The Third War of Independence part I
The Italian Army
With the creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the old five piedmonts’ infantry division became the 20 Italians and the cavalry squadron passed from 36 to 100. These numbers, at the eve of the war, do not included the support of 40.000 volunteers commanded by General Giuseppe Garibaldi, freshly returned by the United States so to continue the fight to free his country and followed by a string of Americans followers.
Unfortunately some problems of the old piedmontese army remained like the scarcity of artillery and the lack of competent officers; worse that deficiency was exacerbated by the enlargement of the army. In fact, many volunteers or enlisted personnel were hastily promoted to fill the rank, at this need be added the heterogeneity of the troops and officers that come from the former pre-unitary armies and have different type of tradition and many even spoke a different language and in general, there was a certain lack of training.
Regarding the General Staff not only if was still little more than embryonal but was dominated by the so called Piedmontese camorra (a group of officer that have obtained the assignment more thanks to political connection with the King than to merit) furthermore the officer corps was divided in two faction regarding the possible strategy in case of war against Austria.
At one side there were the ‘Southern Faction’ that was headed by General La Marmora, they envisioned an attack through Romagna in direction of Venice and was opposed by the ‘Western school’ that proposed an assault through the Mincio and its major leader was General Cialdini (La Marmora chief rival).
In the middle of this, there was Prime Minister Camillo Benso Count of Cavour, that after a bitter fight with the King had officially taken the role of commander in chief of the army and quickly came to the conclusion that the biggest enemy were not the Austrians but his own generals.
Cialdini was soon dismissed (1) due to a dispute between him and Cavour over the real necessity to fight a war during the hottest months of the years (and him being unable to work with La Marmora).
This was an opinion that many others held but seeing the determination of the Prime Minister decided to keep their opinion for themselves over this argument and in the two months before the war the various officer immerged themselves in the war planning…so to not have to face the Count.
While the Italian had the numerical advantage, their strategic position was inferior compared to the Austrian thanks to the ‘Quadrilatero Fortress’. This series of fortification dominated the area, they were also helped by the local geography as the Rivers Po and Mincio and a series of swamp hindered the Italian movements
General Alfonso La Marmora
Hapsburg Army in Veneto
The Austrian Army, after their last war against Sardinia and France tried to correct the problems that the conflict highlighted, so the artillery was more mobile and the cavalry better trained and equipped for the role of scout. More attention was given to the logistic line and the general training of the men.
Between the 3 army corps, the fortress garrison and the troops at defense of Tyrol, the Austrian had a total of 190.000 men even if on the terrain, only 61.000 were deployed (at this sum, it’s needed to add 11.000 of a reserve division created using the troops of the garrison. In command of the troops in Italy was Archduke Albrecht
War plans
The Prussian generals asked at their Italian counterparts to attack decisively Veneto using the ‘Southern strategy’, conquer first Padua, and later go until the Isonzo, all which supported by the Italian Navy and by an expedition in Dalmatia. (2)
Cavour, in this case with the full support of the King, knowing the general lack of experience of his General Staff and La Marmora preference, decided to accept the Prussian proposal (for many historian this is the real reason Cialdini was sacked, as one of the leader of the ‘Western school’ he will have opposed the project).
General La Marmora added only the diversionary move of the 17th Army Division commanded by the General Raffaele Cadorna, supported by two cavalry brigade, one artillery brigade and some other minor units, that was ordered to launch an attack from Romagna.
La Marmora Troops start the offensive
Archduke Albrecht, fearing an Italian assault towards the Adige from the west, deployed his troops from Verona and Peschiera to Sommacampagna and the west part of the Mincio, so to be in position to attack the left flank of the enemy.
The Italians received the news regarding that but they were never sent to La Marmora, probably due to some lack of coordination, so the General still thought that the Austrians were on the defensive behind the Adige
For the 19 June, La Marmora ordered at the 1°Army Corps to pass the Mincio and to march in direction of Verona. Custoza and Villafranca were the objective of the 3° Corps, finally the 2° Corp had the mission to bypass Mantua from North and deploy from Curtatone to Borgofonte, the remnant force were used to control Peschiera and as reserve.
In general the Italian formation was too extensive and with barely sufficient reserve. Therefore, when the Archduke marched against the Italians, La Marmora had 70.000 soldiers against the same number of Austrian troops.
The Battle of Custoza
The Archduke plan was to concentrate his force on just a part of the dispersed Italian formation.
The 1° Corps (more precisely the 1° Division of the Corps) encountered early in the morning elements of enemy forces that seemed to be directed towards Oliosi, initially the Italians defeated the Austrians and advanced beyond the city. Soon come a strong Hapsburg counterattack and after 5 hours of fight, the 1° Division was on route, with many high ranking officers dead or severely injured.
General Durando (commander of the 1st Corp) used all his reserve to occupy the Monte Veltro Hills so to stop the Austrian advance, while the 5° Division continued his march repelling various enemy attack. Also in this case, it was not before long that they faced an increasing numbers of Austrian’s troops and after an exhausting numbers of attack and counterattack, the 3 Italian divisions were barely holding their ground
The 3rd Corps, more precisely the 7th Division (commanded by Nino Bixio) and the 16th (lead by Umberto di Savoia, heir of the throne of Italy), advanced beyond Villafranca and they were soon attacked by the Austrian cavalry; the enemy was in the end repelled but at the cost of numerous casualties.
At their left, the 3rd Division of the 1st Corps was ordered by La Marmora to occupy the hills of Monte Torre and Monte Croce. In 2 hours of furious engagement, the Italians were forced to retreat as the Austrians had more reserve. During the battle, Amedeo (third born of the King) was seriously wounded at the left leg and soon the doctors were forced to amputee.
The Hapsburg success was short lived, as the 8th Division reconquered the position very soon, even because there were only meager forces left to hold the place.
At Noon, General Ricotti-Magnani, commander of the 12th Division, left at Peschiera, informed of the critic situation of the 1st Corps, took the initiative and launched an attack against the Austrian forces at Monte Vento. The intervention was decisive in stopping and repelling the enemy that had to fall back at Salionze.
With the death of General Durando, the command of the 1st Corps passed to General Pianell, so he launched a counterattack with his 2nd Division and the 5th passing the river Tione. The Custoza hills were retaken by units of the 3rd corps led by General Govone, who asked immediately reinforcement to secure his hold, but even if a couple of Division were available their commander had order to ‘absolutely hold Villafranca and refused Govone request.
At 15.00 Austrian forces attacked the 3rd and 5th Division and after almost a couple of hour of harsh fighting they took Santa Lucia and later Monte Vento. The Archduke, after that, was ready to launch his final attack to Govone, when the 11th and 14th Division early put on the reserve forces, finally had come to help and relieved the 9th Division. The real battle lasted just an hour of heavy and desperate fight, but sporadic firefight continued past after 20.00 and ended with the Italians still controlling Custoza, but barely, having consumed almost all the ammunition and in general being tired and low on supply. (3)
La Marmora, spurred by the King and his generals, attempted to encircle the Austrian forces, but the lack of coordination between the Italians commanders and the general fatigue of the troops let the Archduke return safely to his initial positions.
At the end of the day, 3.745 Italian deaths and 4.987 wounded, countered 2.034 death and 6.284 wounded for the Austrians. At this, it is needed to be add the 5.201 Italian prisoner and missing, while the Austrians where 4.602.
Custoza in the end was a draw, with neither side in the end being capable of inflict a serious defeat to the enemy and make it retreat. The 20 June, Cadorna finally entered in Veneto, as his forces encountered some logistic problem and his diversionary move was so wasted, worse soon his forces were embroiled in the siege of the Austrian fortress of Borgoforte.
Giovanni Fattori - La Battaglia di Custoza (1880)
Invasion of Trentino – First phase
The original plan, envisioned the invasion and conquest of Trentino by Garibaldi Corp of Volunteer, passing through the Val Del Chiese and later the Valley of the Adige so to finally arrive at Trento and take it.
Unfortunely, at the beginning of the hostility, of the 10 scheduled regiments only 5 were ready, and for obtain the necessary supply and equipment the General had been forced to beg, rob and lie due to a certain animosity between the
Garibaldini and the Savoyard officer corp.
Against them the Hapsburg army, composed by fewer but better trained troops, commanded by General Von Khun that immediately begun a series of offensive operation to stop Garibaldi attempted penetration on Imperial territory and for secure the zone against any other possible attack.
The 20th June, Garibaldi’s volunteers after having reached their assigned start position the day before, were assaulted by the Austrians, in a preemptive attempt to make them retreat and forestall the general attack, so to have more time for create a better defensive line. While the attack was repelled, it was typical of this phase of the campaign; a quick and limited battle between two formations were neither side is capable to take full advantage of the situation or to give the final and lethal blow to the adversary.
Both side were limited by the terrain and the meager resources at their disposal; the Austrian commander had even the order to ‘just fight a little war’ and limiting his effort to keep Trentino safe. For a couple of weeks the two forces played this game, searching each other in the various valley, and making pay to the local farmer the real cost of their war. The Italians slowly advanced continued thanks to the 3 of the missing regiment finally arriving, and some serious battle happened in this period, as example the one at Monte Suello was hard fought and Garibaldi himself was wounded leading his troops against the Austrian line.(4)
Drawning of the battle of Valle del Chiese
(1)In OTL, nobody in the political and military circle succeeded in create a clear chain of command or a single plan of battle; instead they not only divided the force and basically attempted both option (Southern and Western) but both commander thought that they commanded the real operation and the other the diversionary attack. Here Cavour, succeed in rein the general, even if he is ‘forced’ to make an example of Cialdini.
(2) OTL proposal, here has been accepted easily because the ‘Western school’ has been neutered.
(3) OTL the Austrian, break the Italian line and caused a general retreat due to La Marmora losing his nerve. Here with more troops available (and more time to prepare and better planning) the situation end in Italian favor.
(4) 90%OTL, just that instead of 3 regiments a somewhat better and longer preparation allowed for 5 to participate at the initial campaign. The big change it’s that Garibaldi will not retreat to protect Brescia due to the defeat of Custoza, instead he will keep his position.