintain their own property, which was unheard of at the time.

(Racist and pedophile though, remember.)

IOTL, when the USA took over Spanish Florida in 1821, they brought with them the binary racial system which jeopardized the position of his biracial children, who OTL were raised in the more racially liberal Spanish colonial society.

ITTL, Florida is in between the two. By the 1820s, as previously mentioned, the institution of slavery was being "managed" in the British colonies to be more "humane" (of course slavery can never be humane). IOTL, he spent the 1820s advocating for the rights of mixed-race Floridians.

In 1828, he published a treatise which defended slavery, (although it distinguished between "good" and "bad" slavery). It was republished in 1829, 1833, and 1834, although IOTL it ruined his reputation in the American Florida Territory, and he moved his family to Haïti in the 1830s, where he converted his slaves to indentured servants (as slavery was illegal in Haïti), where some of his descendants still live today.

In this case, his advocacy for mixed race and free blacks will seem vindicated by 1831, when their rights are confirmed by Parliament in Britain.

His treatise on slavery will be outdated by 1833, however. Even if it is controversial, it will quickly be forgotten.

His family doesn't move to Haiti, and his descendants (and those of Anta Majigin N'Diaye) will be prominent in Florida for generations to come.

 

[durante]

Moses ibn Eliahu ha-Levi ibn Yuli was born in 1782, to Eliahu ha-Levi ibn Yuli, in an "elite Sephardic Jewish family in Morocco".

In 1790, the family fled to Gibraltar, a British colony and therefore one where Jews had much greater legal acceptance. In Gibraltar, Eliahu ha-Levi became a slaver in the West Indies before he died in 1800.

At this time, Moses Elias Levy (as he became known) travelled with his inheritance to Charlotte Amalie, in the Danish West Indies although at the time it was a British colony, where he married another Sephardic Jew, Rachel Abendanone, and "made a fortune in Lumber".

The marriage is described as "rancorous and long-failing", and I wonder how that affected the children. (Including one named David, who was born in Charlotte Amalie although well after the PoD, in 1810. Although it's entirely possible he marries the same woman, it seems like probably his children are different. Maybe he finds a better match? But I'll circle back).

IOTL, Moses Levy developed a firm called Levy & Benjamin with a partner, Philip Benjamin, whose son was Judah P. Benjamin, Confederate Secretary of State.

After some time, he moved his business to San Juan, PR, and then to Habana.

In 1816, Moses Levy had a religious epiphany, and abandoned his business ventures for what he described as "the sacred cause of reform".

In 1818, he was granted a rare divorce from the Danish King (the Danish West Indies being Danish again), before settling in Florida in 1821 after it became an American territory. He purchased 50,000 acres west of the St John's area, and planned to build a "New Jerusalem", called Pilgrimage, as an "agrarian refuge for Jews escaping persecution in Europe". It was entirely self-financed and not nearly as successful as he anticipated, although "at least 5 Jewish families" joined the communal farming settlement. It is unclear if slave labour was used, but I will assume it was, at least to some extent.

Because Florida is more populated, more prosperous, and British ITTL, Moses Levy will develop trade networks there much earlier than he does IOTL.

In fact, he may even skip the San Juan-Habana phase of his career altogether, and move the family to Florida.

IOTL, Florida had basically zero Jews as of 1821 (Spain was still legally under the inquisition). So any Jewish families that arrive must do so from somewhere else.

ITTL, it was previously described that there are small Sephardi communities in both St Augustine and Pensacola. There may even be Jewish black slaves, although Judaism spread less quickly among Jewish slaveholders' slaves than Christianity did amongst Christian slaveholders.

(I forgot to mention this under the Kingsley's, but one of ZK2's ideas was that slaves should be trained as skilled artisans, (which increases their sale value), but should not be allowed to participate or practice the Christian religion - which he saw as the source of slave rebellions. Archaeological evidence suggests the slaves on his Plantations continued their traditional religions, and, especially considering the origins and Anta N'Diaye's Wolof origins, many of these slaves may have practiced their traditional religion of Islam.)

It seems like Pilgrimage will be more successful ITTL, although that could mean 10 families. I don't know how many are likely to arrive in this first phase. Maybe 20-30 max?

IOTL Moses Levy headed to England in 1825 to try to gain support and financing for his venture.

He had quite the time in England. He became head of the Philo-Judaean Society in London until he left over their "conversionist views". He recruited families from the impoverished Jews in the East End of London. (Although OTL he was largely unsuccessful- he was trying to attract British Jews to an American territory, which probably didn't help.)

In 1827-1828, he became a vocal advocate of gradual abolition, and he ALSO wrote a treatise on slavery in 1828, "A Plan for the Abolition of Slavery", "achieving celebrity during the height of the anti-slavery campaign".

The wiki describes him as a "Jewish Social Activist without parallel in 19th century Britain", and states that he caused some controversy, as "Jews had never before entered the Public Sphere in England, and certainly never challenged the status quo".

His treatise, unlike Kingsley's, was widely praised for its pragmatism, and for addressing issues which other abolitionists avoided.

It should be made clear that during his advocacy of gradual abolition, he maintained sugarcane plantations throughout the West Indies which used slave labour.

He believed that immediate emancipation would be "calamitous", due to the black slaves being "psychologically injured by slavery" and "hampered by illiteracy".

To this end, he advocated a program of universal education for slave children in reading, writing, scientific fundamentals and farming skills. All slaves would become free at the age of 21 and would be given land for cultivation.

Upon his return to Florida in 1828 (OTL), he had to curtail his abolitionism, and focused his efforts on a campaign for free education in public schools in the territory. OTL, he was appointed "Education Commissioner" in 1831.

I dont believe such a position existed in British Colonies at the time - public education in the USA was on the vanguard of the world at the time.

But of course, his gradual emancipation program is somewhat vindicate in 1833 by the announcement of a gradual abolition of slavery. Since the 6 year intended apprenticeship matches the 6 years which Jews are supposed to be allowed to keep slaves which convert to Judaism, it's possible this is taken as a sign, and could lead to a minor movement for Jews to convert their slaves, just as American Independence inspired more American slavers to manumit their slaves than at any other point in their history.

From 1835-1842, however, IOTL, Florida was ravaged by the Second Seminole War (there will still be conflict with the Seminoles ITTL, but their wont be a Treaty of Moultrie Creek, and so the Seminoles will be concentrated in Middle Florida ITTL, as opposed to Central Florida IOTL. And yes, Midde Florida is a different place than Central Florida. Middle Florida is around Tallahassee, Central Florida is pretty much anything south of Gainesville).

IOTL, the Second Seminole War destroyed the Jewish communal farming plantation, and caused great economic hardship to those with large land holdings.

IOTL, by 1849, Moses Levy had "regained most of his wealth", and had title confirmed to over 100,000 acres. He would die on a trip to Virginia in 1854, leaving the bulk of his vast wealth to his son, David Levy (later David Levy Yulee).

ITTL, after the Act Abolishing Slavery in 1833, the plantation economy significantly slows down, decreasing the rate of expansion of the settled area, and reducing the potential for conflict with the Seminole.

However, the Seminole own at least 5,000 of their own black slaves, and so it's very possible that conflict arises between them and the British - I think it's safe to assume that if they are offered compensation for their slaves, it will be on the low end, which could cause issues. So a Seminole War during this time is possible, but it *should* be far enough away from Levy's Plantation that he isn't economically ruined, and the Pilgrimage Plantation isn't destroyed.

As such, it may continue to grow, as Levy can continue to finance it. Due to his religious epiphany, abolitionist sympathies, and dedication to his "New Jerusalem", I think he is a prime candidate to offer conversion to Judaism of his slaves. (For slaves born in Africa, and especially Muslims, Judaism may be familiar).

(I forgot to mention this in Kingsley's thread as well - I told you, bonkers - but ZK2 became a slave smuggler after the transatlantic trade was outlawed 1807/1808. He would purchase slaves in Habana, imported from Africa, and smuggle them into the USA, so despite the official ban on imports, a substantial proportion of slaves remained African-born).

So all in all, especially for his time, I think Moses Levy was a fairly decent person. Of course, he owned slaves - although he inherited them, advocated abolition (including giving them land and an education), and genuinely seems to have seen the error of his ways.

Too bad his son was known as the "Florida Fire-eater" for his "inflammatory pro-slavery rhetoric". In our next episode, we'll see how much (if any) of this is butterflied.

 

[durante]

David Levy's life was another wild ride. IOTL, he was born in the Danish West Indies (when they were occupied by Britain during the Napoleonic Wars), in 1810. His father had a religious epiphany while in England in 1816, and divorced his mother in 1818 (by which time the DWIs were Danish again).

His mother gained, in the divorce, the family properties in the DWIs, including a substantial income.

IOTL, Moses Levy wanted to establish a Jewish communal settlement, and he teamed up with a wealthy Virginian Jew named Moses Myers.

IOTL, Myers purchased thousands of acres in Illinois, as Levy was convinced the USA was the best location for the colony. The Great Panic of 1819 ruined Myers financially, however, and, IOTL, he relocated to Pensacola, although his family maintained a mansion in Virginia.

It was at this mansion that, IOTL, David Levy Yulee was educated. He had little communication with his father, and after several years, eventually, without permission, left his education in Virginia and returned to his mother's home in the DWIs, before moving to Florida.

He studied Law in St Augustine and was called to the Florida bar in 1832.

It is around this time that he seems to have disassociated himself from Judaism. He would marry the daughter of a wealthy Kentucky Christian family, and raise their children as Christians.

He "planned since 1837 to build a state-owned" railroad network, although IOTL he had to wait until 1855 and the Florida Internal Improvements Act before his plans could come to fruition.

IOTL, his father spent most of the 1840s impoverished before regaining his wealth, especially when his land titles were confirmed in 1849. David used funds to build his own plantation near modern Homossassa Springs on the Gulf Coast.

After 1855, he used the provisions of the FII Act to secure land grants "as a basis of credit", and built the network with Irish immigrant and slave labour.

He became known as the "Father of Florida Railroads" and served as President of Florida, Pensisular, Tropical Florida, and Fernandina-Jacksonville railroads between 1855 and 1866.

He was a die hard, pro-slavery Confederate, who was imprisoned after the war in Fort Pulaski for 9 months for treason, before being pardoned and released. He returned to Florida where he rebuilt his damaged railway network, before selling in 1866 and retiring to Washington, DC, where his wife had family.

Although, IOTL, the Danish West Indies were occupied by Britain in 1801-1802 and 1807-1815, and these dates are liable to move around with butterflies even if the Napoleonic wars take place, Moses Levy actually arrived before this period and left after.

The Danish West Indies had a history as the Dutch West Indies, and also one of religious tolerance. Sephardi Jews began settling in 1655, and by the 19th century perhaps half of the white population of the DWIs was Sephardi. The remainder, although Danish citizens, were primarily English speaking.

It is for this reason that Moses Levy travelled to the DWIs. And because of this, it's possible he still marries the same woman. But the children are likely to be very different.

I'm of two minds somewhat:

There is a good chance that Moses Levy sees, as OTL, the USA as the best location for a Jewish colony. This would mean that he still teams up with Moses Myers, he still sends his children to school in Virginia, but that the Jewish colony may not be founded in Florida.

However, the existence of Florida, a British colony with a Sephardi community of note, could also mean that he sees the opportunity in Florida right away. He wouldn't need to wait for American take over - he could begin the settlement in 1819, shortly after finalizing his divorce.

In this case, I think we butterfly the involvement of Myers. Which means we butterfly David's education in Virginia.

He could be educated in St. Augustine, but Nova Scotia and England seem the best bets. If he's educated in St. Augustine, he will have much more contact with his parents, and especially his father, and hopefully this leads to a better relationship. If he's educated in NS, the relationship isnt improved, but he's educated in a free society which is heavily influenced by the abolitionist movement.

If educated in England - well, then he will be in England when his father makes a name for himself as an abolitionist.

Assuming he is still called to the Florida bar, his different background and the larger Jewish community in Florida may mean that David doesn't disassociate from Judaism, and instead finds a Jewish wife from Florida or England (or the Danish West Indies).

We know that he was called to the bar in 1832, his father's plantations were ruined in 1835, and that the began planning a state-owned railway network from 1837. As mentioned, it wouldn't be until 1855 IOTL that the necessary legislation allowed this, and, it being the USA, the system was privately, not state-owned.

Given that the 1840s was the decade of "railway mania" in Britain, and his father, contrary to being ruined in 1835, is vindicated by the abolition of slavery in 1833-1839.

David, if he has become the fiery pro-slavery type ITTL, would almost certainly leave Florida at emancipation. If not, then I would expect him to be focused on building his railways about a decade earlier than OTL.

I would also anticipate that when his father dies, he bequeathes some of his wealth to Pilgrimage Plantation to keep the Jewish community running for a time; and also likely to have worked closely with, especially, the African Methodist Episcopal Church to fund a series of schools for black children in the colony.

Utopian communities will be utopian communities, however, and Pilgrimage may eventually fade out of existence as a distinct, Jewish, communal settlement, but it's possible that alt-David Levy Yulee, ITTL, carries on his father's legacy of promoting education in the colony.

 

[durante]

Many thanks to everyone for the continued interest, and in particular to @revachah2 for the resources and insights provided which are relevant to the upcoming chapters.

I'm coming dangerously close to doing what might be considered actual "research", and it's really flipping alot of conventional wisdom on its head (or at the very least, MY conventional wisdom).

There are a few points to consider for the antebellum period.

First of, I must give credit to revachah for pointing out that British Florida, for its survival, must have an agreement with the USA to return slaves.

Of course, this would be mutually in place prior to abolition, but even afterward, British Florida would find itself in a very different situation to Canada or even the northern states; and although there may be many who are sympathetic to the freedom seekers, it would still be a dangerous proposition to be seen as too openly encouraging.

In addition, it seems the actual numbers of successfully escaped slaves in OTL was actually quite small. Of the perhaps 100,000 who managed to runaway, probably not more than 10,000 made it to safety.

I will also need to retcon some parts pertaining to the Black Seminoles. After some suggested reading (again, from revachah), it needs to be clarified that even in the cases where the indigenous communities did in fact have black slaves, the system was very different from the chattel slavery practiced by the European and American colonists at the time. It wasnt even until the mid to late 19th century, it seems, that the Seminoles began to distinguish themselves from the Black Seminoles, and then only after interaction with White American racial categories.

Although in many instances, the Black Seminole communities were considered to be owned by their chief - this ownership implied more of a feudalistic or reciprocal relationship.

The sources provided on Florida and the Gulf Coast at the time, as well as my own readings on Canada, suggest that also, the general population was much less racist than I have tended to assume in the early 19th century. In a society as diverse and underpopulated as Florida ITTL, interracial relationships would be quite common. It even turns out that Irish immigrants to Canada were far more likely to take black or indigenous spouses than other immigrant groups - especially Irish men with indigenous women and Irish women with black men. This is of particular interest because of the large numbers of Irish women who were emigrants. (And this is relevant to the antebellum period, because Ireland is going to provide a significant number of immigrants).

So that was one of the more positive things I've read recently.

Florida's racial dynamics could end up looking quite Brasilian to us!

And lastly, again with credit to revachah - I had initially assumed that Florida's settlement would mean the Gullah-Geechee cultural zone is extended south.

It seems likely this would not be the case- the distinctness of the Gullah-Geechee culture comes from its isolation from other African-American cultural groups. ITTL, it seems like the east coast of Florida through to the Sea Islands would still be one cultural zone - however, this area would more likely be seen as an extension of West Indian (especially Flurregion/Bahamian) culture into the USA.

So all in all, I again think that unfortunately there will be surprisingly few escaped slaves in Florida (before the civil war). Florida simply cannot risk giving the USA a reason to invade.

However, once the Confederate states LEAVE the USA, all bets are off!

 

[durante]

Ok once again, rather than get too bogged down by details, I would like to try to finish this or at least bring us into the modern era.

Its unclear exactly how the Confederacy is affected but its unlikely they are strengthened by Florida.

The American Civil War still ends with a Union Victory; the presence of Florida has a strong possibility of changing the reconstruction era in the south; but also fundamentally relationships would change between the USA (particularly the North) and Florida during the Civil War.

Furthermore, although the war initially drives up prices for cotton globally, which is a boon for Florica, by the end of the war, huge new supplies had been developed in Turkey, Egypt, and increasingly India, which saw a glut in the world market and a decline in prices.

So although Florida profits greatly during the Civil War, afterward the basis of their economy has been severely undercut. It might not be the last nail in the coffin of the cotton industry, but once American production begins again after the Civil War, they will be much less competitive.

Do to its smaller population and lower labour costs, and somewhat more capital (due to British investments, buyouts for former slavers and also lack of damage from the war), British Florida should have more capital relative to their economy and thus likely be more mechanized and industrialized during this era.

Citrus and cattle are increasingly important in terms of agricultural products, railways proliferate, and, as the Fin-de-Siecle advances, tourism becomes increasingly important.

IOTL Henry Flagler was hugely important; building hotels in St Augustine and a railway to modern day Miami; (he also had Florida laws changed so he could have his wife declared insane, allowing him to divorce her and remarry but keep her family money).

His involvement is probably butterflied, but there are likely to be other investors. Some from the West Indies, Canada or Britain, of course, but probably mostly still Americans.

Relationships normalize in the decades after the war; however, if reconstruction is ended, like OTL, with the compromise of 1876, the cultural tension between the Deep South and British Florida is likely to rise again...for a brief period, reconstruction USA may even exceed Florida for African-American political power; after this era ends, Florida will become a target for African-American migration, and hopefully the reconstructed south becomes a model for at Florida, at least in the minds of the more liberal factions.

Of course, not long after the American Civil War, Canada is Confederated.

This period would also see relatively large numbers of immigrants from India, China, Italy and Eastern Europe, and Florida grows increasingly cosmopolitan

It seems likely the Florida takes some interest in these developments, during the 19th century OTL both Jamaica and Barbados were mentioned as potential Canadian provinces; but also, perhaps more likely, British Florida begins negotiations with Jamaica, Barbados and the other West Indies about a Confederation of their own.

It also seems like, by this point if not earlier, a University is chartered in St Augustine for the West Indies.

 

[durante]

As mentioned upthread, the white-majority British colonies all gained Responsible Government (an Executive Council/Cabinet appointed by and responsible to the elected Lower House) between 1848 and 1856 IOTL. The Cape Colony achieved the same in 1872, the first colony without a white majority to do so.

ITTL Florida makes history; some time between 1856 and 1872 (and I believe likely not long after 1856) Florida gains responsible government, and after Canadian Confederation, a political movement grows to provide Florida with a more robust constitutional framework. This process is completed by 1874, and during the process, Florida gains the Bahamas (including Turks & Caicos Islands).

The new constitution is unitary or quasi-federal in nature, more similar to the contemporary New Zealand constitution than the Canadian one, but different in its own way.

The former administrative districts will become 'Provinces' of Florida (the districts being the likely renamed West Florida, Middle Florida, East Florida, with South Florida split into 3, the new capitals at OTL Tampa and OTL Key West); but these will not have the same constitutional grounding as the Canadian ones; they are governed by an elected council with a Superintendent appointed by the Florida Executive. The Provinces are subdivided into counties somewhat larger than the OTL ones (at least in the North), which are subdivided further into Parishes.

The Upper House will be appointed by the Executive, as in Canada, but won't be subject geographical restrictions, at least in the first incarnation. As in Canada, members of the Upper House (called the Legislative Council in Florida) are appointed for life; this is intentionally done to mitigate the 'damage' which could be caused by further expansion of the vote, which is subject to property qualification not unlike those in Britain, Canada, or the Cape at the time.

This ensures that despite having an Afro-Floridian majority, Florida's legislature is overwhelmingly white, with the small number of mixed-race persons outnumbering Afro-Floridian MPs for several decades.

In the early era, it's entirely possible that Florida sees a late development of a true party system, and that early elections focus around a "Government" vs "Opposition" dynamic.

Over time, however, distinctive camps will form. CeeJay's Palmera, for anyone who for some reason has not yet read it but finds themselves this far into this thread, has some incredibly creative and well-constructed names for Palmera's political groupings. I have the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party. Here all day, folks.

The Liberal Party are "classical Liberals" who are broadly aligned with the contemporary Republican Party of the USA, as well as the British & Canadian Liberal parties, a party of Business which encourages links to United States. The Liberal Party, aligned with early Progressive movements, is also, as in Canada, NZ and the UK, more sympathetic to the nascent labour movement, and consequently finds a much more substantial base of support among the mixed-race population, as well as the few black and Asian Floridians who can vote.

The Conservative Party, meanwhile, has its closest connections with the British and Canadian Conservative parties. Also, of course, a pro-business party, they favour links with Canada and especially Britain. They are closely aligned with (now dis-established) Anglican Church and the 'old money' settlers of Florida.

As a result, when the deep south states begin introducing white supremacist segregationist constitutions from 1888, both major political parties in Florida, despite being controlled by white Floridians, have significant pull factors dissuading them from fulling embracing the alarming rise of 'scientific' (sic) racism.

I believe that Florida, which by this point has a long established tradition of racial equality before the law, will avoid adopting public segregation, in state institutions. The white-dominated legislatures, however, will do nothing to stop private businesses from discriminating in any way they see fit; this of course is to not offend the sensibilites of American tourists whose dollars they so eagerly seek. This will lead to an increasing proliferation of segregation, which over time will establish a societal expectation which will begin to pressure the legislature to institute formal segregation, just as political and social developments are leading to a renewed push for full equality and introduction of universal suffrage - but I'm getting ahead of myself a little.

The third, in this period largely extra-parliamentary political force, is that of the Labour movement, and its allies in the Farmers, Populist, Progressive, and Socialist movements. This Florida is significantly more industrialised at this early time than OTL Florida, and so the Labour movement is an important factor by no later than the 1890s. It is dominated from an early date by Afro-Floridians, and is closely tied to the movement for universal suffrage.

 

[durante]

Florida's increased industrialization makes it an attractive destination for immigrants; it receives thousands from Canada, the USA, Britain, the West Indies, and beginning in the 1880s Eastern European Jews, as well as migrants from Cuba and Italy. They would be joined in the 1890s by immigrants from all over Europe. The numbers are small compared to those who went to the other American nations, because Florida's population is small (c 500,000 in 1900), but the impact is similar - and from the 1890s the white population begins to increase as a percentage, from perhaps 30-35% in 1880 to 40-45% in 1920. Many of the new European immigrants would find themselves without the property qualifications which would enable them to vote, and the Labour movement is increasingly supported by white immigrants as well as the black Floridian base.

The terms 'black' and 'white' deserve consideration. Especially in contrast to the highly segregated US south, with decades of "anti-miscegenation" laws and murderous lynchings, the proportion of mixed race families, and the resulting mixed population, is substantially higher. Generations of mixing, bolstered perhaps by the relatively small population, created a society where race was substantially more fluid than likely anywhere else in the British Empire, and almost certainly in the Anglosphere.

This includes, in fact, "white" Members of Parliament who identify as such and are considered by Floridians as such, and who may pass in New Orleans, but who would certainly be considered a person of colour in Canada or Britain at the time. Likewise, there were many who considered themselves solely "Black" or "African" Floridians, who would be considered predominately European by Africans, or indeed by genetic tests. This was especially true in West Florida, which contained a substantial population descended from the original creoles and Saint-Dominicans, who culturally and identified alongside the white population, and economically were part of the dominant class of the region as well.

Religion was an important part of society, and although the Church of England was disestablished by 1870, it retained prominent membership. There were also substantial Catholic, Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian communities among the white settlers, and the African Methodist Episcopal Church, as well as many others, such as Church of God, Seventh Day Adventists and Baptists, had significant followings among the Afro-Floridian population. In addition, the South Asian community contained numerous Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs. There were east Asian buddhist, sephardi and ashkenazi Jews.

Churches and temples served as the focal points of communities, and weekends were spent in gardens sharing a variety of different dishes or attending a cricket (and later, baseball or football) match. Horse breeding had become a prominent part of the Florida agricultural economy, and an annual horse race in St. Augustine was treated as the locla equivalent of Ascot, with hats to match. Indeed, many of the more affluent suburbs of St. Augustine were so picturesque that they could've represented a scene somewhere in the west end of London, were it not for the vibrant colours of the flowers and persons indicating a more exotic location. Indeed, some of these suburbs were descended from Freedmen's villages which had formerly been established on the edge of towns, but had worked steadily towards prosperity. Meanwhile, there were occasional remote Seminole and/or Freedmen's villages, especially in Middle and South Florida, which seemed to have changed little since the time of abolition, and where a "deep patwa" dialect exists which may have more in common with the African languages (especially Akan) which it descends from then the English it sometimes resembles.

The newer migrants, West Indian, Cuban and European, were more prominent in the new communities springing up around Tampa Bay after the American Civil War; St. Augustine retained more of its traditional aesthetic, and prominent politicians looked eagerly and the "whitening" process which was taking place in Florida (and also places such as Argentina and Brasil), with European immigration increasing in each year of the twentieth century - until it halted almost completely in the late of summer of 1914.