The Great Turk returns - Alternate resurging Ottomans (1747-1947)

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The forgotten Eyalet behind the mountains - 1811

Dalmatia was conquered in the 1750s from Venice. Venice offered no real resistance and the biggest rival to keep Dalmatia away was Austria. After repelling the Austrians, the Ottomans secured their rule over Dalmatia. Dalmatia was rather unique in the Ottoman State as the governor was appointed by Istanbul but the Pasha of Dalmatia had much more autonomy to defend the region from possible Austrian and later French attacks. The current governor, Ali Pasha Ahmedagic, was the son of a converted Croatian Janissary from Mostar. As his father was later appointed as mayor of Mostar, Ahmed Aga gave his son Ali the education to have him work as a government official. After being noticed in the battlefield against the Austrians under command of Kara Ali Pasha, Ali was appointed as the Commander of the Ottoman Forces in Dalmatia under Suleiman Pashas supervision. The death of Suleiman Pasha in 1805 was followed by him taking over as Pasha of Dalmatia. Ali Pasha started to fortify settlements and ports against the growing threat and fought the Serb Rebels in the interior of Dalmatia with his Croatian Militia. When comparing Dalmatia with Bosnia, Dalmatia looked more like to be a part of Italy than the Balkans. In the cities Italian was the primary Language. In his Divan in Zadar, he had many wealthy Italians who helped him rule the region. The absence of Ottoman Authority kept the happiness of the local elite high. Even the soldiers there locals. Even though most soldiers were Croatian and Muslim, there were also Catholic Croatians from the cities, Muslim Serbs from the hinterland and Albanians from the south. The absence of Janissary nuisance helped Dalmatia develop the region with Local Christian collaboration, unlike Bosnia who still was dominated by the Ayans and their Janissary allies. Sultan Selim made no attempts to limit Dalmatian Autonomy. It seemed all good as long as the ruling class there did not try to break off. Of all Eyalets in the Empire, Dalmatia was the wealthiest. Being between Italy and the Balkans turned Dalmatia in a regional middle man.



Peace in India - 1812

The Indian War was ended by 1808 with military combat but there was no treaty until 1809. Amir Ali Khan left for Agra to meet with the EIC officials to discuss terms of peace. The Maratha envoys joined and at the Mughal Emperors insistence, the Mysori and Hyderabadi envoys were invited as well. Amir Ali Khan was instructed by Ismail IV to preserve the Mughal State as much as possible. The Mughal Emperor is their way to intervene in India and to keep the growing European Influence down. Amir Ali Khan, knowing what to do demanded the following

• Rajasthan transferred under direct Mughal Vassalage
  
• Sindh under direct Mughal Vassalage
  
• Kashmir under direct Mughal Vassalage
  
• Awadh under direct Mughal Vassalage
  
• Hyderabad recognises the Mughal Emperor as their superior
  
• Mysore recognises the Mughal Emperor as their superior
  
• Maratha Confederacy recognises the Mughal Emperor as their superior
  
• The EIC recognises the Mughal Emperor as their superior
  
• The Mughal Emperor is on the currency in India by all participants
  
• The Shah of Persia has the right to intervene on behalf of the Mughal Emperor should any participant breach the treaty
  
• Persia has the right to intervene in the peace treaties between the EIC and the Maratha Confederacy
  

The most important matter in the Persian demand was to secure Mughal Power to fend themselves against any future Maratha or EIC threats. Putting under direct rule was not desired by either the Persians or other participants. Amir Ali Khan did not want to antagonise the vassals by direct rule from Delhi. The rulers of Awadh, Sindh, Kashmir and Rajasthan could continue to rule but as vassals of the Mughal Emperor. Accepting Mughal Superiority had no real meaning other than accepting that the Mughal Emperor was the Emperor of India and all rulers had to recognise this right. The Sultan of Mysore and the Nizam of Hyderabad did not care too much as their old rule continued. But the Marathas had their issues with this. Seeing that they lost their superiority over the Mughals, made them feel uneasy. But the Persians guaranteeing to intervene on Maratha behalf should the EIC demand unacceptable concessions, made the Marathas accept the Safavid offer. The EIC was not willing to accept the treaty. The biggest obstacles were the Persians having the right to intervene in a treaty with the Marathas. Amir Ali Khan made clear that to ensure lasting peace in India, this was necessary. With threatening to raid Western Bengal and attack Ahmedabad, the EIC decided to accept the Persian offer. And the EIC-Maratha treaty followed:

• The Marathas will cede Ahmedabad to the EIC
  
• The Marathas will cede Cuttack to the EIC
  
• The Marathas will pay 40,000,000 Pound worth of war reparations
  
• The Marathas will reduce the Army to 40,000 man standing
  
• The Marathas will surrender or destroy all naval vessels
  
• The Marathas will destroy all forts in the Maharashtra and Gujarat to ensure the safety of Bombay, Surat and Ahmedabad governorates.
  
• Peshwa Baji Rao II will be paid 10,000,000 Pound for being ousted of power
  

The Marathas agreed to this and were even willing to accept to return Baji Rao II back to continue his rule as Peshwa of the Marathas. But this demand was vetoed by the Safavids fearing for joint Maratha-EIC alliance against the Persian-Mughal Alliance. This was followed by an EIC demand to limit the Maratha forces in case a new war broke out with the Marathas. Amir Ali Khan secured Safavid interests in Northern India while the EIC became the new threat, replacing the Marathas. If Baji Rao II did return to the Maratha lands it was impossible to not keep the EIC and the Marathas away from each other. A new war would follow likely within 15 years. Amir Ali Khan recognised the fact that the success of the Persian Campaign was due to the Maratha-Company conflict. The Mughal Forces turned out to be weaker than he expected and the Persian Numbers were not enough to crush both Company and Maratha Forces. Keeping them divided is the best chance of survival the Mughal Emperor has. This treaty was signed in 1809 and only ratified entirely by 1812.



The Ottomans in the Indian Ocean - 1812

With the Wahabite raids in Iraq and Hejaz, the Ottomans lost most of their small fortifications as the troops were needed somewhere else. Thus the Ottomans evacuated Somaliland and Oman to protect Bahrain and Sudan from pirate attacks. What the Ottomans did not give up were the Comoros. The archipelago in the Mozambique Channel were visited by a small Ottoman Fleet from Egypt as an expedition Force. There they were welcomed as the envoy of the Caliph. The Sultans of the islands asked Ottoman Protection as the growing power of Portugal in Mozambique became a threat to them. For this to happen, the Ottoman Navy needs a base. Every Sultan on the archipelago agreed to the demands and the rule of the Sultans were respected. Commander of the Ottoman Navy in Bahrain was instructed by the Commander of the Ottoman Navies to build a fortress near the sea and send 3 frigates to the islands. Every Island would have 100 men in the fortresses. As the Ottoman Navy secured the Comoros, they started to look West to Zanzibar and hoped to get success there as well. This time they were not so successful but the Omani Sultan who fled Muscat for Zanzibar offered privileges to the Ottomans as much as they offer to the EIC. The Ottoman Naval Vessels would not have to pay to enter the ports of Zanzibar Sultanate. Further to the west was the realm of the Kingdom of the Maldives.This was rather problematic. The EIC had interest in the islands and offered protection to the islands. To get the Maldives in Ottoman Influence, it has to be confirmed by the officials of the EIC. Sultan Selim wanted to avoid pointless conflicts with the EIC and the British as much as possible. Negotiations were started. The EIC had demands but did not refuse outright. Although a possible Ottoman Naval base close to Southern India made the EIC nervous. The obstacle was the ITL, the newly formed Istanbul Trade League. The Trade and Cargo Company was starting to rival the EIC in the Indian Trade. Due to the limited gains in the Great Indian War, the EIC wanted to avoid a new concurrent in India. Their demands was to keep the ITL out of India, only to allow them in the Sultanate of Mysore and in the dominion of the Nizam. With trade goods from other parts of India the ITL was kept away. And the EIC remained thus the primary trade company in the Indian Ocean. The ITL being a small company made concurrence hard if not impossible. But the rising investments made it sure it would not disappear anytime soon.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

Background information: I wanted a TL where the Ottomans keep the Balkans under its rule (no Serbia, Greece etc...). I could have started with a POD during Selim III but I felt like having the Crimean Khanate exist for not being the only Islamic State in Europe and I mean, why not? It is interesting to see another Islamic State to develop in the 19th century. So I came to a choice were to start... as latests as 1774 with Abdul Hamid ascending the Throne and as early as Nader Shahs death for opportunities. Initially I planned Osman III/Mustafa III rule as a beginning but at the very last moment changed to Nader Shahs death.

So to give you an insight... I want a reforming Ottoman Empire from the earliest time possible without affecting too much of European politics that happens in the 19th century. And from the 19th Century onward, things may change more. This is also why try to go through the 18th century as fast as I can without leaving important information behind.

Hope you keep enjoying it.



The death of the lion


The year: 1747


The lion of Persia is dead. The great lion of the East is Nader Afshar. Words have come from the East that this lion was betrayed by his own soldiers. They say, killing your own leader will bring you nothing but death and destruction. The people of those lands will be victims for foreign invaders. No longer will his mighty roar be heard in Persia. But the neighbours and victims of this great ‘lion’ are relieved. One of those is the sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Mahmud I Osmanoglu. A sultan who fought back the Russo-Austrian alliance. A man who was believed to be the restorer of the Ottoman Golden Age. Nader’s realm is torn apart by warlords and tribes. There is no better advantage. It will be the age remembered how the Ottomans restored themselves.

The great Mahmud I, reformer of the empire


In the Fall of 1747, the Empire was at peace. Unlike its European neighbours who would fight each other. Regardless, for the sultan it was better not to wait out opportunity until it was gone. Since the last war 7 years ago, the grand viziers of the Empire followed a peace policy. There would be no war in Europe and no more pointless war with Afshar ruled Persia. The borders of the Empire were big enough. But with the death of Nader Shah, the game has changed. Mahmud was ambitious, his pasha’s were not.


The Death of Nader Shah

After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, his great empire fragmented to pieces. His successor ruled only a fragment of a once mighty Persian Empire. The Zand dynasty has emerged in Shiraz, various khanates in Azerbaijan and the Caucasus ruled free from influence of Mashhad and Shiraz. And then there was the original ruler of Persia, a Safavid prince, Suleiman II. The latter would possibly be a good puppet for the Ottomans in their Iranian policy. And of course Mohammed Hasan Khan, leader of the Qajar tribe. All these people play a role for the domination of Persia. In the far east, the Afghan Abdali tribe ruling most of Afghanistan and Balochistan. For Ahmad Shah, the focus lay more on India.


Mahmuds letter to the Persian rulers (1748)

In 1748 Mahmud sendt numerous letters to rulers and warlords in Persia. He asked to swear loyalty to Mahmud as Caliph of all Muslims. Like he expected, there was only little interest to swear loyalty to Mahmud. Especially not by the Afshars, Zands and Qajars. The Durrani accepted Mahmud being the Caliph but not much further. When the letters were sent, Mahmud quickly reacted to the response. His first target was Azerbaijan. the region would be used for further expansion of influence. When Mahmud explained his plan to Hekimoglu Ali Pasha, he reacted with that there is no possibility to control all of Persia and an alliance was necessary with several kings and warlords. The biggest surprise to Mahmud and Hekimoglu Ali Pasha was the arrival of Ismail Safavi, a Safavid Prince. Having the ambition to rule Persia again and getting rid of his rival Suleiman II Safavi. It was told to Mahmud that Suleiman was using both Afshars and Zands in order to become the legitimate ruler of Persia. One free from foreign influence as much as possible. A young man he is, Ismail was welcomed and used for the campaigns in Persia. Mahmuds plans changed. His vassal would now be Ismail Safavi. And the plans for the campaign start to look more complex…


Europe in 1748:

In 1748, the war of Austrian succession ended after 8 years of war. The biggest winner of the war was Prussia with their conquest of Silesia. The Spanish gained some land back in Italy and Austria got back the Southern Netherlands from the French. Even though the British and French were not happy with the results, the Austrians were least happy. The loss of Silesia was not forgiven by the Austrian empress Maria Theresa. The conquest of Silesia alone would lead to more wars later in Central Europe. One war was over, the next was looming in.

Europe in 1748

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The French Colonial policies

What became a burden for the French was their colonial defence against the British. Louis XV was warned already by the his advisors about the rising costs of wars in the colonies. One advice was that the colonial population should be raised and in the towns of Quebec, Montreal and New Orleans, making it harder for the British to occupy it. The larger the population there the more chance to let the regionals to defend the colonies rather than Paris doing it. Louis XV heard these plans many times since the start of the war but did not think it was too necessary. But then he was convinced when he heard about the following. The new colonists would be the poor French in the major cities. Having them send to the colonies in America would mean more influence around towns and less of the poor to taken care of by the church. Both the crown and the poor would benefit from it. By 1748 Louis XV agreed and ordered that the crown would fund these plans. Between 1748 and 1756, around 13,000 Frenchmen left for Louisiana and New France.


The last attempt of the Dutch

The Dutch Republic did not experience a good time from the start of the 1700s. The century started with a long exhausting war with only a little gain. The Dutch did not gain what they hoped and, like the Austrians, felt somewhat betrayed by the British whom secretly made a deal with the Bourbon rivals. It has been 35 years since the end of the war and the Dutch are in no better position. The last war about the Austrian succession was already a war the Dutch did not want to enter proved that they were in no position to fight more wars without gaining something in return. And that’s where Willem IV, stadtholder of the United Provinces, came in. Not experienced with state affairs, Willem IV first attempt was regaining the asiento of the Spanish Empire for the WIC*. The Spanish were already uneasy with the British about the treaty. Any better deal may convince the Spanish. Deemed to ambitious, this could work for the the declining economic power. It might be the last attempt to restore at least one company.


The Ottoman armies mobilise (War in the Caucasus: 1748-1755)

The first target of Mahmud I were the small fractured states in the Caucasus. In the first months of 1748, Seyyid Abdullah Pasha was ordered to mobilise 40.000 men and 100 artillery pieces to invade Georgia. The rulers of Georgia are ordered to accept Ottoman domination of the Caucasus. If they do not accept it they will lose their lands. From there, the Grand Vizier is ordered to conquer the Khanates north of the Aras river all the way to the Caspian Sea. These plans did not fall from nowhere. Since the time of Ahmed III, the Russians were starting to influence Persia and set their eyes on the Caucasus. Ahmed III intervention prevented a large scale Russian rule which in return was completely gone with Nader Shah's rule. But with Persia now fractured, the Persian treasure should not go to the Russians. The conquest of Azerbaijan can prevent such nightmare scenario’s. From Azerbaijan the Porte can also expand influence in Persia, with his most important card: a Safavid prince.

At the same time, Ali Pasha is ordered to negotiate with any European power with a decent Navy to reform and upgrade the Ottoman Naval power. Something that already was bothering his predecessor Ahmed III after a conflict with the Holy League. Something that the Pasha’s don’t know yet is that Mahmud has set his eyes on Preveza. The fortification on the Western Coast of Greece. Venice is a declining power and if they sell this important fortification to a major power, be it Austria or Russia, then the state is in big danger. This must be prevented at all costs. An attempt to buy it will be made. But if the Venetians remain stubborn then it will be a conquest. In case of a large scale war with Venice, there should be a navy to protect against a coalition fleet. The last Naval warfare was something that should never happen again.


First Phase: Georgian campaign (1748-1755)

Situation of Georgia in 1748

Seyyid Abdullah Pasha arrived in Kutaisi with his vast army. He invited all Georgian rulers to convince them to accept Ottoman protection over the small kingdoms. All but one kingdom accepted being an Ottoman vassal. It was the King of Kakheti. Convinced of its strength, capabilities and experience against neighbouring Khanates, the king refused to accept even one Ottoman flag, one Ottoman soldier as a garrison in his kingdom. Seyyid Pasha, being the patient man he is gave the King of Kakheti 30 days the time to reconsider his decision. This man was the young Heraclius II. A brave man and a king to be proud of the people say. Seyyid Pasha waited for 30 days and not one day longer for an answer. And on the last day the answer came. Heraclius II tells Seyyid Pasha that he will die fighting for his Kingdom and his people and the rivers of his Kingdom will fill with the blood of the invaders, be it the Persian or the Turk. Seyyid had his answer. He immediately moved to Surami to capture it. His plan was to move along the river to Tbilisi and effectively control all the Kingdom. Heraclius can no longer fight except hiding in the mountains and the countryside for an opportunity. Just as he hoped, he had only a little resistance and Surami was captured. His hope was to capture Gori before retreating to Diyarbekir to wait out Winter. In his next year he would continue his fight. But the problem began to start. Heraclius men started a hit and run tactic to weaken morale of Ottoman troops before they reach Gori. This had some success but the amount of Turkish troops did not lower. The biggest success was hindering supplies coming to the front. When Seyyid Pasha reached Gori in early September, he had two months the time to conquer the town. If he failed he was to wait for next year which could hinder his plans. The siege took off for 1,5 month only to be ended when Seyyid Pasha realised he could not conquer the town. Seeing the morale of his men going down and Winter coming in he broke the siege and retreated. With only a limited gains, Seyyid failed his campaign which should have been finished by early spring next year. It seemed to look like it would take quite some years to succeed. Heraclius nevertheless was seen as a hero among the people of Tbilisi.

*WIC - West Indische Compagnie: (Dutch) West Indian Company

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The path to war (1751-1754)

Although Europe has recently come out of war, it isn’t going to stay at peace for long. The peace deals didn’t make anyone but the Prussians happy. The peace was only concluded in Europe. In the Americas and India there still conflict over towns, regions, rivers. The French were establishing a presence in the Ohio Valley, building fortifications. The British however, were not happy with it due to East Coast colonists settling and trading there. There would be a conflict anytime soon between the two powers. In Europe, the Austrians haven’t forgot about Frederiks conquest of Silesia and empress Maria Theresa desires the region to be back under the control of Vienna. Willem IV, even though ill, desired some cities of the Southern Netherlands back to Republican control. His first economical gain was gaining the Asiento for the next 40 years in the name of the WIC. Making a fair deal for the Spanish and giving them the right to stop the deal after a minimum of 10 years for no less than 400,000 Gulden to the WIC, 200,000 after 20 years and 100,000 after 30 years. The British unhappy about the Dutch working behind them were guaranteed that in the next war, the Dutch republic will help them with 5 ship of the line and 8,000 men. anywhere where the British fight in Europe. Sultan Mahmud Khan, ofcourse has set his eyes on the remaining Venetian possessions outside Italy. What remains is a justification for war. Any such conflict will the draw Vienna on the Ottomans.

All of Europe is in on the brink of war. The borders will be redrawn and/or the losing side will have to live with whatever they gain.



The grand naval reforms of the Ottoman Empire (1749-1755)

In the six years in which the Ottoman navy underwent a major reorganisation and reform. This was deemed necessary due to ongoing development of the European major powers. In order to keep up with the latest development there was a plan to build a school for naval officers. The pride of the Navy was the newly built Mahmudiye (1754-1809), finished during the reign Osman III who still named after his brother due to his efforts. A Ship of the line with 80 guns. Then there was the recruitment of newly trained marines. These were no ordinary men or bandits from Anatolia. These were disciplined and strong recruited infantry. The reason to create a new infantry corps was not new. With the letter of Seyyid Pasha indirectly suggesting to create a new army to replace the janissaries, Mahmud acted carefully and ordered Ali Pasha to recruit new disciplined infantry for the navy. Doing this, Mahmud made sure the Janissary corps did not get suspicious at all. And the number of the recruits were merely 2,300 men while the Corps had 90,000 men in total and growing. The numbers would grow later years but the new infantry form were ready. If the Corps ever dares to revolt again, Mahmud and his successors now have a strong back up. Although the costs were high, the ‘navy’ and its reorganisation proved to be worthy up until the early 19th century.

”The conquerors of the oceans”, named by the Kapudan-i Derya to the reorganised Ottoman navy.



The Georgian campaign (1753-1755)

After the failed assassinations attempt on Heraclius II, the Georgian landscape changed. Heraclius II has become slightly paranoid due to the betrayal. When Mehmed Ragip Pasha failed, he ended his siege of Tabriz and decided to go for an all out campaign in Georgia to end it in the next two years. Starting with stealing the crops of the Georgian peasants and sending it to Syria. The rural lands became more and more abandoned as the peasants flee the advancing Turk. The towns became flooded with refugees. Mehmed Ragip Pasha marched on Tbilisi from Azerbaijan, in order to caught Heraclius in the town, without having to take Gori first. With 20,000 Janissaries, 20,000 Sipahis, 10,000 Tatar light cavalry, 6,000 Turkmen allies from Azerbaijan, 8,000 Abkhazians allies and 100 artillery pieces, he started to siege Tbilisi. During the siege, he dispatched Tatar regiments to scout for any enemy movement. Never since the Mongol invasion has Tbilisi suffered such attacks by the enemy. The defenders, merely 3,000 men are to hold the town. Heraclius still has another 18,000 men but it will take at least a month reach them, have them to get ready, march back and reach Tbilisi. His army is currently besieging Kutaisi, an attempt to take over Western Georgia from the Ottoman vassals. For Mehmed Ragip Pasha, the siege has become personal. He wants to get rid of Heraclius before Heraclius can get rid of him. During the siege, mehmed Pasha hears that the Sultan Mahmud I(1730-1752) has died and is succeeded by Osman III, his younger brother. Like many Pasha’s Mehmed Ragip Pasha was unsure how to feel as Osman was an unreasonable person with strange habits. The siege continues and there is no message by the new Sultan to end the campaign.



Death of Mahmud I (1730-1752)

Mahmud I, already in his old age was getting tired. Falling ill more often than predecessors his age. Yet he survived his illness more than once. After returning from Friday prayers he fell of his horse when he just arrived at the Topkapi Palace. After a few days in a coma he had awaken and the palace people were happy thinking that the sultan has recovered. He called for his younger brother Osman to come. Osman, fearing that he was about to be executed by his brother, the sultan, resisted only to be convinced by his own mother. When Osman arrived in the sultans room, he was afraid. He didn’t dare to look at the Sultan, fearing that at any moment, the deaf mutes will come. Mahmuds looked at is brother and asked him why he was afraid of him. Osman was silent and Mahmud turned his head back, looking at the plafond, closing his eyes never to wake up again. And afterwards all servants bow to the new Sultan. The reign of Osman III has started.


The New Sultan executes the long awaited plan (1753)

The first thing Osman III did was appointing Hekimoglu Ali Pasha as his Grand Vizier and send a letter to Ragip Pasha in Georgia to finish the campaign as soon as possible with or without Kakheti. Hekimoglu told the new Sultan about the war justification. Knights of Malta are still raiding Muslim shipping till this day. And it seems that they stop at Venetian possession to return to Malta with the gains from Muslim merchants or start their attack from Venetian islands. Osman orders Hekimoglu to give the Venetians an ultimatum to abandon Dalmatia, Ionian Islands and their Greek fortresses. At the same time, the Janissary Corps Aga* was ordered to mobilise the Janissary Corps by the next month immediately. The fleet is ordered to sail to Resmo. From there, they will be instructed what their next move will be.

The Janissaries round up near Corlu, Eastern Thrace to march to Preveza (1754)



The battle between the foxes (1754)

Mehmed wanted to end the siege as soon as possible. His plan was to bombard the town at night, not giving the besiegers any time to sleep or rest, advancing on the town only to retreat with the Georgians unsure when the real advance will happen. When all of this didn’t speed it enough he ordered captured enemy soldiers who have smallpox or any other contaminous disease to be brought. If they seem to be dying they were executed, their heads cut off only to be thrown and shot at the town. The bodies were dumped in the river so the water of the people will be contaminated. On the 189th day of the Siege, Ragip Pasha ordered a general attack on the South side of the wall under protection of artillery. Before the attack was realised, the relief army was arrived on the battle. As soon as Ragip Pasha realised that he was about to be attacked in the rear, he countered the enemy with the Sipahi reserves until his Janissary troops reorganise against the relief forces. The Kakheti forces hit and stopped by the Sipahi cavalry were not badly damaged but the Janissaries had reorganised and started to advance on the relief forces. For nearly 7 hours of battle between the two forces it ended at night when the centre and Right wing of the Kakheti forces were battered by hours of artillery fire and attack in the rear by Tatar horse archers. During the battle, 5,098 of the 18,000 of the Kakheti forces died against a 4,279 of 64,000 Ottomans. It was a brave but foolish attempt to relief the town. Being already more than a month expected late it was more panic that caused the immediate attack. The panic that King might be dead already. When morning had broken, the Tatar scouts told Ragip Pasha that the Georgians had abandoned town, maybe hours ago. Mehmed Pasha entered the town and saw a enough dead bodies in town that he did not order a pursue forces. The remaining defenders, possibly not more than 800-900 men must be retreating to the mountains in the North. At best they will do small attacks. Ragip Pasha rushed to the palace of Heraclius but did not found the King. He looked in the entire town to any body he found on the ground, asked any person about him. But it seems that once again, even when losing, the Georgian fox has outsmarted Ragip Pasha. A town without its king was not worth anything for the victorious Pasha. The second time Ragip Pasha was outsmarted. And he knew where the Georgian fox would go. To Moscow.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The Venetians stall negotiations, (1754)

In the middle of the 18th century Venice was in no position to engage a war against the Ottomans. The fleet was too small, and the Army was almost non existent. The main force were mercenaries who did not like to fight another lost cause. What was left was to stall the negotiations with Hekimoglu Ali Pasha, a Venetian himself. Venice knew that there was war waiting for them if they did not give the regions the Ottomans desired. But the Venetians accepted that. What they wanted was to give up their right to those regions to anyone who would pay for it. The Austrians and Russians were the biggest possibilities. Russia already desired the Greek part for their navy in warm waters. The Austrians made no secret to get the Wealthy Dalmatia. The only problem left was the money to get. Venice demanded 3,000,000 for Dalmatia and 1,200,000 for their Greek possessions. The Russians were more than willing to pay for these possessions. However. Things turned differently when Venice did not include Corfu in the deal. According to the doge, the Spanish wanted to pay 2,000,000 for all of the Greek possessions (a bluff by the Venetians, the Spanish only wanted the Ionian Islands and did not want to pay more than 800,000. Kythira and Preveza was not a part of the deal). For at least a year, there was no answer by the Russians until the Russians agreed to pay 2,200,000 for everything. The Venetian-Russian Agreement of 1755 was made in Verona (Treaty of Verona). But by the time this treaty was made, the Ottomans captured all but Corfu, which was agreed. When the Russians arrived on Corfu in August 1755, the fortress was taken. Much to Russian anger whom decide to negotiate with both the Ottomans and Venetians. The sultan was not even close to give up these possessions. The Russians threatened the Venetians with blockading the Venetian lagoon unless they were compensated. Venice agreed to pay back 1,200,000 of the 2,200,000. The Russian negotiators held correspondence between Venice and Constantinople. The Russians were offered 200,000 akce, limited favored trade rights in some parts of the empire and were allowed to settle a maximum of 10 warships anywhere in the Ottoman Empire for the next 20 years as long as both nations were at peace. Grand Vizier Hekimoglu Ali Pasha did not want a two front war without having a knowledge of military situation (The Russians, by the time of the Russo-Turkish deal, did not know about the situation in Dalmatia). The Austrians weren’t much lucky either. Most of the Slavic hinterland was overrun by the Ottomans, with the Italian populated coast under siege. The Austrians however were more impulsive. Although they negotiated with Constantinople, they made an Army ready to invade Bosnia. At the same time Austria also threatened Venice with occupation unless they were compensated. Venice offered to pay back 1,000,000 and free movement of the Austrian Army through their territory for 40 years. For Vienna, this was enough for the time being. The plans however were thwarted when Frederick of Prussia invaded Saxony and thus, threatening Bohemia. Regardless, the Ottoman Army wasn’t really viewed as a big threat by the nobles in Vienna. If the Russians will help against Prussia, then Vienna can dispatch a Army to the Balkans and Wallachia. When the Russians found out about an upcoming war between Vienna and Constantinople, they decided to wait out for the course of war before directly intervening. Elizabeth viewed Frederick of Prussia as a bigger threat to Russia in the near future.


The Invasions starts, (1754-1755)

Grand Vizier Ali Pasha refused all offers made by the Venetians. When the first negotiations failed, Ali Pasha did not want to waste any more time and send order for the fleet to set sail. Husamettin Pasha left Resmo for Corfu. In the meantime, ordered the Janissary Corps Aga, Sari Mustafa aga to recruit another 15,000 for the corps. The Pasha’s of Bosnia, Yanya and Morea had were instructed as well to attack weak spots like Cephalonia, Preveza and Sinj. The Pasha of Bosnia was assisted by 30,000 Janissaries, 15,000 Sipahis, 10,000 Bosnian militias and 60 artillery pieces. The first siege was of Sinj, one of the two most guarded places fo the Venetians. The siege started in June 28th, 1754. The fleet of Husamettin Pasha dispatched 40,000 Janissaries, 10,000 Sipahis and 8,000 Albanian militias, accompanied with 100 artillery pieces in Corfu while himself left the newly recruited Marines on the remaining weakly defended islands. Preveza was stormed by 4,000 Janissaries, 15,000 Albanian militias and 25,000 Sipahis. The Greek militia, no more than 300 men, retreated to the St. Charalampos Church and defended the the attack for a week before the Artillery was place in town and blowed the church to the ground. None of the 300 men defending survived. But during the defence they took another 3,000 men with them. The campaign looked like it was going to succeed in just one year. Sinj had surrendered. The town on the coast were on the brink of surrender due to land and sea sieges. The only thing that remained was was Corfu. Corfu was under a large siege, bombed every day by sea and land. The fortress had 2,800 men. This included the 2,000 volunteers as well. On the 116th day, there were two breaches in the wall. The Janissaries stormed the town and the defences made by the defenders hold on for several hours on both breaches. When a large explosion was heard, the volunteers started to flee thinking that the armoury exploded (In reality, it was an Ottoman frigate hit by the Venetian artillery). The garrison could not hold off both breaches alone eventually gave in to the larger Janissary force. The fleet of Husamettin Pasha, besieging Corfu, then left Corfu to join the fleet of Hasan Pasha near Zadar. The local population of Zadar were offered to become a vassal of the Ottomans with their own autonomy, like the Republic of Ragusa. The Coastal area of Dalmatia would become the Republic of Zara was established in 1756. It had its own senate, with a limited force and navy. The Senate was dominated by Italians with an addition of Croatians. The Slavic hinterland however, would join the Bosnia Eyalet.



Tiflis Eyalet established, 1754

After Ragip Pasha was victorious in Georgia he established the eyalet of Tiflis in the former Kingdom of Kakheti. Hadzi Mustafa Pasha was appointed as the Pasha for the time being. The central government ordered that there would be no taxation for five years in the eyalet. The local people would recover from war and then can start taking the burden of taxation. The state spend around 1,000,000 akce to rebuild and finance the farmlands. The Georgian Orthodox Church got the authority over the justice system of the Georgian Christians. It seemed to be all looking well. But that can change in a few years. After all. These people are Turks for the locals. At the end, God will be merciful for his children, like the Church said. And that is what motivates the people everyday to continue their lives. God will protect them against all evil.


Sultan Osman III (1752-1755) declared unfit to rule

Osman III rule didn’t start too bad. He followed his brothers policy and continued what Mahmud began. But the almost 50 years he spended in the ‘cage’ were not healthy. Not for him at least. Osman had no children. He did not like the attention of women in the harem nor did he like music. This wasn’t a problem as there were still heirs. But the problem became worse when Osman ordered his Grand Vizier to execute Sehzade Mehmed. The Grand Vizier, Ali Pasha, was removed from his posts and thrown in the dungeon at orders of Osman III, to await upcoming death. His mother however, prevented this. She secretly talked with Ali Pasha. She made sure to spare him but in return, he would not let Osman execute when he is deposed. Even the mother of the Sultan agreed to it. Ali Pasha was released and with the support of the Shaykh Ul Islam, Osman III was declared unfit to rule. For his place, Mehmed V (1755-...) would become sultan. To prevent the Janissary Corps to riot, Janissary Corps Aga told the Janissaries that Osman III would form a new Army. As far as the Janissaries were concerned, Osman should have been executed. But this was prevented as the Shaykh Ul Islam said that the old Sultan was of age and already ill. He would die within a year maybe. The new sultan Mehmed V would protect the Janissary rights as long as they obeyed him. This prevented a major riot in Constantinople during the most important time. The Janissaries were given Culus salary for the new Sultan and the same day they forgot about Osman III. Little did they know that Mehmed was not any different than his nephews Mahmud and Osman. He as well planned to replace the Janissaries eventually. An army enthousiast, Mehmed V would join the Army to battles. He wouldn’t participate but go with them to motivate the soldiers and to coordinate the Battles, defences and offensives. But safe in nearby settlements.

Osman III (1752-1755)


The Austrians are in trouble, 1756

For the first time since 1739 there has been a chance to give the Islamic neighbour in the South a beating. The last war didn’t go well for the Habsburgs, losing Oltenia and the Smederevo Sanjak in the process. Due to Russian success in Moldova, the Ottomans refrained from attacking the Banate and prevented a possible bigger loss. For Austria, this isn’t just acquiring Dalmatia. This is to revenge the loss of 1739. Although nobody really hopes for it but the nobles at court in Vienna think about getting Bosnia and Belgrade Pashaluk as well. Even Catholic Albanian nobles in Italy and Catholic clergymen hope for a bigger Austrian success so the Habsburgs can occupy Albanian territory. The radical thought among Albanian Catholic nobles was that Islamic Albanians under Catholic rule would return to their ancestral religion. The least common but existing thought was that this time, the Imperial forces will end the war in Constantinople. And so, Vienna was enthousiast.

In Constantinople, the Pasha’s were enthusiast as well. Many Pasha’s have fought in the last war against the Habsburgs. Some had even hoped for the reconquest of Timisoara. Sultan Mehmed V as well as Grand Vizier Ali Pasha knew better. The reconquest of old Sanjaks is highly unlikely. Ali Pasha hoped that in best case, Transylvania became independent and under protection of Constantinople like the Danubian principalities. In the future, Transylvania would be a base to invade Central Hungary. When the Sultan asked Ali Pasha what would be ideal, Ali Pasha said that instead of regaining Hungary, Hungary should be independent. It wouldn’t happen in one war but if the first step is made, the rest would follow. That’s why Ali Pasha had Transylvania in mind. It would divide Austria from the Russians as well. But this would still be highly unlikely. The Austrian have one of the best armies. Repelling them two, three times won’t break their morale in their defence. Keeping Dalmatia is what matters now.
Just as Vienna was preparing for war, the horror scenario became reality. The Prussians have invaded Austrian ally Saxony. If Vienna still sends all force to the Balkans, Frederick will definitely occupy Bohemia and Moravia as well. And Vienna will be left defenceless.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

Sultan Mehmed V, A lost cause

Mehmed V was an extraordinary sultan for his time. Unlike his predecessors he gave his heir the best education he could get to prepare him if he was to become sultan. Mehmed experienced the harsh truth upon ascending the throne. He was 37 and had no experience. In his short but effective reign he let his heir, his younger brother Mustafa join his side and learn from the Sultan himself and the Pasha’s of the Divan. An ambitious idea was to let the Shehzades join the Pasha’s in the Army. Something he learned from Europe but not really pleased by the Grand Vizier, fearing for a coup by the Army and the Shehzade. The idea was off for the time being. Mehmed of course had more important matters to do. The Austrians were said to prepare an invasion of Bosnia and Smederevo. Due to an already ongoing war In the Holy Roman Empire, the Austrians can’t sendt big forces. But to win the war, the Austrians need to be prevented from taking key areas in the Balkans. Already during Mahmud I reign, Belgrade fortress was being built. The city walls were not close to that of the Austrians built in between 1718-1737 but it was solid, could hold for a long time and was after all cheap.

But Mehmed V effectiveness did not come from his efforts to defend the Balkans alone. Mehmed V was the first sultan since Osman III, to plan to replace the Janissary Corps as the main Armed forces. The Janissary Corps would have to decrease numbers to the 10,000 men or even lower. Such decrease what would never have been accepted. The new Army would contain Turks from Anatolia, Bosnians and Albanians from the Balkans, Georgians from the Caucasus and Egyptians from the Middle East. Unlike his predecessors, Mehmed V still believes in a lost cause which is to reorganise the Janissary Corps to let it remain as the elite force. Something he believes, which could let to his downfall. When the Janissaries were sent to the front Mehmed V ordered the Pasha’s who remained in Constantinople to go to Anatolia with the Prussian Officers to start building and recruiting the the new Army. The build up would take 4 brigades.

Mehmed V new Sekban Army (1757, Bursa)



Tiflis, military Eyalet (1755-...)

After Ragip Pasha’s victory in the Kingdom of Kakheti against Heraclius II, he created the Eyalet of Tiflis. The capital, the town of Tiflis, with a population of 17,000 was the capital of this eyalet. The conquest of Tiflis was not only strategically but also symbolically important. The city, once a Seljuk and Muslim city was conquered by the famous Georgian King David IV. The city became the capital of the Georgian Kingdom and thus the symbol of Georgian victory over the Turks and Persians. After the conquest, Ragip Pasha ordered his troops not to pillage religious buildings. After ending the pillage of Tbilisi, Ragip Pasha restored order in town. In the following months, the town was being rebuild. The new Pasha of the Eyalet was Hadzi Mustafa. He came with the order of Osman III to send a 1,000 Armenian families of the town to Istanbul. Osman III wanted the Armenians in the capital. The Armenians, being one of the most loyal and skilled population of the Empire would be better used in the Capital. And Tbilisi would be better controlled if its Muslim Population is increased. Turks from Azerbaijan and Eastern Anatolia (3,500), Abkhazians from Western Georgia (1,500) and Kurds from Mosul (1,000) were sent to settle in the town. The number Georgians increased as well (3,000) due to migrating after the war.

The Eyalet became more important in warfare and offering troops to the Ottoman Army. Surprisingly, a decent share of the Georgians joined the Ottoman Army, both the Janissary Corps as well as the Sekban Corps. These men, mostly from Rural lands migrated to West to join the Army. The biggest influence might have been the occupation of high positions by Georgians in the government, Army and even in Mesopotamia as the Mamluks as well as being mother of the Sultan. From 1757 to 1840, it was almost a century of the Georgian influence in the Empire.

Tbilisi, 1760


Statistics of Tbilisi (1762)

Armenians: 40,7%; 8,750

Georgians: 29,8%; 6,400

Turks: 17,9%; 3,850

Abkhazian: 7,0%; 1,500

Kurds: 4,6%, 1,000


Christian: 67,0%

• Armenian Apostolic: 40,7%
  
  
• Georgian Orthodox: 26,3%
  

Islam: 33,0%

• Sunni: 29,0%
  
  
• Shia: 4,0%
  

The Austro-Turkish war, 1755-1757 period

The Austrians and Ottomans were already in state of war during Osman III reign. The Austrians however tried to negotiate peace with a better deal and focus on a Prussian threat. The envoy from Vienna demanded Dalmatia. The offer to give it up was 400,000 thalers. The Ottomans refused and negotiations lead to nowhere. The preparations were made and the Austrians send and army of 35,000 men to occupy Bosnia, under Ernst von Laudon. Another 25,000 men were sent to Belgrade, containing about half of Serbian militia. The Austrian goal was simple, occupy the frontier regions of the Ottoman Empire and enforce peace. Additional is to get Belgrade in the deal. When the Austrians were sending a force to the Balkans the Ottomans had assembled an army of 80,000 men in Corlu. A second Army was being formed just outside of Istanbul, another force of 100,000 men. The first army contained 30,000 Janissaries, 30,000 Sipahi, 8,000 Tatars cavalry, 10,000 Albanian militias and 2,000 Mamluks. The first army was sent by early 1756 under leadership of Sari Mustafa Pasha, a former Janissary Captain. The Army was heading to Belgrade to prevent it falling in hands of the Austrians. If the Austrians succeed in to taking Belgrade they have the ability to take Nis and cut the supply routes to Bosnia.The Army under Sari Mustafa Pasha, was supported by the already aged but experienced Hekimoglu Ali Pasha, the governor of Egypt. The Second Army of 100,000 men was ready in May and set for Bosnia. The Army consisted of 40,000 Janissaries, 30,000 Sipahi, 10,000 Tatar Cavalry, 15,000 Turkmen Militia and 5,000 Mamluks.

Mehmed V, prepares to join the Army to Bosnia


Belgrade Campaign

First Phase of the war: Battle of Smederevo (1756)

One of the main goals of the Habsburg forces were to take over Belgrade. In order to start the siege as soon as possible, the mobile Serbian militias were crossed 40 miles west of Belgrade. The main Habsburg Forces would go for the ill defended Smederevo and defend it against reinforcements from Vidin. The Serbian Militia would let more Serbs revolt and fight against the Ottoman rule in Belgrade Pashaluk. And they really succeeded in recruiting more soldiers during the Siege. the Serbs had 16,000 more recruited in the Army, besieging Belgrade as addition to the 10,000 existing.

During the cross of the Danube near Smederevo by the Habsburg Army, the local forces and from Vidin tried to halt and stop them. Initially successful, the Austrians lost around 800 men during the cross but the 1,400 Ottoman local irregulars failed to stop them and lost around 400 men, retreating back to Smederevo. Around 2,000 Serbs from the siege of Belgrade were sent as reinforcements for the siege of Smederevo. During the 11th night of the siege, the Austrians were caught unprepared by the Army of Hekimoglu Ali Pasha. With 15,000 Janissaries, 10,000 Sipahi, 5,000 Tatars and around 40 artillery pieces he attacked the besieging Austrians. The Serbian militia attempted to attack the left Flank of the Ottoman forces, in order to save some time for the Habsburg Army to reorganise and counter the Ottomans. The Militia held out for about an hour until being crushed and retreated to the ranks of the Habsburg Army, to regroup. The Habsburgs reorganised to guard their position against an advancing Ottoman force. After fierce clashes four about 8 hours, the Sipahi have broken the remainder of the Serbian militia and were about to surround the Habsburg Army. Noticing the collapse and rout of the Serbs, the Habsburgs Army started to retreat to the Danube as fast as possible, swimming fleeing to the Habsburg Ships to cross back to Hungary. Hekimoglu Ali Pasha was victorious in his battle and secured the link between Smederevo and Vidin. The Ottomans lost around 2,000 men, the Habsburgs lost around 4,500 men, this includes the 1,200 captives. Of the 2,000 Serb militia, only 200 managed to retreat back to the main force besieging Belgrade.



Battle of Kragujevac, 1756

During the Siege of Belgrade the Serbian militia with Habsburg Artillery support besieged Belgrade. Although a militia, these were highly trained and motivated men. Mobile and fast. Before Hekimoglu Ali Pasha divided the Ottoman Army in Nis, the plan was to attack at the same time to prevent them to support each other. Hekimoglu was an experienced Pasha and so it was decided he would attack the Habsburg regulars with a smaller force. Sari Mustafa Pasha was to attack the Serb militia in a surprise attack.

Sari Mustafa moved his 50,000 men and 60 artillery piece towards Belgrade. He sent scouts to find out what the situation was. The scout said that the Serbs are still concentrated on the siege, have around 2,000 men in Kragujevac. There is no possibility to reach Belgrade without going unnoticed. It was either by directly confronting the Garrison and thus the risk to alert the besiegers. Or it was letting Belgrade fall. Sari Mustafa ordered all soldiers who are from Kragujevac to give whatever information they know about this town. Sari Mustafa Pasha found nothing useful and decided to bomb the town until they leave. He came with a risky plan to cross the Tatars to the North side of town and during the attack. When the militias flee the Tatars will hunt them down.
The artillery fired in the early morning on the town trying force them to retreat. Surprisingly, the Serbs did not retreat trying to hold out in the town. This made it easier to cross the Tatars. Instead of trying to retreat, the Serbs, hold out. After two days, the Serbs surrendered the town in exchange to retreat. Taking too long, Sari Mustafa allowed it and marched immediately towards Belgrade. When Sari Mustafa arrived in Belgrade, Hekimoglu arrived as well. The Serbs have retreated to Habsburg territory.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

Bosnia Campaign (1756-1757)

Siege of Sarajevo, 1756

The Austrian Army under Ernst von Laudon advanced on Sarajevo with 35,000 men. Having 22,000 infantry; 8,000 cavalry; 5,000 militia and 30 artillery pieces. The objective was simple: Conquer Sarajevo and control the route to Dalmatia. Dalmatia will be surrendered and the Austrians will retreat when the war is over. The Ottoman army isn’t too much valued by Vienna. The main threat is Prussia and the most needed focus needs to be against Prussia. The Russians promised to send 80,000 men to fight the Prussians. The siege started on June 14th 1756 and the defenders are local garrison led by the Kapetan Hadzi Ibrahim Bey. Experiencing a heavier resistance than expected, General von Laudon decided to siege the city. In Sarajevo, even the women of age were armed to defend. General von Laudon, was advised by his Serb officers to let him incite a rebellion among the Orthodox Serbs.

Before plans were made to incite a Serb rebellion in Bosnia, a force of 12,000 Serbs have been sent from Belgrade to assist the Army of von Laudon.

By the 2nd of July, the Ottoman Army under the command of Mehmed V, Mehmed Ragip Pasha, Shezade Mustafa, and Ismail Safavi are only 20 km close to Sarajevo. Hearing about this threat, Von Laudon decided to call the siege and retreat back to Zenica, already occupied by the Habsburgs. Seeing it is impossible to retreat all the way to Banja Luka without being attacked in the back by the Turkish cavalry. Retreating to only Zenica will give enough time as well to organise defences. The Ottomans won’t leave Sarajevo too soon. As far as the defenders are concerned, they are victorious.



Battle of Zenica, 1756

Mehmed V leading the Army motivated the Bosnian defenders so much they decided to join as volunteers. Mehmed wasn’t going to actually lead the battle but coordinate with the Pasha’s from close range. Mehmed remains in the Army camp North of Sarajevo between Zenica and Sarajevo. Mehmed Ragip Pasha, assisted by Ismail Safavi and Shehzade Mustafa. Mehmed Ragip Pasha decided to take the hills around Zenica before the Austrians permanently settle on the hills, bringing the Ottomans in a negative position. Mehmed Pasha made a surprise attack on the hills driving the Militias and regulars back to town. As soon as the hills were taken, he ordered defences were to be formed and half the artillery being positioned there.

Von Laudon, fearing an encirclement, orders a direct attack before the Ottomans form defences. The Serb Militia and Dragoons were used to break the Janissary flanks. The Dragoons were continuing rather successful until the Serb Militias lost their captain and started to rout, forcing the Dragoons to retreat before being caught surrounded. The first attack failed. Von Laudon decided to retreat entirely from Zenica while the Ottomans are busy positioning. This will likely cause heavy casualties but it is either this or complete surrender. In the early morning, the Austrians tried to force breach up north of Zenica. Of the 47,000 men during the major retreat, the Austrians attacked the forces in the North while letting the Militia defend the South against the advancing Janissaries. Von Laudon and the Dragoons forced a breach managed to retreat all the way to Croatia. His attempted retreat cost the Austrians 10,000 men, death or captured. During his retreat from Sarajevo he already sent more than half the artillery back to Banja Luka and then to Croatia. Around 10 artillery remained and all of them being captured by the Ottomans after the battle.


After the failed campaign in the Balkans, the Austrians decided to remain defensive while sending most of the forces to Bohemia. As far as Vienna is concerned, the Ottomans won’t likely start an offensive.

Mehmed V advancing on Sarajevo, 1756

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The Sultan returns to Constantinople, 1756

The summer is almost over and the Sultan returns with the Army. The people rejoice. It has been almost 60 years since the last sultan left for battle. Mehmed V returned as a hero in the eyes of the citizens of the capital. Mehmed, decided to call for his Pasha’s to about the status of the new Sekban Army. Yusuf Aga, an assistant of Hasan Pasha told the Sultan about the situation. The Prussian officers in Amasya recruited 12,000 new forces. They are partly trained, not ready yet for battle. They will be used by Mustafa Pasha of Tbilisi in his Tabriz campaign. The Prussian officers will look what the status of the Sekban is and will look for further trainings if necessary. Just as Mehmed arrived, he is pleased to hear that he has twin sons. The people are getting more and more certain that Mehmed V is a blessed man. His named his sons Murad and Ibrahim and celebrates the victory in the capital. The plans for next year are planned as well. But for the next campaign, the Pasha’s will lead and Mehmed V wants to go to Tabriz. He has his reasons, not really likely to tell the people. Mehmed wants to inspect his new Army in the upcoming Azerbaijan campaign to subdue the remaining Khanates.


Hekimoglu Ali Pasha, a living legend of the Ottomans, 1757

Hekimoglu Ali Pasha has served as Grand Vizier for three times. He fought on different fronts in different times. He governed several provinces during war and peace time. Although Ali Pasha became older and more tired, he refused to retire. Earning the respect of most Pasha’s and sultans whom he served as well as enemy commanders. Beloved by the people where he served as a governor. For this magnificent Pasha would be the last time to go on a campaign. Ali Pasha was going for his last campaign in his life. He would go for the last time to enemy lands. A first time since 1716, to attack the Hungarian lands. In his campaign he would be accompanied by Mehmed Ragip Pasha, Seyyid Abdullah Pasha, Sari Mustafa Pasha, Grand Vizier Bahir Mustafa Pasha, Ismail Safavi and Sehzade Mustafa. The Army of 100,000 men strong was preparing for the offensive. This time the targets were Temesvar or Petrovaradin. In order to prevent an attack on either Wallachia or Belgrade Pashaluk. Attacking into the core lands of Hungary might spark a rebellion by Hungarian nobles.

Regardless. Ali Pasha knew that this was his last campaign. After this campaign, he would return to Egypt and govern it until the Sultan gives the next order.



Horror in Uskudar, 1757

It happened. Without realising how or what, it happened. The Sultan is dead. Someone has killed the Sultan yet nobody knows who. Only recently, the Janissary Corps have found out that Mehmed V (1755-1757) has not kept his promise and built a second Army to replace them. Little did the Janissaries know Mehmed was the only and would be the last to believe in the Janissary Corps Survival. But know… The man is gone. His bodyguards killed with several cuts on them, from swords. The Sultan as well. What nobody dared has happened. Even Mehmed is killed by a sword. The Grand Vizier Bahri Mustafa Pasha is in shock. He ordered Sehzade Mustafa to come immediately to Uskudar. The Death is being kept secret from the Public. If the people found out, there is going to be a riot and it will target the Janissaries. And if the Sipahis found out, the riot will turn into civil war in the capital. Nobody knows what to do. Sehzade Mustafa orders the Pasha’s who know about the Sultans death to tell about it but not about how he died. Nobody knows by whom, although it isn’t that hard to guess. But the new sultan is certain. It were members of the Janissary Corps. All he can do now is avenge his brothers death. Avenge it. It was almost 150 years ago they did this to Osman II. But even then they strangled him rather than spilling his blood, something that should not happen. And with this, there are dark days to come. It is the rule of Mustafa III (1757-...).

Mustafa III, sultan of the Empire



Istanbul riot, 1757

The death of Mehmed V was not taken lightly. When the Sipahis heard about it they immediately accused the Pasha’s of lying and protecting the Janissaries. The tensions rise in the capital but there was no real fighting yet. Until some Sipahis went to Sari Mustafa Pasha’s home. He was the old Janissary Corps Captain and would definitely know who would kill the Sultan. The Pasha did not know and the Sipahis left. When they heard some Janissaries talking how Mehmed V deserved it they took their swords and attacked the two Janissaries, lynching them and getting answers from. They only heard one name, Alemdar Musa aga, an officer within the artillery corps of the Janissaries. When they got to him they got their awaited answers, killed him and immediately went to the coffeeshops as they expected them to be there and they were. Killing them immediately and beheading them, telling the people that Mehmed V was avenged. At the same time the news of the death of the earlier 3 Janissaries came to the Corps, Immediately arming themselves and attacking the Sipahis. In only two hours after the event there was a large riot between the supporters of the Sipahis and Janissaries in the city. The houses were burned, people were killed and merchants robbed. As soon as the Grand Vizier Bahri Mustafa Pasha heard this he ordered the Navy to bomb the masses and drive them away. The Marines were sent to restore order and force them back to their barracks. By the height of the riot, 6,000 Janissaries and 10,000 Sipahis were fighting. The Marines entered the conflict zone and were ordered to kill all who did not heed their surrender. By nightfall, the riot was over and the Marines had restored order. Mustafa III was unhappy about the lack of control over the capital and replaced Bahri Mustafa Pasha with Mehmed Ragip Pasha. Bahri Mustafa Pasha was appointed as the commander of the Army in Belgrade. The riot costed more than 7,000 deaths and about 1,600,000 akce worth of destruction in the city. Mustafa III reign already started with chaos. In order to punish those who could not control the order he sent the Janissary Corps officer to Athens and the Highest Sipahi officer to Trabzon.



Mustafa III heads for a second campaign (1757-1758)

As soon as the riot ended, Mustafa prepared for a second campaign in order to divert attention of the public. Mustafa was to say, least happy and did not want to remain in Istanbul for the time being. He ordered his younger brother Sehzade Abdul Hamid to join him and left for Vidin. Mustafa would remain with his brother in Smederevo while Mehmed Ragip Pasha, Bahri Mustafa Pasha and Hekimoglu Ali Pasha would lead the forces.

By the time they arrived in Smederevo, Mustafa had heard the plans of his Pasha’s en let his Pasha’s march out. Being alone, he talked through with his younger brother Abdul hamid. At this point he realised about his brothers loyalty and worth of having more freedom in the palace. He could, to say at least, trust him. In case Mustafa dies anytime soon, Abdul Hamid should know about how to rule a country. Mustafa had in his two years time learned a thing or two. Not enough, but it helps him. Abdul Hamid should not experience the difficulties his brothers experienced.



Second Phase: Hungary campaign (1757-1759)
Siege of Zemun (1757): Ottoman tactical victory, Austrian Retreat

With About 100 ships of the Danube fleet, Mehmed Ragip Pasha leads the Army to besiege Zemun and then advance on Petrovaradin. If successful, the Ottoman Army can use Petrovaradin as a base to raid Southern Hungary. Mehmed uses the ships to bombard Zemun as well as the field artillery. Before the Siege started he ask the Austrians to surrender but to no avail. The siege started on April 16th. With no reinforcements near, the Austrian garrison has to hold out until October when winter starts. The Habsburg garrison consist mostly Croats and Hungarians. Their will to defend against the Ottomans is higher and more efficiently. The German soldiers are mostly used in the North against the Prussians who are by now, in Prague. After weeks of bombardements, Mehmed offers a new surrender to the garrison and safe passage to Osijek. And again refused. Being bombarded from 3 sides, the garrison has no easy task. After 96 days, the garrison surrenders with half of the 800 men defending died during the siege. Mehmed Pasha is delayed in his campaign to conquer Petrovaradin. Only divine help can finish this campaign with success in conquering the town. And with a bit of luck, a campaign in Hungary can start next year.


Surrender of Petrovaradin (1757)

And the divine help came for Mehmed Pasha. The commander of Petrovaradin surrendered the town after receiving no help. Mehmed Pasha’s bluff helped after all. But by the time the Ottoman Army has taken Petrovaradin it was almost September. It was time to return to Istanbul and prepare for the third campaign in the Banat of Temesvar. The Ottoman Pasha’s are slowly getting more hope. Will there be a chance to regain Hungary? Hekimoglu Ali Pasha and Mehmed Ragip Pasha already know that any gains in Hungary is only for a short time to keep. If the Habsburgs take the initiative, it will have bloody consequences. A garrison of Ottoman troops are left in in the two fortresses. Mehmed Pasha had in mind to take Osijek as well but there is no time and the gains made already is enough. Belgrade Pashaluk is safeguarded for now. And the campaign next year will determine what the result of the war will be.



Reaction in Vienna

The Austrians, although not surprised about the difficulty in the Western Balkan Campaign, were shocked about the Ottoman conquest of Zemun and Petrovaradin. The shock became bigger and scarier with Frederick of Prussia’s success in Bohemia and the unhappiness among the Hungary nobles. There were even rumours that the nobles would look for descendants of Rakoczy to have as future King of Hungary, incase the Habsburgs completely collapse the remainder of Hungary should be preserved. Regardless, these rumours who were partly real had impact on Vienna. Empress Maria Theresa took a loan from bankers in Vienna, Italy and the HRE to create a new Army, consisting of Hungarians, Croats and Transylvanian Saxons. An Army focussed on the Ottoman front. It will be an addition to the existing 25,000 men already in Szeged. There will be another recruitment of 40,000 men. Vienna heard from their spies in Istanbul about the third campaign, being in the Banat of Temesvar. And this will be the place where the Ottoman Army will be caught. If the Ottoman Army is destructed, there initiative can be taken again.

Imperial recruits for the Banat campaign, 1758


Defend against the Turk, fellow Christian!

In 1757 the empress of Austria, Maria Theresa, sent a letter to all nobles in the Kingdom of Hungary for the recruitment of new soldiers. In the letter, she writes that the Turks will not be kind when they occupy Hungary and it will await them. With a false information, that the Turks planned to occupy Transylvania and Buda, she created fear among the Hungarian nobles and offered the money she acquired. The nobles, feeling hopeless about the Turkish threat, asked the Clergy in all of Hungary to call for the believers. The believers should join the Army and defend their families, land and their values against the Turks. If they don’t, the Turks will not care for their request of mercy. And these calls were answered. There were 60,000 volunteers to join for the defence of Hungary against the Turks. Like the volunteers the churches are motivated as well. During the proclamation of the empress, the Churches have rang bells for the day and eventually when the recruits left for war. This was the last time of the Turkish noon bells of war even to be heard again (1761).

The Imperial Army, the Banat campaign, 1759

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

Economical and land issues in the Ottoman state

During the reign of Mustafa II (1695-1703), a new form of taxing was introduced. The taxing was suppose to get more revenues to the long lasting war in Hungary. But reality showed otherwise. Next to being unpopular it was also not efficient. The people were taxed for a longer time of period time to get as much as possible. The people could most likely not pay for it or had to sell their belongings to pay it. The problem was worse as most of the money did not go to the central government. Only a fraction of the supposed massive income arrived in the treasure. The local Pasha’s, Janissaries, Sipahis kept most of the money amassing wealth with corruption, which was some of the times also supported by Pasha’s in the capital in exchange for that wealth. Mehmed V (1755-1757) was already pointed about the inefficiency of the taxing system by the Grand Vizier Bahri Mustafa Pasha. Unfortunately, Mehmed V died too early. The Grand Vizier pointed out the inefficiency about the taxing system with Mustafa III as well. Mustafa, although interested, did not want to start implementing new reforms during wartime.

A different matter was the pleads of peasants in the Balkans about abuses in the lands of Ayans. Since the end of the 17th century, the powerful military figures enforced more demands on the sultan by taking the land and having the option for their sons to inherit these lands. Losing a lot of revenue and getting in return a more angered peasant population. Unlike the tax system Mustafa isn’t ready to challenge the powerful landlords yet.



The Europeans at war, 1756-1763

The Europeans were at war again since the the end of the Austrian war of Succession. One could say that the European powers had only a truce for 8 years until the war was recontinued. But this was different. The alliances have changed. The French decided to go for an alliance with Austria and Russia, while the British chose the Prussians. The reasons were simple. The Austrians wanted Silesia back from the Prussians. Feeling that the British could not offer them what they desired and the French as a continental power could. It went even far enough that the Habsburgs offered the Southern Netherlands fort the French in exchange of successfully reconquering Silesia. Not only were the British alarmed by a largening French existence near the French coast, the guarantee of family holdings in the Holy Roman Empire of George II was in danger. With Prussia feeling isolated as well, the British offer was welcomed by Berlin. At last, there was also the Dutch feeling the threat of the French victory in this war. Willem IV, the stadtholder, was least to say concerned about the alliance and reconsidered Dutch neutrality in a war. But they did demand additional financial support from Britain as well as support of 10,000 men. Europe was on the brink of war by 1755. The French were believers in a total victory over the the British and their allies. For Britain, it wouldn’t be enough on the continent. The sudden Austro-Turkish War of 1755 turned things around in favor of the Prussians and British. With the Prussian intervention in Saxony, Austria was caught between two fires and although a defensive treaty was made with Russia in 1746 against Prussia or the Ottoman Empire, Russia did not intervene due to the war being started by Austria. The British hoped that the Swedish would remain at least neutral off the war against the British allies. But after the chaos after the death of Mehmed V in 1757, the Russians reconsidered their neutrality and intervened on behalf of Austria against the Ottoman Empire in 1758. When the Russians send a bulk of their forces to the Crimea and the Danube, the Swedish, supported financially and promised the Livonia and Estonia, decided to go for British alliance and declared war on Russia. The European war was not only a war around the globe, it had any European power with some sort of a power projection.



Seven Years War (1756-1763) alliances

British Alliance:

• Great Britain
  
• Prussia
  
• Dutch Republic
  
• Ottoman Empire
  
• Portugal
  
• Hannover
  
• Brunswick
  
• Hesse-Kassel
  
• Lippe
  
• Iroquois Confederacy
  

French Alliance:

• France
  
• Austria
  
• Russia
  
• Spain
  
• Saxony
  
• Bavaria
  
• Mughal Empire
  
• Abenaki Confederacy
  

There were some interesting notes about the war. While the Ottomans were at war with Austria and Russia, they declared no hostility against France and considered the war its own war. The same could be applied to Sweden who only fought against Russia. Both nations continued trading with France without much problem. The Dutch did not fight the pro-French Indian factions whom were valuable trade partners of the Dutch. But this would be enough for the British and the French as long as it didn’t harm them directly.


Crossover interventions, 1758-1761

The Russian empress did not intervene, declaring that the war against the Ottomans was not an Ottoman declared war but rather from Vienna. In reality, Russia wanted to know what the situation of the Empire was during its war with Austria. At first, it looked like there would not be a war with the Porte. But the sudden death of Mehmed V changed everything. The chaos after the assassination of Mehmed V was followed by an ultimatum of Russia:

• End all hostilities with Austria
  
• Return Dalmatia to Austria
  
• Return the Ionian Islands to Russia
  
• Allow Russia to occupy the Danube principalities and the Crimea, the Austrians to occupy Bosnia and Smederevo eyalets for 40 years to enforce the treaty
  
• The Crimean Tatars abandon all their territory north of the peninsula and allow the Russians to build a fortification to prevent them to go North
  
• The Ottomans restore the Kingdom of Kakheti in their eyalet of Tiflis in favor of King Heraclius II of Kakheti
  
• The Ottomans abandon their conquests in Azerbaijan and return to their 1746 border
  
• The Ottomans do not protect the prince of Abkhazia
  
• The Ottomans pay 4,000,000 akce to Russia
  
• The Ottomans reduce their fleets to 10 ship of the lines and at least 10 more smaller ships
  
• The Ottomans do not intervene in Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth and recognise Russia’s influence
  
• The Ottomans agree that Russia is the protector of all Orthodox Christians and can intervene on their behalf.
  
• The Ottomans agree Orthodox authority over the Church of Christ in Jerusalem
  
• The Ottomans do not intervene on Behalf of the Muslims in the Russian Empire
  

When the Russian embassy sendt their demands to the Grand Vizier he refused to negotiate a better deal. He gave the ambassador a time to rethink his demands, only to use this time to tell Mustafa III about the threat of war with Russia. Mustafa realising the threat, still refuses to negotiate and said what he expects when he refuses this. The Russian envoy left Constantinople and returned to St Petersburg with the Ottoman answer. Empress Elizabeth, confident of a victory in war, ordered forces to be sent down to the Ottoman and Crimean border. The Swedish intelligence in St. Petersburg, hearing about the Russians sending more forces South, felt confident about declaring war against Russia, a last hope to regain the Baltic provinces and be the sole power in the Baltic Sea. The Swedish King asked the British embassy that they agree to British financial support in the war. The condition was that Sweden would only fight Russia and not France. The British half heartedly agreed. The Swedish began to mobilise while the Russians were already on their way south.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

When the war expands, 1758

After the death of Mehmed V, the Ottoman state experienced a short time of chaos. But that short amount of time was enough reason for empress Elisabeth of Russia to go for war. The Russians could spare around 60,000 men to fight the Ottomans in the Ukraine. For the Ottomans, this was a burden. After the Austrian front was as good as empty, the Ottomans prepared to fight the Russians. Mehmed Ragip Pasha, Sari Mustafa Pasha and Bahri Mustafa Pasha left with an Army of 100,000 men to Moldova where the Russians would be expected. According to the Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha, the Russians would try to take key towns along the Dniester river and cut down the Ottoman access to the Crimea. The Russians were in Kiev and divided their troops to 35,000 men to invade the Crimea and 25,000 to hold the Ottoman Army near Tirighina.

While the Ottomans were preparing to drive the Russians back to the Ukraine, the Dey of Algiers had mustered an Army of 60,000 men to attack the Spanish possession of Oran. The Dey, the powerful lord of Algiers, Kabyle and Tlemcen, acts almost independently from the Sultan. Seen as an opportunity to drive the Spanish out who only recently joined the war on the French side. Since then, the Royal Navy is active in the Eastern Mediterranean making Spanish help for Oran nearly impossible. The Dey, allied with the King of Morocco, Mohammed III, offered to help the King to reconquer the Spanish possessions as soon as he can drive the Spanish out of the Oran enclave. King Mohammed, enthousiast of these plans, offered 20,000 cavalry to support the Dey in his conquest of Oran. The Dey, officially having around 8,000 Maghreb Janissaries and 15,000 cavalry of his own go support of 10,000 mercenaries Tunis and Mali and another 7,000 were Berber tribes who offered to support him. In addition, he had 40 artillery pieces ready to bomb Oran. Before the plans of a siege even were made, the Spanish garrison of Oran was about 2,000 men and 4 Galleons in the harbour. When war broke out with the British Empire, 1,500 of those garrison men were taken to Cadiz due to the threat of raiding by the Royal Navy. The Galleons were sent to support the Spanish navy to reconquer Menorca from the British. The island was already a base of Royal Navy activity in the Western Mediterranean, and thus a knife in the back of Spain. Regardless, the situation around Oran did not go unnoticed by the Dey of Algiers. As soon as the larger Spanish force left he raised his troops. The Spanish, alarmed by the sudden increase of forces by the Dey, tried to call for support but they were ordered to wait out the result of Menorca. With 60,000 men, the Dey could overrun Oran in the same day. His plan to hold it was to put the allied Berber tribes around there to let them defend the area of Oran and Mers El Kebir.

The plan of the Dey did not go unnoticed by king Mohammed III as well, preparing his own plan to reconquer Mazagao (El Jadida) from the Portuguese while afterwards, his forces would besiege Ceuta and Melilla at the same time. Mohammed III, an ambition man he was, wanted to clear the Moroccan coast of European powers and establish Morocco as a regional power the Europeans should not take lightly of. Earlier, King Abdallah IV, tried to get the attention of various European powers with little success. The French were not interested, also due to Spanish pressure not to. The British were willing to help to give the Moroccan state artillery and latest muskets but nominal help was not happening due to constant wars the British had to fight. At last, King Abdallah sent envoys to Sultan Mahmud I to help him. Mahmud, interested to expand influence to the Atlantic had at the time, his hands full with the Persians of Nader Shah. He promised to help when the Persian war was over. But as a beginner, he sent a hand full of Janissary aga’s to Morocco, to help the Moroccans to build their own muskets and artillery. Manufactories were built in small scale, but any attempt of larger Army reform was thwarted due to succession crisis in Morocco with pretenders trying to take the throne. Abdallah IV, never succeeded to reform the Army. But his attempt for it was taken over by his son and he as well tried to get the Sultan to help Morocco. At the time, he sent an envoy to Mehmed V, but he died and the envoy returned without even talking to the new sultan due to the chaos of the time. Regardless, Mohammed sent a new envoy to the new sultan which would later be more successful.


The Russian advance, 1758

The Russians had moved along the river Dnieper, south to the Crimea. There was eventual success, taking over the capital Bakhchisaray. But due to minimal logistical support, the Russians were forced to retreat. The Russian Army retreated to a village on the coast of the Sea of Azov, in order to get supplies from Azov. The Ottoman Naval Vizier presented the Sultan a plan to conquer Azov fortress, making Russian activity in the eastern part of the Crimean Khanate rather impossible. The Russian Army was however not so easy to mislead like the desperate Austrians in a two front war. They wouldn’t easily be harassed by the Ottomans. In order to break their morale, the fleet needs to take Azov fortress. The Crimean Khan raised around 50,000 men to harass the Russians while the Ottomans send a second army to take Azov fortress. The Navy, around 10 ship of the line, 5 frigates, 13 smaller ships moved out to Azov while an army of 20,000 men was transported. During the Azov campaign, the Circassians and Abkhazians aid the Ottoman Army. The campaign was led by no other than Hasan Pasha, a rather famous Naval commander among the Ottoman Military. In his campaign he is supported by Ahmed Pasha.

The recently built Russian Black Sea Fleet was caught unprepared the battle of Taganrog, 1759


A second attempt was made by a smaller force of the Russian Army, 25,000 men. The Army was sent over to conquer Tirighina and defend it until the Russian Army in the Crimea finished off the Tatar Army. In the early day of August, the Russians attempt to halt the Ottomans and with success. The Army of Mehmed Ragip Pasha was unable to drive the Russians out of town and surrounded the town and bombed it for days, weeks, months. Unable to beat the Russians, he returned to Varna to wait out winter. Although there were minimal casualties on both sides, the Russians repelled the first attack on their position, gaining their first victory in the war. During the winter campaign, the Russians went out for Iasi, abandoned by the Prince of Moldova unable to defend it and joined the forces of Mehmed Pasha in Bulgaria. In the winter, the Russians quickly moved to conquer Iasi and then Chotyn, placing a garrison there while the main army left for Galati. The Russians hoped to conquer Izmail as well, controlling entire Moldova. But by then, winter was over and the Russians decided to wait out in Galati and scout for Ottoman Military movements. Hearing about the cross of the Ottoman Army under Sari Mustafa Pasha near Izmail, the Russians rushed to catch it before it crossed over the Danube. Sari Mustafa Pasha was cross the Danube while the Army of Mehmed Pasha was crossing from Sillistre. Caught while crossing, the Russians bombed the crossing Army under Sari Mustafa Pasha. The ambushed Army was almost entirely crossed but the casualties were heavy. Of the 40,000 men, the Pasha lost 4,000 men and 10 artillery pieces in the ambush while the Russians lost 238 men. Sari Mustafa Pasha was unable to move forward and catch the Russians. The Russians won their second (tactical) victory. Mehmed Pasha was joined by the armies of Wallachia and Moldova. Mehmed Pasha had 80,000 men and made forward to Galati.


The news of Sari Mustafa Pasha’s loss of soldiers was not well perceived by the Grand Vizier. Mehmed Pasha relieved him of duty and replaced him with Ahmed Pasha. Sari Mustafa Pasha was ordered to defend Petrovaradin from possible Austrian attacks. Mehmed Pasha let Bahri Mustafa Pasha command the Army of the dismissed Sari Mustafa Pasha. In April 1759, the Ottomans surrounded the Russians in Tirighina. Unable to retreat, they were waiting out for help, never to come as the Russians sent the reserves up to the Swedish border due to war broken out. When by July, no help came, the Army attempted to break out from town. Unable to breach the Army of Ahmed Pasha the Russians routed and the Ottomans finally gained Tirighina back. The Russian garrisons around Moldova, retreated with what was left of the routed Army. Of the 25,000 men, 13,000 survived and retreated back to Kiev awaiting orders for further plans. When the Russians in the Eastern Crimean Khanate heard about the loss in Moldova they retreated as well, back to Kiev and join forces in order to start a new attack. Mehmed Pasha reached Ozi fortress and heard about the surrender of Azov by the Russians. It was almost September and Mehmed Pasha retreated back to Constantinople.


The ending of the Austrian campaign 1758-1759

The Grand Vizier and the Sultan made their plans to finish the Austrian war for once and for all. The sudden Russian declaration of war resulted in the diversion of attention of the Ottoman Army. Although the Russians were caught between three fronts (Eastern Germany, Ukraine and Baltic Sea) they had enough troops to fight their enemies. The fact that the Russians could sent more than 40,000 men to the Crimea while fighting numerous enemies raised fear among the Ottoman government officials. The Sultan decided to lead his army by himself in his Banat Campaign. His campaign was to conquer Sebes, Resadiye, Temesvar and Arad and waiting out for winter in Belgrade. The Sultan had 100,000 men under his command. By August 1758, the Sultan conquered Sebes and Resadiye already while preparing to advance on Temesvar and finish the campaign in October. Two months the time to finish the campaign with the conquest of those 4 towns.

The recently created Habsburg Army had not let the Ottoman Army movement seen unnoticed. As soon as the Army realised that the Sultan himself was on the road for Temes, they decided to find the Army. The Army was not what empress Maria Theresa imagined. it lacked more artillery that it needed to support campaigns to start the offensive. The soldiers were not trained or disciplined like the main army. but it was enough to defend. The Army of Hungary, as it was called, advanced towards Temesvar. By nightfall, they arrived. The Sultan had recently taken Temesvar and had the Army camped outside the town. Seeing this as an opportunity, the Hungarian Hussars and Uhlan cavalry charged on the camp. Although it was supposed to be an ambush, the Ottoman Artillery realised movement and fired artillery although it was strictly forbidden by the Sultan. Doing this, it might have saved the Sultans life himself. The ambush had some effect. During the attempt, the Ottomans lost 6,000 men while the Habsburgs lost 1,600 men. As morning arrived, Mustafa realised that the Habsburg Army was near and was not secure until he finally defeated the Army. A plan to invade Transylvania after succeeding in the Banat was gone by now as Sultan Mustafa decided to destroy the Austrian Army in order to enforce a victory. The Sultan left the Banat by late October 1758 for Istanbul.


Either all or nothing, 1759

Sultan Mustafa’s gains were lost when he retreated from the Banat. He decided to leave early, in March for his campaign and finish in November. Mustafa left for the Banat again with his force. By late May, he arrived in Temes, taken over all towns planned last year except for Arad. When he finally took Arad in June he sent a Tatar force to raid and burn undefended Transylvanian towns. Mustafa stayed until the end of July in Klausenburg when he retreated with his Army from Transylvania to Petrovaradin to take over Osijek. When Mustafa reached with his Army Osijek, he laid siege to Osijek. The Army of Hungary hearing about the siege attempted to lift the siege. A captive from the Habsburg Army told the Ottomans about an advancing Habsburg Army. When the Tatar scouts of the Ottoman Army told the Sultan about an approaching Habsburg Army the Sultan prepared to counter it. Mustafa left Sari Mustafa Pasha, the commander of Petrovaradin to continue the siege while he himself decided to caught the Habsburg Army. Knowing about the lack of the Army, he caught the Army between Pecs and Osijek. In Mohacs, a battle was fought between the Sultan and the Croat lord of Sisak. The Ottoman artillery bombed the marching Habsburg forces. The Ottoman Army was 50,000 men strong, in the centre of the Ottoman Army were the Janissaries, On the right wing, the Ottomans placed the Sipahis while on the left flank the Circassian Cavalry were to hold. The artillery was placed in the centre behind the Janissaries. The Habsburg forces attempted to break the Circassian Cavalry. When there seemed to look success, the Sultan sent Tatar reserves to support the Circassians, preventing its retreat. The Sipahis managed to break the Habsburg left flank while the Habsburgs attempted to support it with Uhlan cavalry. The Sipahis were in much trouble and close to break when the last reserves, the Albanian militia supported it. After hours of intense fight, the Janissaries managed to break the centre, crumbling it and in return caught the Habsburg flanks separated and surrounded by the Ottoman forces. The Uhlan cavalry was broken and the remainder surrendered while the right flank retreated being exhausted. The Habsburg Army, 65,000 men lost around 25,000 men while another 12,000 surrendered and all of the 20 artillery pieces were captured. About half of the deaths were soldiers attempting to flee by crossing the Danube. The Ottoman Army lost around 9,000 men during the battle. Sultan Mustafa, fearing a larger Habsburg Army being already in Vienna decided to retreat and not continue the siege. Mustafa left for Constantinople. After the loss in Mohacs in 1759, it was enough for the Habsburgs. The fighting did lead to nothing nor gaining Dalmatia as planned. Empress Maria Theresa sent envoys to the Ottomans in Novi Pazar.


Peace between the two empires

Mustafa deciding to wait out winter in Belgrade made fears greater in Vienna. The bulk of the Austrian Armies were fighting in Saxony, Silesia and Brandenburg. Although the Austrians gained the initiative, the Habsburgs feared that the Ottomans prepared a campaign for Buda. Considering peace came after Mustafa’s Army burned down half the towns in Transylvania angering more Hungarian nobles. After the crushing defeat in Mohacs, the Austrians were ready to talk with the Sultan. Mustafa III, although positive, was not happy with the results. The Army casualties were high, defeat was close. Letting the Habsburg think he prepared an invasion of Hungary with 200,000 men was a Gods gift. Mustafa was now stronger to negotiate. He ordered the Grand Vizier back to Novi Pazar to talk with the envoys. Mehmed Ragip Pasha demanded as followed:

• Accepting Ottoman rule in Dalmatia
  

• Surrender of Gracac to the Ottomans
  
• Pay war reparations of 3,000,000 Thaller in 10 years
  
• Remove the Military frontier zone on the Ottoman border
  
• Demilitarized towns of Zemun, Petrovaradin and Osijek and Banat region
  
• No longer accepting Serbs as refugees in the entire domain of the Habsburgs
  
• No interference in the Danube principalities
  

The Austrians made a counter offer:

• Surrender Gracac to the Ottomans in exchange for Starigrad and Jasenice in Dalmatia
  
• Pay 800,000 Thaller as war reparations in 8 years.
  
• Remove military zone only on the border of the Belgrade Pashaluk
  
• Demilitarise Zemun
  
• No longer accepting Serbian refugees
  
• No longer interference in Moldova
  

When Mehmed Pasha threatened to invade Croatia if the Habsburgs did not accept his offer the Habsburg envoy made another counter offer which was seemed acceptable:

• Gracac becomes Ottoman territory, Vis island becomes Habsburg
  
• The Habsburgs pay 2,000,000 Thaller in 10 years
  
• The military frontier zone on the border of the Belgrade Pashaluk
  
• Serbian refugees will no longer be accepted in Habsburg domains
  
• No interference in the Danubian principalities
  

With the treaty being accepted, there was a little change in territorial gains, with the Ottomans gaining Gracac in Dalmatia while the Habsburgs officially gained Vis island near Dalmatia which was unoccupied by the Ottomans and ruled by renegade Croatian and Italian pirates during the era without law and order. For the Habsburgs, the islands could be a possible naval base in the future. The Ottomans used the money to pay their armies and focussed fully on the front with Russia.


Siege of Kamieniec, 1760

When the treaty of Novi Pazar was signed between the Ottoman and Habsburg government, there was peace between Austria and the Ottoman Empire with the Austrians attempting to break Prussian resistance in Saxony. The Russians were also active in Eastern Germany, notably in Eastern Pomerania. In order to draw Russian attention and to protect the Northern border of Moldova, Ahmed Pasha and Bahri Mustafa Pasha advanced to Kamieniec. The town in Podolia was a part of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth. But the Russians were de facto rulers of the town due to Russian Military activity around the town.
Bahri Mustafa Pasha ordered to siege the town. with 40,000 men Kamieniec was under siege from May to August. In August, a Russian Army of 47,000 men from Kiev arrived. The Russians successfully drove the Army of Bahri Mustafa Pasha away. Ahmed Pasha returned to Iasi being too ill to participate in the battle. Bahri Mustafa did not want to encounter the Russians as it was impossible to drive them back and retreated back to Chotyn. The Russians saved Kamieniec from the Turks but in return firmly controlled the town more from the Commonwealth government, something king Stanislaw hated.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The Russian Civil War, what really happened, (1761-1766)

Before the Russian Empire ended in a civil war, the state was focussed on war with Prussia, the Ottoman Empire and Sweden. As far as the Russian military was concerned, the Russians did not lose. And the desire to retreat from war was minimal. Empress Elisabeth of Russia was focussed on eliminating Frederick II of Prussia, together with Maria Theresa of Austria and the French. The war later expanded with the Russians intervening against the Ottomans. What the Russians were expecting but no so soon was the Swedish intervention against the Russians, with the Russians caught on three fronts. The Empress of Russia, Elisabeth was confident on defeating all of their three enemies. And this was what gave Austria confidence to continue against their struggle with the Prussians. But the sudden stroke of Empress Elisabeth in 1760 and her death a few months afterwards in 1761, made things more complicated. Peter III ascended the throne. Peter, a Pro-Prussian Czar, ended the war with Prussia and sent his Army in Brandenburg against the Danes in order to reconquer Holstein. During the preparation of war against Denmark, Peter III had trouble with his wife. According to court members, he hated his wife. This became worse when he attempted to send her to a monastery. Failing, some say Peter III poisoned all of Catherine’s clothes, her drinking water and even her bed. As Catherine died in 1761, the raised anger among her supporters in court. To some, it was even worse that they attempted and succeeded in releasing Ivan VI from his captivity. Ivan, although mentally unstable, was merely a puppet. The conflict about Catherines faith changed to outright Civil War when Peter fled Saint Petersburg to Poland to meet with his Army from Holstein. Ivan was put on the throne and Peter III was no longer recognised. This, however was not well received by Peters supporter immediately rebelling against Ivans supporters. Peter III ordered his Army back from Holstein decided to fight for his throne. Immediately afterwards, Peter III made peace with the Ottomans and Swedish and ordered all armies back to Smolensk where they would organise a counter attack.


Peter III was not loved by most court members or military figures. His attempt to get rid of his wife Catherine made his position unstable. Fearing to be deposed, it was said that he poisoned Catherine. This would make sense considering his attempts to get rid of her. But this was not taken lightly and was justified by his opposition to support the mentally unstable Ivan VI. The existence of another ‘czar’ made it more desirable to oppose Peter III.


Treaty of Galati (1762)

With the peace of Galati, the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire ended all hostilities with each other. Peter III envoy offered the Porte enough to end all hostilities. Peter III was not in a position to continue this war nor were the Ottomans motivated to risky adventures in the Ukraine. According to Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha, peace was the best solution for both parties. The peace terms were:

• Azov fortress and Azov town are Ottoman territory
  
• Russia will pay 400,000 rubles over 10 years
  
• The Ottoman Sultan will guarantee that the Crimean Tatars do not raid the Russian lands
  
• Freedom of navigation on the rivers from Russia to the Black Sea for Russian merchants sailing under a Russian flag
  
• The Ottoman Sultan and the Crimean Khan do not have to send Cossack refugees to Peter III but are required to hold them under control within their own border
  
• The Ottomans do not intervene in Russian affairs other than pointed out in the treaty
  
• The Russian government will guarantee freedom of religion to all Muslims in the Russian empire
  
• Russia will not intervene in affairs of the Danube Principalities
  
• The Ottoman Sultan is the sole protector of all Muslims in Russia
  
• The Ottoman Sultan promises to protect all Eastern Orthodox Christians within the empire from all that threatens their life and property
  
• The Russians are allowed to settle permanent ambassadors in Constantinople and they will not be harmed
  
• The Ottomans are allowed to settle permanent ambassadors in St. Petersburg and they will not be harmed

• The Russians will not allow Heraclius II and other Georgian nobles to go outside St. Petersburg
  

As far as Peter was concerned, he secured the Southern border of the Empire and can now concentrate on the rebellious nobles supporting Ivan VI. He wasn’t enthousiast in giving up his access to the Black Sea but it was necessary. Peter III has to think about his future as Czar first.Mehmed Pasha had once again secured peace with the rivals of the state. In the eyes of Sultan Mustafa III, he had secured a long during peace for the state. Mustafa had now the time to put things together and start some needy reforms. The enemies are defeated.


The second Tulip era (1757-1814)

Mustafa III was a Sultan known for one of surprising habit. He loved to plant flowers and especially one of his favorite: the tulip. Because of this, he was referred as the Tulip Sultan by foreign ambassadors. But it wasn’t because of this why the second Tulip era was named for the period of 1757-1814. Especially because Mustafa III was dead for a long time by 1814. The name originated from the regrowing interest in Tulips by the high ranking elites in Constantinople. Like the first era under Ahmed III and his Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha, the elite was the backbone of the reforms within the empire. And this time it was under the son of Ahmed III, Mustafa and his Grand Viziers. The reform era was not taken lightly by the Janissaries. Although the Janissaries did not openly act against it, they made sure their opinion was heard of.

The second Tulip era was marked with renewed interest in the West and their innovations, Military and Naval doctrines. It was also the era with the attempt to advance on the medical part. Mustafa III encountered a serious problem during his stay in Sofia. He had heard and seen many funerals for recently born children. Most of them died due to lack of obstetricians. It already bothered him but things became more of a problem in the villages he passed. In his notitions, he wrote about how he felt about what the people endured in the smaller towns and villages without care for recent born children. Something his ambassadors told but got mostly ignored was about how the population of in West was growing, especially in France while some parts of Anatolia and Western Balkans were almost depopulated. Sultan Mustafa ordered that more women have to be trained and sent to various parts of the empire. Ideally were wives of the soldiers wherever they would be stationed. The Sultan offered to fund it and ordered the existing obstetrician to train women.

The Most important of all were the Naval and Land forces to be reorganised to European style. The Navy was already experienced some reformation by Dutch Naval officers. But the time was short and not enough. Mustafa III feared that in case a bigger Naval power attacks the Ottomans, the Navy won’t survive the attack. An already planned Naval school to train officers was finished in 1757 during the first months of Mustafa’s reign.

Bahriye Nezareti (Naval School and the seat of the Vizier of the Navy), finished in 1757


The Armed forces were already existing during Mustafa III reign. But it was merely 4 brigades (12,000) and all of them were stationed in Eastern Anatolia or the Caucasus. Mustafa ideally wanted to raise the Armed forces from 4 brigades to 10 brigades. The forces would be recruited from young Turkmen, Circassian and Egyptian Peasants as a beginner. The force, independent from the Janissary Corps would also integrate some of the younger Janissaries from time to time. Not only would it replace the Janissary Corps and the Sipahis as the main Army, it would also be a counter weight for the former. The Janissary Corps had risen to 100,000 men by 1756 and the bigger their number the bigger their threat. The first recruits has to be outside the Janissary sight from the Balkans and Aleppo.


The Seven Years war around the globe

Europe

• Saxony, Bohemia, Silesia and Prussia: There were several fronts within the Holy Roman Empire. The most notable was Eastern Germany. The attack started with the Prussians invading Saxony. The Saxons were defeated within a year and the remaining Saxon forces were incorporated in the Prussian Army. By the end of 1756, the Prussians were advancing on Prague. The Prussians made several attempts to take over Prague but failed due to Austrian reinforcements arriving. In 1757 and 1758 the Prussians made several more attacks on Moravia to cut the help from Vienna to Prague. The invasion failed and the Prussians retreated back to Silesia and Saxony. The Austrians and Russians took the initiative with the Russians sending 75,000 men to East Prussia. The Russians conquered half of East Prussia but failed to take over Koningsberg. By 1759, the Austrians had reached as far as Leipzig and by 1760 the Russo-Austrian Armies were in Pankow and Berlin. The Prussians had now 80,000 men, half of them trained soldiers, the other half recruits with no real experience while the Russo-Austrian Army had around 130,000 men combined. The sudden death of Elisabeth meant that Russia retreated 80,000 of the 130,000 men from Berlin again and restored East Prussia to Frederick. Austria now alone, had to face the Prussians and lost both Saxony and Silesia to the Prussians. The war between the two factions ended in a Status Quo.
  
  
• Rhineland, Lower Saxony and Flanders: The fight in Europe was mostly in the Northern part of the Holy Roman Empire. The French immediately advanced on the Rhine and wanted to take over Hannover to give the British the biggest hit on the Mainland. But the Dutch Intervention prevented such attack and changed the French attention to Flanders as well. The British sendt 10,000 men to fight next to 40,000 Dutch soldiers and another 12,000 from the Holy Roman Empire. The French had 55,000 men in Flanders. The French had initiative up until 1759 with their conquest as far as Nijmegen supported with 8,000 Austrians from Flanders. In 1759, the Allied forces beat the French near Turnhout, Austrian Netherlands and ended the French Threat on the Rhine. Afterwards, the allied forces had taken Turnhout, Antwerpen and even Brussels but were prevented from taking Ghent and Brugge. The French reorganised and had taken Brussels back by 1762 and were marching to Antwerp. The French made some small attempt to take Hannover but they ended the campaign after the disastrous battle of Turnhout to spare more men. The small French military support for the Austrians were taken back and used for the counter attack in Flanders
  
  
• Iberia: The Spanish joined France in 1758 after the Dutch joined the British. The French and Spanish wanted to divert attention of the British by invading Portugal. The idea was well planned but it underestimated the Portuguese Army and the British expeditionary forces. By 1762, the Spanish gained nothing but small border towns and the biggest gain was Braga near Porto. But due to the failure to capture Lisabon the campaign was seen as a failure. The Spanish also attempted to take Menorca and Gibraltar from the British. The Spanish had taken Menorca by 1759 but failed to take Gibraltar after the loss during the battle of Algeciras. The Royal Navy also helped the Moroccan King in taking Melilla in 1760 and Ceuta in 1762. The King of Morocco offered to send his Army to defend Portugal against the Spanish but the idea was not looked well upon by the Portuguese who did not want ‘the Moor’ to return to Iberia. Regardless, the Portuguese offered Mazagao (El Jadida) to the King of Morocco as their sign of gratitude during the war and also housing the Portuguese Navy in Moroccan ports whenever needed.
  
  
• North America: The conflict in North America started well before 1756. The French and British were struggling in the Ohio valley. The war started in 1754 along the Ohio valley with the British trying to drive out the French from contested areas and destroy their forts. The series of skirmishers turned into a full scale war in North America. Between 1754 and 1758, the French had success in repelling the British until in 1758 when the French lost several forts in the Ohio valley like Fort duquesne. The British attempted to take Canada as well but failed in Quebec. Regardless, the British were victorious in the Ohio valley and by 1762 most of the conflict was over. The French gave up their claims on the Eastern bank of the Mississippi river as well as Ohio valley on the continent.
  
  
• Caribbean: The war was also spread to the Caribbean in 1756. The British attempted to drive the French out of the Windward Islands while the French were more ambitious with planning to conquer Jamaica. The Spanish intervention made it more difficult for the British but they withheld and defeated the Spanish navy in the battle of the Bay of Matanzas, Cuba, in 1759. The Spanish Navy was crippled in the Caribbean and all of its defence relied on the French Navy. Several attempts were made to conquer Florida but by then the hostilities were over. The British and Dutch conquered, Grenada, St. Vincent, Turks and Caicos Islands, Tobago, Anguilla, French St Martin and French Guyana from the French. The French in return took Barbados.
  
  
• East Indies: The British and French East India companies ended up in conflict after the anti-British Nawab ascended the throne. The war started with the Nawab taking British ruled towns in Bengal with the French supporting him. The British quickly sent a force to Bengal and regained the lost part in bengal. An attempt to convince Mir Jafar to betray the Nawab was prevented when Mir Jafar was killed for treason. Regardless, the EIC managed to secure Southern Bengal from the Nawab forces. Forced to retreat to counter the French in Carnatica, the British abandoned the Bengal campaign for the time being. The French were attempted to be driven from Pondicherry but failed. There was however a successful defence of Madras against the French. By 1760, the British started a new campaign in Bengal, defeated the Nawab forces. Another front was in Malaysia against the weakend Dutch East India Company. The Sultan of Johore stormed Dutch possessions on the Mainland of the Malay peninsula and took over Malacca. The VOC was, however given a compensation by the EIC, Bengkulu in Sumatra. The EIC later got Singapore island from the Sultan of Johore in order not to face attack on Malacca.
  
  
• Baltic: The Swedes intervened against Russia in 1758 when the Russians entered war with the Ottoman Empire. The Swedes send an Army of 30,000 to Courland in an attempt to conquer Riga. At the same time, the Swedes had 40,000 men Finland to hold off a Russian Attack and spared 10,000 men during an assault on kronstadt. The most successful was the occupation of Courland with the Swedes having no casualties up until the siege of Riga. The Russian Army at the time was besieging Konigsberg and the command of the Army had received no order what to do and continued the siege. Elisabeth had spare troops to use an attempted to drive the Swedes away from Riga. In the First battle of Riga, the Swedes prevented the Russians from lifting the siege and conquered Riga in 1759. The Swedish Army marched through Livonia up to Tartu. The Swedes found the town abandoned and took it. And then the Swedes marched to Parnu and besieged it until a relief force lifted the siege and drove the Swedes back to Riga. With this, the Swedish attempt to restore rule over the lost Baltic provinces were as good as gone. But by 1761, Peter III immediately made peace with Sweden and offered them Courland as a vassal for Sweden, taking it from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Swedes, not interested in continuing the war, abandoned Riga and returned to Sweden.
  

North Africa: Although the Spanish won in Menorca, they were unable to penetrate the Royal Navy in the Gulf of Malaga. In this era, the Dey of Algiers attempted to corporate with the Royal Navy to drive the Spanish out of Oran. For the British this would be beneficial. The Dey of Algiers would be out of the peace treaty and thus letting the Spanish focus on somewhere else instead of the British after the war. The same happened with Morocco, when the Moroccans got Naval support during the bombardment on Ceuta and Melilla. The local leaders took the towns and it would take a long time until the Spanish would attempt to retake some of them. In the end Spain lost their last North African possessions.


Treaties of Peace (1761/1762/1763)

• France will give up all claims on the Eastern Bank of the Mississippi River, the Ohio Valley and Fort St. Sault Marie in favor of the British Empire
  
• France will cede St. Vincent, Grenada, Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands and Anguilla to the British Empire
  
• France will cede St. Martin and Guyana to the Dutch Republic
  
• France will cede all their territory in India but Cuttack and Pondicherry
  
• The British Empire will cede Barbados to France
  
• The British Empire will cede Menorca to Spain
  
• Austria and Saxony will renounce all claims on Silesia
  
• Russia will recognise Swedish protection over Courland
  
• Russia will give up their claim on Holstein
  
• The VOC will exchange their rights in Johore for Bengkulu with the EIC
  
• Austria will cede Milan to Savoy as an exchange for their neutrality
  
• Austria will cede Roermond and Turnhout to the Dutch Republic and will allow a Dutch Garrison to settle in the Antwerp citadel as well as in the Defencive towns in the Southern Netherlands
  
• Britain will cede Mosquito Coast to Spain
  

The results of peace was sort of, more satisfying for the most nations than the peace after the Austrian War of Succession. The British enforced domination on the American continent, India and gained the upper hand in the Caribbean. Yet, defeated and accepted that the nation could not beat their enemies, the kings wanted more, revenge and especially: destroy their rival. And this mentality led to another war in merely a decade.


The Rise of Maratha Confederacy(1707-1761)

Since the death of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, the vacuum was attempted to be filled by several successors. One of them were the Marathas.

The Marathas were several warlords and martially skilled people in the Maharashtra region in Western India. During the conquest of Aurangzeb of the Deccan the Marathas ended up in conflict with the Mughal Emperors and with the death of Aurangzeb, the Marathas have expanded all the way to Central India and by 1740s up to Northern India. Their biggest range was in 1757, ranging from Sialkot in the North to Goa in the South. The Marathas had used the the weakness of the Portuguese to drive them away from their Indian possessions. The first target were Daman and Diu in Gujarat. The towns weren’t too difficult to take as the garrison in the towns were low. The real challenge was Goa. The Portuguese fortified Goa during more than 200 years rule. The Portuguese had to defend Goa with 1,200 Portuguese soldiers and 8,000 Indian volunteers fearing the Marathas would pillage the entire town. The Portuguese hold off the the Maratha forces for 2 years. At the end, Madhav Rao conquered the town but at the cost of 10,000 of his own men. The Portuguese were offered to retreat to Mocambique. The Portuguese never forgot their loss and continued raiding and blockading Maratha ruled ports. At the end, they fully gave up Goa when the Maratha Peshwa offered it to the French in 1779.

In the North, the Marathas were more successful. The Mughal Armies collapsed after facing numerous defeats. The Marathas basically ruled Delhi but left it for the Mughal Emperor and continued to recognise him as the emperor of India, although to the Marathas it was meaningless. The Maratha expansion in Northern India not only brought conflict with the Rajput lords, it also attracted the Afghan King Ahmad Shah Abdali. Ahmad Shah already expanded his realm all the way to Lahore but lost his lands in the 1750s to the all expanding Marathas. It was however in 1761, during the Battle of Panipat that the Marathas were halted and prevented from consolidating their new conquest in Northern India. Although defeated, the Marathas were not weakened. By the 1770s their authority over Northern India was restored. And it was after this battle, that the Marathas decided to consolidate their power in India.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

It is your time, oh Mustafa!, February, 1762

The wars with the Christian Rivals have finished. Mahmud I planned, Osman III executed, Mehmed V succeeded and Mustafa III finished it. And now it was time. The Austrians are crippled and the Russians are in Civil War between Peter III and the supporters of Ivan VI. Now, nobody would or could bother with the Ottoman Affairs. First things first. The Ottoman state had trouble with raising taxes due to the inefficiency of the tax farming system. The revenues could be higher and had much more potential.


The Divan of Sultan Mustafa III and Grand Vizier Mehmed Ragip Pasha:

Mustafa III: “Mehmed Pasha, you have said that you have suggestions to reform the tax system, tell us what you have on your mind?”

Mehmed Pasha: “My sultan, the tax system introduced by former Sultan Mustafa II Khan was in wartime when the Empire was about to either gain or lose it all. Sultan Mustafa II Khan had no other option to enact this form of taxing, as it look like it could generate bulk of revenue to continue. But as soon as the war ended and the rule of the Sultan was unstable the revenues continued the decline. The population, unable to buy or produce to the loss of almost all of their money either fled their land or lived in poverty. The people hate it and the state gets not enough to continue it. My suggestion is to have tax collectors, paid by the government to collect the taxes. But in order to do this, we need to know how many people live in our lands. That is the job of our eyalet Pasha’s and the Ayans.“


Mustafa III: “I like the idea. My brother Mehmed already had his ideas about this. I agree. Mehmed Pasha, I give you the authority to reform the tax system and to give orders to the eyalet Pasha’s. However, I want to know about all changes during the reorganisation. I also want you to write down your ideas and I want to have it if, may Allah prevent it, anything happens to you. Your successor will continue then with whatever you left.”


Mehmed Pasha: “My Sultan, I am honoured. God Willing, I will finish whatever you order me to.”


Mustafa III: “And so, the Divan of today is over. My Pasha’s, you may leave. And bring me Hasan Pasha!”


“The Pasha’s of the Divan are leaving and Hasan Pasha is entering”


Mustafa III: “Hasan Pasha, I am glad you’re here. I decided to promote you as the second in command of the fleet. Congratulations, you may leave for your job to Cesme.”


Hasan Pasha: “My Sultan, I can’t be grateful enough. For what did I deserve such Honour?”


Mustafa III: “Your participation during the Ionian Campaign and the Azov Campaign did not go unnoticed. The commander of the Navy, Husamettin Pasha as well is positive about you as well. This promotion is what you deserve.”


Hasan Pasha: “My Sultan, may you rule for long. I am grateful and will leave tomorrow.”


Mustafa III: “I see. May Allah be with you Hasan.”


“Hasan Pasha leaves the court”



The Maniot Greek Piracy (1755-1805)

After the Conquest of the Ionian Islands by the Ottoman Empire, the smaller islands were abandoned by both the Venetians and the Ottomans. The abandoned islands were eventually taken by minor Maniot clans who had no influence in Mani. As soon as they settled and occupied the villages they started as a fishing community. As soon as their fishing fleets were attacked by nearby Neapolitan Ships, the clan members turned their attentions to raiding. The first attack was on Calabria where 10 ships were taken and 4 villages were burned to the ground. Afterwards, the Maniots kept attacking Italian shipping as well as Ottoman merchants. Seeing the threat of the Maniots, Husamettin Pasha sent 3 ship of the lines with 500 Marines to force the Maniots to surrender. However, the Maniot Clan agreed to not attack Ottoman or any Muslim Merchants anymore and offered one of the four captured treasures to the Sultan.

The Maniots however, became a bigger problem as pirates when the Austro-Turkish War broke out in 1755. The Sultan sent a firman which allowed them to attack any Ships of Austria (and later Russia) and whatever they got from those ships would remain with them. The Maniot Pirates, seeing an opportunity, not only attacked Habsburg merchants in the Adriatic but also raided around Trieste, Northern Dalmatia and Istria. Encouraged, the Maniots attacked even more Ships of other nations, namely the Spanish, French and British Merchants. By the end of the 1760s until late 1780s, the Pirates experienced a Golden Age. They dared even to challenge other Pirates in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Pirates and the Knights of St John. However, when the Royal fleet intervened, they kept hunting these pirates as well as attacking their villages, in which the Sultan had to intervene for his subjects. The British agreed with the Maniots that no Ship with the British flag would be attacked.
The age of Mediterranean Piracy ended however when there was too less to gain and many Maniots left either for the mainland or returned to their former job as fishermens. By 1805, the Piracy was as good as over except for one notorious Pirate: Demetrios the younger. the most known Maniot pirate. He continued as a pirate until 1810, when he was killed fighting a ship of the Royal Navy near the coast of Tripolitania. Being the youngest pirate possibly, at the age of 19 until his 32nd.

Maniots of Zakynthos


The report of Hadzi Mustafa Pasha, July 1762

Dear Mehmed Pasha,

As commanded by the Sultan, I pacified the Turkmen Tribes in Azerbaijan, North of the Aras River. However, there has been something I was bothered with in which I need to tell you. In the lands of the Persians a new warlord rose to power and has expanded his realm from Bandar Abbas to all the way north to the Aras river. I received his envoy demanding me to retreat from Azerbaijan and accept their lord, Karim Khan Zand as ruler of Persia. In return, he would recognise me as the Bey of Tiflis. Due to my loyalty to Sultan Mustafa Khan and the Ottoman state, I refused and demanded that they leave. The Persians are building forts as well as bringing up troops near the river. I don’t know how many men they have but my spies in Tabriz told me that the Khan is raising up to 100,000 men, allies included. If this is true then I don’t know what I can do to stop them. I can hold them off at the river Aras but I don’t know for how long.

I ask from you, to inform the Sultan about the seriousness in the East. If Karim Khan does succeed to cross the river, my men cannot hold them off for long. And the Turkmen Tribes may reconsider their allegiance and thus ending the rule of our Sultan in these lands.


Sincerely,



Hadzi Mustafa Pasha


Mehmed Pasha: “My Sultan, Hadzi Mustafa is reporting about a serious threat.”


Mustafa III: “Well tell me, what is this trouble?!”


Mehmed Pasha: “The Persians are threatening our gains in the Caucasus. They demanded Mustafa Pasha to give up Azerbaijan. This is his letter”


“Mehmed Pasha gives Sultan Mustafa the letter and the Sultan reads it”


Mustafa III: “I see… I see the danger of ignoring this threat. But I don’t see them enough as a major threat to send you to do this, I need you more here. Tell Sari Mustafa Pasha and Ahmed Pasha to mobilise 60,000 men for the campaign. This might even be a relief. The new Army needs to be formed and we can’t have the Janissaries here in the capital.


And do not forget to tell them that they shouldn’t move North to Mustafa Pasha’s province unless it is absolutely necessary.”


Mehmed Pasha: “As you command, my Sultan… But there is something that is in my mind. What about the Safavid Prince? Suleiman Safavi died years ago. Ismail is officially the head of the dynasty. Shouldn’t we include him as the ruler of Persia? Maybe it might turn the support of the Persians in our favor.”


Mustafa III: “This is not important for now. I will let him know whenever it is time to bring him back on his throne.”


“Mehmed Pasha leaves and Mustafa III is slightly irritated but understanding”

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The great tax reform, 1763

“By the order of Sultan Mustafa Khan, third of his name, the existing tax system will change within the next start of the Holy Month of the Ramadhan. The New taxing, supported by the Sheikh Ul Islam, will be lawful for the believers and the Rayah. May Allah bless our Sultan, Mustafa Khan and our state.”


These were the words, spoken in town. Afterwards, the people rejoiced and called out for Sultan Mustafa. It seems that the people, after seven years have forgotten about Mehmed V and believe completely in Mustafa.

The new taxing is preventing the existing Millet leaders from taxing the people in the name of the Sultan. What the leaders have to do is to tell how many houses belong to them and the government will do the taxes for themselves. The Grand Vizier hopes that the corruption which includes millet leaders will reduce as well as efficiently taxing the populace and reducing unhappiness among the people. The tax is 30 akce per household. The Sultan is enthousiast about the results. As far as Mehmed Pasha is concerned, the reform will have a positive result. The somewhat unhappiness among Millet Leaders did rise but not too much to be concerned.




Azerbaijan Campaign, Urmiah, May 1763

Ahmed Pasha had just settle his camp near Urmiah. His goal is to conquer Southern Azerbaijan and destroy any existing forces, belonging to Karim Khan. His colleague, Sari Mustafa Pasha, separated in Revan for crossing the Aras river and making it to Ardabil. If successful, both Pashas can caught Karim Khans Army between their own forces and bring and eliminate their enemy in Azerbaijan. Ahmed has to take Tabriz immediately to link up with Sari Mustafa or reach the Zand Army before they reach the crossing of Sari Mustafa Pasha. Ahmed has 30,000 men; 20,000 Janissaries and 10,000 Sipahis. He is also accompanied by 10,000 Kurdish Tribes from the Zagros mountains and Mosul Eyalet. Tomorrow, he has to march out for Tabriz.

Battle of Soltaniyeh, 18 May 1763

In 17 May 1763, much to Ahmed Pashas surprise, his scouts has encountered a camp belonging to Karim Khan's forces. It seemed to be a large army. Ahmed Pasha decided to wait out the night and then pull his artillery to the front and bomb the camp. The Janissaries remain in the centre and the wings are hold by Sipahis. The Kurds have to maneuver to the North East side of the camp and wait until the Persians flee to caught them on in a second surprise. And in the late, the Pasha has brought his artillery in shooting range and started bombing all the bigger tents, in what he thought, was were the officers are and where the enemy artillery supplies are. The Zand forces were caught while sleeping and a massacre followed.

High ranking officers in the Ottoman Army inspecting the Artillery, Diyarbakir 1763



In the following morning, the Ottoman troops encountered a large field nothing but dead bodies. An account of 30,000 dead Persians, and 22,000 surrendered. What Ahmed Pasha had learned from this was that the famous Karim Khan was preparing for an invasion. As soon as he finds out what happened to his army, he will retreat back to Shiraz. Another Army of 40,000 men recently left the Aras River position when they could not cross the Aras River. Hadzi Pasha must have stopped the first attempt of the crossing. They must be in Qazvin by now.

By 28 May 1763, the armies of the two Pasha’s have linked up with each other. The Turkmen tribes, South of the Aras river sweared loyalty to Sultan Mustafa III and in order to enforce the new occupation, Turkmen Tribes from the North of Azerbaijan are settled there to enforce Ottoman rule there. Sari Mustafa will continue to Qazvin while Qazvin and drive the remaining Zand forces out of Azerbaijan.



Battle of Qazvin, 21 June 1763

Sari Mustafa Pasha has gained a lot of experience since the humiliating losses against the Russians in the last war. As so, Ahmed Pasha has ordered him to finish the campaign by driving the Zand forces out of Qazvin. In 18th of June, Sari Pasha laid siege to Qazvin and the larger Zand forces. Fearing for a total disaster, the commander of the Zand forces ordered a retreat on 20th of June and the next day they did so. Sari Pasha ordered his Tatar and Sipahi Cavalry to attack those remained behind the retreating Army. The Artillery continued hitting the retreating forces in the front. As soon as it was night, the Ottomans were victorious.

Eventually, the retreat was a success. Of the 40,000 men in Qazvin, only 4,000 died or surrendered, saving 36,000 men and the treasure for the campaign with them, back to Karim Khan.

Wat Karim Khan later learned was that on the open fields, fighting the Ottomans was possible but not without high losses. As the manpower of Karim Khan is inferior compared to the Ottomans and their allies, he has to fight hit and run tactic, forcing the Ottomans to give up their campaign.



Long Live Ismail III Safavi, Shah of Persia! (1763)

Ismail was by now in the middle of his thirties. He was more and more demanding for the Persian throne. As far as he was concerned, he is the real Shah since the death of his uncle Suleiman II. And his day finally came. Sultan Mustafa welcomed Ahmed Pasha and Ismail Safavi to his presence.


Mustafa III: “Ahmed Pasha! I am expecting good news from you from the Persian front! If it is, then don’t wait and tell me.”


Ahmed Pasha: “My Sultan, we have conquered Tabriz. And when I was in Urmiah, I’ve gotten the news that Mustafa Pasha has taken Qazvin. Azerbaijan now belongs to you, my Sultan.”


Mustafa III: “May Allah bless you with a long and prosperous life Ahmed Pasha. You’ve proven well for being a good military leader. Ismail, now you’re here I have something to tell you. I have thought about it for a long time and have decided that you will leave for Tabriz the next spring. By my order as the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Caliph of all Muslims, I’ve decided that you may go for your throne. You may start building your new state in Persia and start recruiting your own troops under control of Hadzi Mustafa Pasha and his new Army. You are, as soon as you reach Tabriz, Shah of Persia.”


Ismail III: “My Sultan… I… I can’t thank you enough for your generosity. May Allah grant you a life full of prosperity and faith!”


Mustafa III: “In sha Allah Ismail… But do not forget my generosity. If you ever forget it then you may as well forget whatever I have granted you… You may leave now, I want to talk with Ahmad Pasha.”


Ismail III: “May Allah never let me forget whatever you and your predecessors have done for me. I will not let your generosity go in vain.”


“Ismail III leaves the presence of Mustafa III”


Ahmed Pasha: “My Sultan, forgive me for this but may I ask why you let him rule Persia when we can take it for ourselves? We may even get rid of the Shia heresy in Persia!”


Mustafa III: “Ahmed… You are one of the few people who I would not punish for asking me why I do what I want. The truth is, we can never hold Persia. It is an alien nation to us since the day our ancestors left it for the Shia. Now, we can put a friend on the throne and let him rule for us in our terms. Be it my friend Ismail. He may be Shia today, but tomorrow he might turn Sunni. I don’t know, we’ll never know until it happens. What we need to do now is secure our empire, not go ambitious and conquer until we get drive away and create a bigger enemy on our border. May Allah prevent that...


But that’s not what I want to talk about. I want to promote you as the bey of Damascus. You’ve proven yourself well. And… I want you to keep an eye out for the Mamluks in Egypt. I don’t trust them and more reason not to let them do whatever they wish. For you to fulfil your task as bey and keeping track of the Mamluks. Understood? You may leave.”


“Ahmed Pasha leaves”

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

1764

The envoy from the east

A new ruler had arisen in India just recently. His name was Haider Ali. At service of the Hindu Kings of Mysore, he took power in the Kingdom and became Sultan of the newly declared Sultanate of Mysore. Although he immediately sent gifts and letters to the Sultan and Caliph in Constantinople, it wasn’t until 1764 when he send an envoy about military aid for his new Sultanate. Mustafa, after finishing the war with Austria and Russia, was an enthusiast of Ottoman aid to Indian Muslim states. Already having ties with the Mughal Emperor and the Nizam of Hyderabad, Mysore would be a new addition. The Ottomans weren’t the first they asked military aid from. France was the first priority. The French, although interested, decided to send military advisors as well as Artillery specialists. Mustafa in return ordered several military figures to go to Haider Ali’s realm and assist his Armies in his wars with the Marathas. One of the Military leader was the Janissary officer Mehmed Ali Aga second in command after the leading Alemdar Korkut Aga, who would fall captive in Maratha hands and later fight with the Marathas against the East India Company. The Sultan wished the Mysorian envoy and their Sultan well and gave the envoy a gift with them.

The second envoy was from Aceh. The Sultan of Aceh wished the Caliph well and asked for more help and manufactories for muskets and artillery in Aceh. The United East Indian Company of the Dutch, although not strong as it was anymore, threatened the existence of Acehnese trade and merchants. The existence of strong Acehnese forces and forming a more modernised Army to Ottoman style would be enough to lower their interests. This time as well, the Sultan agreed to send aid and sent his Artillery specialists, Musket specialists, 6 Frigates and 20 merchant vessels with 12,000 Muskets, 20 of the latest Artillery used by the Ottoman Army and organised by the French and enough ammunition. This expedition was led by Suleiman Aga. As usual, gifts were exchanged.

The last of the envoy from the East was from no other than the lion of Panipat: Ahmad Shah Durrani. Ahmad Shah had already beaten the Marathas in Panipat and for the time being, ended their domination in Northern India. However, he as well wanted better relationship with what he expressed as, resurging Islamic Power. If there was any state left to protect the right of the Muslims, it would have to be the Ottomans. Ahmad Shah wished to strengthen militarily to counter future Maratha counter offensives in North-West India. The Sultan, Mustafa III, gave the Abdali envoy a gift for their Shah: A dagger, with Gold and diamonds of several colors. In the Afghan adventure, the expedition was led by Ali Aga. A veteran of the Austro-Turkish War and pro-reform officer of the Janissary Corps. Due to threats to Ali by the Corps infantry, the Sultan ordered him to leave as a way to save his life. But like all other three leading officers they also were ordered to learn more about the region and write whatever they know about it.

The Indian, Malay and Afghan envoys left after staying for a month, accompanied by the Ottoman aid for them.


The economical issue

After enduring 12 years of war, the Ottoman finances endured trouble. The vizier responsible of the state treasure was alarmed by the spending of the Sultans campaigns. The Persian Campaign, the building of a new Army, the ongoing reformation of the Navy costed the state a good sum of money. The new form of taxation did not earn enough yet to know if it helps to lift the burden of the finances. The death of the experienced Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha did not make things easier. His successor, Bahri Mustafa Pasha was left with the financial problems. Mustafa Pasha talked with the Sultan and the Divan. The best option to reduce the burden was to give up the Persian campaign to Ismail III Safavi. If he wants the Persian throne, he’ll take it by himself and mostly by his own support, limiting Ottoman aid and saving once again 4,000,000 Akce. The idea was accepted. Azerbaijan would be evacuated, keeping only a garrison in several cities and towns and getting 25% of the tax income of the regions ceded to the Safavid Shah. Another option was offered… and not a popular one. Mustafa Pasha wished to abolish unequal trade rights with European nations and protect our own merchants. The Ottoman merchant and manufacturers would grow and in the future offer more to the state in production and taxing. The European Merchants did not offer much as taxation and the Christian Merchants of the state are sailing more under foreign flags, losing in return more tariff income. The Sultan was not pleased with this idea. He understood the importance of protection of own merchants. After all, Mustafa was a clever Sultan. But the time they were in was hard. They needed the Western European aid to reform the Army and Navy and finally get rid of the Corps which as well was not paying any taxes. Not now. The last suggestion made by the Grand Vizier was opening the Bosporus straits for the European Merchants to the Crimean Khanate for an additional sum of money. It will be avoided by the capitulations because the treaty did not mention anything about the Black Sea Trade as it was not open therefore not possible. The Sultan, after seeing no better option agreed with the idea. It would be a good deal. Their vassals, the Crimean Khanate might even benefit from this. The trade with tons of grain, fish and such to the Khanate would be successful. The demand for food production in the Peninsula was high. And the Khan needed the money to build his state as well. To start this, the Crimean Khan has to build a decent Port near the Coast. The future of the Khanate might even change as well.


Oh Allah be blessed, our Shah returned!

It has been almost 40 years since the Safavids were ousted of power in Persia. They were succeeded by the Afshars of Nader Shah, various warlords and the Zand dynasty. These times are over. Ismail III Safavid entered Tabriz. The Shah was crowned by the Turkmen leaders as Shahanshah, the shah of all shahs, of Persia. This was not accepted very much by several leaders. There was of course, Karim Khan, who refused it and declared war on Ismail on the grounds of being an usurper of the Persian throne. The Afshars in Mashhad refused as well but did not declare war. At last there was Mustafa III, the Ottoman Sultan, he who send Ismail to Tabriz. Mustafa was not keen on the idea of Ismail being called Shahanshah. But Ismail convinced him that it was necessary in order to regain his realm. As compensation he offered the let Mustafa III to be seen as a rightful Caliph of Muslims among all Shias and Persians and agreed with Sunni Sufi Orders as missionaries in his realm. Mustafa III, gave in after getting something in return.

The first Ismail did was assembling Turkmen leaders and discuss what to do with the Zand threat. Knowing that there was a need for more manpower and modern one. The Ottoman Army build some Weapon manufacturers to get their weapons from closer range, which could be used by Ismails forces. Knowing that the Turkmen Tribes are not reliable and the only reason they remain loyal is due to the Ottoman Army under Silahdar Osman Pasha being near Tabriz. Ismail was given 2,000,000 million Akce to build up Southern Azerbaijan and to create a force of his own. Ismail recruited 22,000 infantry; 8,000 cavalry and another 30 artillery pieces and men to use them. Most of his Cavalry are the Turkmen Tribes loyal to him. Coming short of manpower, Ismail was countered by the leader of the Qajars. The man was Agha Mohammed. The reason for him being called Agha was due to him being castrated when he was captive. Regardless, Agha Mohammed offered his Qajar Tribe as the last loyal Turkmen Tribes remaining since the day of Ismail I. The Qajars were as much as 30,000 men strong and were familiar in Persia. Nothing is known why Agha Mohammed, an opportunist, offered his help but one most of the allies of Ismail in the late 18th century where sure about wanting the throne for himself. However, Ismail agreed and they all decided head out for Tehran, Qom and Kashan. When region was secured, the Qajars would defend it against future attack of the Zand Forces.


The Crimean Khanate grows

As soon as the Sultan opened the the Straits for foreign merchants, the Crimean economy and population started to grow. At first the merchants went for the old merchant town, Kaffa. But as soon as the port town of Akhtiar (Sebastopol) was expanded for mercantile use, the merchants went to the Khanate port. The biggest tradegood were agricultural products like Wheat, Corn, Potatoes. The import of these offered a large population boost. The population of the Khanate, about 5 million people grew to 6 million in 10 years of time. Although this includes, the Cossack refugees, the population growth was intense and gave even more hope.

The taxation gave more income and thus the impulse to improve the existing state. The infrastructure of the peninsula was as improved as Istanbul, Thrace and Bursa. The expansion of towns, North of the Peninsula started at the same time. More settlers were established along the Dnipro river. The lands, North of the peninsula were used for agricultural reason as well. The import of food products became more and more expansive. Due to the population growth it was now possible to settle Pontic Steppes under Crimean Control.

At the same time, Merchants from Russia, Transylvania and Poland-Lithuania went to the Markets of the Crimea to meet with the Western Merchants close to the Ukraine and Transylvania. The Crimean Market offered much more money to build. When the Crimean Khanate started growing in finances and population, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire offered their possessions in the Crimea, Azov and Ochakov to the Crimean Khan. Except for Kaffa, the other regions had a low population and were more of a burden. However, the existing Ottoman garrisons would remain and a garrison would be formed in Bakhchisaray, Akhtiar and Perekop.

At last there were the refugees of Cossacks fleeing the Russian Armies. These Cossacks were hostile towards Peter the Great policies at the time but were finally driven away from the Ukraine by Elisabeth I of Russia and Peter III. The Crimean Khans offered them to settle in his lands but divided them far away from each other to prevent them from revolting. In order to gain their loyalty, the Khan send Sufi missionaries among the Cossacks. Although initially unsuccessful, the missionary activity was partly successful in the Peninsula self, converting the Cossacks and making it easier for them to settle among the Crimean Tatars. Cossacks at first resisted the missionary activity. Some leaders chose to convert as protest against the czar. The others saw a chance to participate in the government and increase influence. Eventually, as more of them settled in the towns, the more of them converted. At the beginning it were the higher ranking cossacks but as time went this changed with the other Cossacks converting, leaving only a fraction of them unconverted and not assimilated among the Crimean Tatar Population.


The first (illegal) newspaper

As soon as the printing press was legalised, it became easier to write and sell books. But what was unusual the newspaper. The first newspaper was named Nizam. It was done so by pro-Reform factions in Istanbul, promoting the need of reform and showing the negative effects of the Janissary Corps. These were not as the known newspaper of today but rather pamphlets and articles, as they also spoke about what happened in the rest of the state (mostly around Istanbul). This was not taken lightly by the Corps and asked the Sultan to ban it, with support of the clergy. The Clergy saw it as sowing fitna among the believers. Whomever was publishing this was an unbeliever and an apostate threatening the Muslims. It went even as far as a call to ban printing press in the entire Empire. However, the Grand Vizier Bahri Mustafa Pasha, had some of these papers and supported it. He said that it wasn’t a threat and the Janissary Corps were paranoid. Although it started as merely a pamphlet, the Nizam would become one of the first newspapers of the Liberal factions in the Empire.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

1765

Russian war of succession, 1761-1766

As soon as Czarina Elizabeth died Peter III assumed throne. It started to look all well in the first months until the tension between Peter III and his wife Catherine turned worse and Peter III had her poisoned. As soon as this happened, the Russian nobility and Military leaders supporting Catherine turned against Peter III and chose the captive Ivan VI as their new Czar. Peter feared for his life and fled to meet his Army without letting know the situation. His Army in Holstein was called back to Kamenec Podolsky. As soon as he met his Army in Warsaw, he left for Kiev. When Peter arrived in Lvov, he heard from messengers that the governor in Kiev was waiting to arrest him. Peter III left with his Army of 80,000 men to the Baltic. Peter III surrounded Jelgava and enforced a treaty with the Swedes, Where Sweden could have protectionship over Courland. For Sweden, this would be more than enough. Sweden saw potential in taking over Danzig as well which would have started a war with Prussia.

As soon as Peter III secured the Baltics he started his march to St. Petersburg. Peter III arrived in Narva by 1762. In Februari 1762, Peter III forces had beaten the pro-Ivan Army of 40,000 men. Peters victory gave him a free attempt to move to St. Petersburg. When Peter arrived, he found the city to be empty. His scouts had seen a large retreat to South. It seemed that Peter III had now the upper hand in the West. By the end of the year, the old capital Moscow was taken as well. Ivan VI supporters fled to both Kazan and Kiev. The factions now where at fight with both Peter III as well as each other. Ivan VI remained in Tsaritsyn.

in 1763, Peter started his campaign in Kiev. His Army besieged both Kiev and Kazan. Peter, whose Army grew up to 120,000 men was now superior. In 1763, something what Peter III never expect happened. King Stanislaw of Poland-Lithuania broke the siege of Kiev and forced Peter to retreat to Poltava. Stanislaw saw the chance to break Russian influence in Poland and hoped that Russia remained at war for a longer time. But when it looked like Peter III was winning near the Polish-Lithuanian border, his desperation eventually led to an attack on Kiev and succeeded. In an attempt to capture Peter III, both the Kiev Cossacks as well as the Polish Lithuanian Army and the pro-Ivan forces besieged Peter during the siege of Poltava. Peter III feared that his Army would turn against him the longer he waited and decided to break the siege. Peters forces, supported by one of his general who he personally disliked, General Rumyantsev, for his positive opinion on Catherine. Both Peter and Rumyantsev broke through. The Polish-Lithuanian defeated, the pro-Ivan factions broken in the Ukraine and the Kiev Cossacks surrendered to Peter III. With the day, Peter III got more support from former supporters of the enemy nobles. One of them was the hero of Kazan who broke Peters siege: Alexander Suvorov. Undefeated and feared. His annoyance with Orlov made him switch side although mutual dislike between him and Peter III. When Suvorov changed his allegiance to Peter in 1764, it was assumed as a matter of time until Peter III would win. What was in 1761 seen as Peter III last days on earth was now different. People were thinking what Peter would do with Ivan VI once he got captured. As far as Peter was concerned, Orlov was a dead man once he had captured him. Peter gave Suvorov an Army of 30,000 men to attack Poland-Lithuania. In 1765, Peter started personally to besiege Kazan and captured it without much trouble. By early 1766, Peter had captured Tsaritsyn and Ivan VI. Much to everybody's surprise, Peter spared Ivan and allowed him to stay but guarded for people to never use him as a tool. One could say, Peter did not see Ivan as the threat but the people around him. The supporters of Catherine either switched sides or fled. Orlov, the leader of the pro-Ivan faction had apparently left Kazan as soon as Suvorov betrayed him. Peter III send his agents to track down Orlov and bring him back alive. He offered 50,000 rubles for him caught alive. When Peter realised Orlov fled to the Crimea he threatened with War which would lead to war with both the Ottomans as well. Eventually, Mustafa felt that the existence of Poland-Lithuania was in danger and he had to prevent the Russians to halt them. When Peter III refused, war was declared in 1768. Although slightly tired of war, Peter had battle hardened forces in by the end of the 1760s and experienced commanders. Orlov himself was in Istanbul when the war was declared, as he felt no longer safe. By the time Peter III died he returned to St. Petersburg by order of prince Paul.


The Fortification of the Straits, Seddul Bahr, 1765

Since the first Venetian War in the 17th century, the Empire faced enemy navies to blockade the straits as an act to bring the Ottomans on their knees. Venice as a Naval Power was as good as over. But the enemies using these tactics aren’t gone. Since the day Mustafa had ascended his throne he feared that the Russians might use Malta as base and blockade it. One of the long term goals was to conquer Malta and oust the Knights. For now, he couldn’t do it yet as it would attract other European powers in the conflict as well. Not until a Major war breaks out. And the fear is real. If the Russians get the idea to use Malta as a base, and the Knights accepting this is a grave reality, the Ottomans are in deep problems. Before even planning such campaigns, the defences need to be strengthened. In this case, the old forts near the Straits need an upgrade. There is a need for new forts in some important parts of the straits. Although the project was set up for much later, Mustafa hastened it after hearing the Russian merchants were acting suspicious near the Straits. Without letting anyone to know, Mustafa ordered the building of the Strait defences. Within the next 5 years, 8,000 Janissaries have to be settled on all Aegean islands except, Rhodos, Crete and Euboea. In order to motivate them they are paid 3 akce more. The fleets base will be in the bay of Marmaris as the harbour offers more protection against enemy fleets. Some more forts are built on islands around the Straits.


Ismail Safavi, from conqueror to schizophrenic

The Shah has returned to Iran for quite some time. As soon as he entered he formed his own Army. Rather small, he got support from the Qajars tribe. Ismail ordered the Qajars to subdue Tabarestan and move towards Mashad from there. Ismail wanted to secure the Zagros mountains first before advancing on the former capital of Isfahan. With 18,000 men Ismail advanced on Hamadan. His intel has informed him that Karim Khan has to subdue Qashqai Tribes around Shiraz. But nonetheless, the Zand forces are still in Kermanshah, Sanandaj and Lorestan. Knowing that the Zands will not get themselves trapped in Hamadan, they’ve retreated and are waiting for Karim Khan to have his hands free. As soon as Hamadan was taken, Ismail ordered his supportive Turkmen cavalry from Azerbaijan to advance in Lorestan and cut off the Zand forces between Shiraz and Kermanshah. Either the forces in Kermanshah rebel against Karim Khan or they surrender.

However, Ismail made one tiny mistake. Due to underestimating Karim Khan's time to secure Shiraz he decided to stay in Hamadan and sent 4,000 cavalry to raid and subdue Lorestan. When Ismail realised Karim Khan was advancing towards Kashan he immediately retreated and sent a messenger for his Turkmen cavalry to retreat to Ottoman Lands before being trapped by Zand forces. Ismail met with his remainder of forces in Qom and retreated back to Qazvin out of fear for encirclement in Tehran. Ismail secured Hamadan for only a little time. His cavalry force retreated from Lorestan but left for Qom as well and arrived only two days after Ismail arrived. This might have been the game changer for Ismail. Only 4 days after Ismail left Qom, Karim Khan arrived and took the town. A week later, Karim Khan burned Tehran and took anything valuable left behind. Instead of going after the Safavi forces in Qazvin, as Ismail hoped, Karim Khan left for Isfahan to wait out Winter. A smart decision but it might not have been the best decision eventually.


The Qajars however, were more lucky in their campaign. The Qajar Tribe took Rasht in the first month of the campaign and Golestan in the 3rd month. In three months of time, Tabarestan was subdued by harsh treatment and terror campaigns against the locals.The Qajars moved forward to Mashad but only to return when the population of Tabarestan wanted nothing to do with either Ismail or the Qajars. When the Qajars returned the uprising was harshly put down and there was continuous reign of terror until the Qajars left by order of Ismail Safavi. The Qajars advanced to Mashad for a second time. The local Afshars in the city, were in a sorry state and unable to prevent the Qajars to raid Mashhad and occupy it. The Afshar forces surrendered and Adil Shah was sent to Ismail in Soltaniyeh were he would be strangled. The Qajars now held Khorasan and Tabarestan. On the map it was a large region but in reality, it was one of the least wealthy parts. Regardless, even Ismail feared about the Qajar power.


What Ismail would help would be the second Qashqai rebellion. Karim Khan would have to subdue them yet again and Ismail would then advance with the Qajars on Karim Khan all the way to Shiraz. If successful, Karim Khan would have no place to run. It would take some time but Ismail will be victorious. Just like the stories he heard from Russian merchants about how Peter III regains his realm. Unfortunately for him, he would never see if Persia ends up as Safavid ruled realm.


What nobody really knew was that Ismail had already planning to kill anyone who had ties to rulers of Persia outside of his own family. Be it from the Afshars or Zands or even remaining Safavids. Anything that might slightly threaten his rule. Regardless if they desired it or not. One of his later targets would be Joseph von Semlin. Although Joseph remained in Vienna and posed no real threat as one would think, Ismail III would sent assassins to either bring him back to Persia or kill him and any other relatives he has. During the War for Persia, Ismail slightly got more paranoid about to lose his throne to pretenders. In 1771, Joseph, the son of Nader Shah, was surprisingly captured with his wife and sons by Ismails mute assassins and brought him over to Dalmatia in haste. Due to these assassins sent to even Europe, the Europeans referred it as the dangerous Persian shadows who will take you to places where no soul can find you ever again. Maria Theresa was by no means pleased and at first demanded his return to Austria. When Ismail refused it did not really help as it was far away. Maria Theresa tried to ask Mustafa III to mediate between Ismail and her. Mustafa wished not to meddle with Persian affairs as this one did not bother him. A small attempt was made to show Maria Theresa about the Ottoman goodwill but without results. In 1774, the year Ismail died, the last son alive of Nader Shah was executed. Realising he had only sons, they were executed as well. The realisation that he had to kill even little children made Ismails mental condition worse and in only 3 months later, Ismail died. Before he died, he was sometimes screaming after waking up, panicking Allah is going to punish him. When they tried to help him, a mysterious Sufi Dervish was brought to the palace. He told that Ismail would die because he can no longer bear his consciousness about the death of tens of children to secure his rule. He also told that his son Tahmasb, would succeed him and the day he becomes Shah, Karim Khan will lose his realm or whatever was left of it. The only thing Ismail can do now is repent, repent and ask God for forgivingness. Ismails last month was like he has seen ghost everywhere in his palace. Afraid and wanted more people in his palace to hear the sound of people alive. His son Tahmasb was the regent until his death. Whether his newly created mute assassins were effective or not, it indirectly led Ismail to his mental break down in his 40s. His son Tahmasb however would be the most effective leader the Safavids had since Abbas the Great.


The Egyptian Cottonfields

“Cotton! Best of all the Middle East! Proud Egyptian Cotton!”. This was what merchants were shouting in the markets of Alexandria. In the 18th century, Egyptian Merchants played their important role as buyers of cotton from Egypt. Since the early 18th century, the demand for cotton was high in Europe. The demand was offered with American and Indian cotton. However, due to the long distance of it, some merchants from Europe looked from closer to home. Especially by Russia, Austria, Poland Lithuania and Italian states. In order to even manage to challenge the American and Indian cotton trade, the governor of Egypt was offering fundings to any landholder growing these. Making it more easier to get Egyptian cotton for less amount of time. It looked like a growing business, largely led by Egyptians, mostly Coptic, and in lesser degree Greeks. The cotton business looked so attractive that it even attracted British merchants in 1765. Due to the capitulations, the British merchants had better chance to buy and sell trade goods and harmed Egyptian merchants. This led to protests by the merchants and together they demanded from the sultan to abolish the capitulations, which the Sultan wouldn’t and couldn’t. In the 12 years afterwards, the British would lose their capitulations and once again bring life back to the Egyptian merchant class. The abolishment of the British Capitulations was once discussed in 1765 but Mustafa felt not secure to abolish it yet. His successor would do it for him however. And it would be the beginning to abolish it all.


Although attractive, the decline in the Egyptian cotton trade started when the Mamluks attempted to revolt in 1770. Many merchants fled Egypt for Syria leaving the vacuum for the British Merchants. When the rebellion failed it took at least another 10 years to return to 1765 status. From then on it would grow modestly until 1805 where it would grow exponentially.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The Knights of Malta, 1766

Since the day the Knights of St. John abandoned Southern Italy for Malta they became a burden for Islamic shipping. Even now, when the Ottoman Wars with Italian powers is as good as gone they’re still continuing their pirate activities on the ships of Muslim merchants and Ottoman Navy vessels. This went as far as raiding North African villages on the Coast. The lords of the Maghreb vassals of the Sultan petitioned the Sultan to attack Malta and get rid of the Knights. The North African call for help was aided with a call by the local Mufti for a holy war against the Knights. Mustafa III heard about this issue from Merchants from Tripoli. As far as Mustafa was concerned it was something he really wanted. Not only would getting rid of the Maltese raise his prestige among Muslim subjects but also get rid of a potential Mediterranean base for the Russian Navy.

Since the day Spain and Venice no longer were a big enemy of the Ottomans, the Knights looked for new allies. Austria looked as the first candidate but Austria showed no real interest and rather looked East for allies against the Ottomans. And those were the Russians. And it were the Russians the Knights hoped to get an alliance with. Russia, although Eastern Orthodox, were also committed in their wars against the Ottomans and getting them out of Europe. This raised questions about the policies of the Knights. Should the Knights really trust the Russians? The Russians made no secret about their ambition of having an Eastern Orthodox base in the Mediterranean populated with Greeks. Some of the Knights were uneasy about that thought fearing for a deportation by the Russians whom could dominate the alliance and enforce it. At that moment the Knights would lose their home. But the voice of the pro-Russian factions were heard. Getting rid of Islamic Rule in Europe was their mission. And it wouldn’t matter if it would mean fighting together with an Eastern Orthodox power.
These words were not kept between for walls in the base of the Knights in Malta. The conference was also attended by spies from France. The French were not interested to have more Russian domination on their Southern Flank. Louis XV let the words of the Knights be heard by Mustafa III ambassador in Paris. And in mere years, entire Constantinople knew about what the Knights were up to.

Mustafa III: “Husameddin Pasha. Good you’re here. Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha is here as well. It is time we talk about or next plan.”


Husameddin Pasha: “As you order my Sultan. What would be the next preparation? I assume the fleet is involved this time?”


Mehmed Pasha: “Husameddin Pasha. The Sultan has told me earlier this week. For the following preparation you will have the biggest role. The Sultan will talk with the Pasha’s of the Divan Today. But it is necessary you know what it is about so you won’t get surprised. Our Sultan and Caliph has ordered us to prepare an operation against the Knights on Malta. The Sultan ordered me to secure no objection from the powers around the Mediterranean. But even if they object it will happen. It needs to start within two months.”


Husameddin Pasha: “Grand vizier, I can mobilise the fleet and the Army in even one month but how can we secure other nations acceptance of our campaign in two months?”


Mustafa III: “We don’t have to. It will only show the goodwill of our state towards the major powers. Our spies has told us that General Orlov is in Khadibey. He will move towards the Capital this week. As far as I am concerned, this is for Peter III a declaration of war. We can’t hand over Orlov to Peter as it will only show weakness they will try to use against us. But this is also an opportunity to prevent the Russians from intervening in Poland-Lithuania. King Stanislaw asked aid from us. And we will take it. And this is where the role of the Knights take place. They will intensify their attacks on Islamic lands. We need to prevent that and finally take Malta what my ancestor Suleiman the Lawgiver could not. It is time to make him proud of us. We need to prevent Peter from using Malta as a base. If we succeed we secure the Eastern Mediterranean from future attacks. Corfu was the target of my nephew Mahmud I. And Malta will be mine. The Beys of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli will manouvre their fleets to distract the Knights. And you will set sail to Malta. You have two option Pasha. Either you take the island or you die fighting for it. I will not accept a defeat.”


Husameddin Pasha: “My Sultan, I am honoured to take your order. As Allah is my witness, I will not let you down God willing. May Allah grant our State victory and delay my and my soldiers martyrdom.”


“Mustafa III leaves the Pasha’s”



The Quest for Persia, 1767

Ismail III assembled his forces and wanted to take over Central Persia with Esfahan. His scouts have told him that Karim Khan is near Najafabad. They just broke up their camp and move north for Qazvin. Ismail is this time supported by the powerful ally Agha Mohammed. The young leader of the Qajar tribe has a force of 40,000 men under his control of which 33,000 are cavalry. Ismail Has 50,000 men of which 35,0000 are infantry recruited with the latest training and arming to Ottoman style. His third Army is 20,000 Turkmens from Azerbaijan, all cavalry. His foe, Karim Khan mobilised numerically inferior but fast moving Army of 50,000 men and 10,000 Afshar cavalry allies. All battle hardened and veterans from previous wars. In Early March the two armies met each other near Najafabad. The Shahs artillery used the hills near the town as their position to hit Zand forces. Karim Khan fortified the abandoned town and used it as a defence knowing that the Shahs Army will face heavy losses if they attack immediately. However what bothered Karim Khan was the Safavid Artillery bombing the defences of the Zand forces. Karim Khan used his Cavalry by splitting them. His left flank Cavalry was used to move around the hills and raid the Artillery Corps on the hill. If the Artillery is finished the Shah has no weapons to enforce a siege and will be forced to retreat. His right flank was to take the attention of Agha Mohammeds cavalry near Esfahan not too far away from the battlefield. Karim Khans plan did work partially. Agha Mohammed was prevented from entering Esfahan and outmanoeuvring Karim Khan from the East. His left flank halted the Artillery from hitting Najafabad for quite some time but he could not destroy the Artillery Corps as the resistance of the Turkmen Cavalry was too strong. The left flank returned back to Najafabad and were then used to support the Right flank against the Qajar Cavalry. The Qajars retreated from Esfahan and Karim Khan repelled the first attack. Ismail III was annoyed at hearing he could not enter Esfahan. The following morning he moved the 6th and 7th Artillery Corps from Najafabad behind the hills to Esfahan as well as the Qajar infantry to support Agha Mohammed. Ismail knew that by moving two Artillery battalions he would have less firepower and Karim Khan may notice it and retreat. He could win in Esfahan but Karim Khan would leave with his Army still not beaten. Ismail regardless took the risk and moved it. In the early morning the Safavid Artillery hit Esfahan continuously. The Qajar Cavalry attacked the city and were met by the Zand Cavalry. As the day before the Zands were hard in their defence and would not allow the Qajar Cavalry enter the town. Agha Mohammed moved the Infantry division East of Esfahan out of the Zand Cavalry sight. With this he would sent his small but fast moving infantry towards the town and attack the Zand forces from behind. The Qajar infantry entered Esfahan only to meet the 1,500 Zand garrison fighting them. As soon as the Afshar Cavalry saw the Qajar Infantry in the town they have thought that the city was breached and ordered a retreat. Agha Mohammed noticed a retreat from Esfahan and sent his second in command to the Shahs base in Najafabad and advise him to advance towards Najafabad. If the Shah follows Agha Mohammeds advice Karim Khan can be surrounded by the Safavid faction. Agha Mohammed pursued the retreating forces and sent the Artillery Battalions back to Najafabad. The Qajar Infantry had to secure Esfahan. As soon as Ismail III heard the advice of Agha Mohammed he ordered his Infantry to advance towards the town. At the same time the retreating factions from Esfahan told Karim Khan about the loss of the City. Karim Khan knew that retreating now would be impossible without casualties and ordered his left flank cavalry to attack the Safavid Infantry from the left. Some of the Zand infantry were placed East of Najafabad to face the Forces of Agha Mohammed. To prevent the Zand Cavalry from routing the Safavid Infantry the Turkmen Cavalry attacked the Zand forces while the Infantry advanced towards Najafabad. Agha Mohammed used his half of his cavalry to attack from the East of Najafabad while the second force would cut the Souther road. Karim Khan managed to fend off the first waves of attack by Agha Mohammed while Ismails Infantry stormed the Zand defences North of Najafabad. As soon as the Qajar Cavalry from the South entered the Town the defences were broken. However, Karim Khan managed to retreat towards the West of the Town trying to retreat. But when Karim Khan got slain by one of Agha Mohammeds Cavalry force officers the Zand forces routed. Ismail had won his victory and even slain his rival. Before the Qajars could start mutilate Karim Khans body he ordered the slain Karim Khan to be buried with honour. Ismail lost over 16,000 men while the Zands lost over 28,000 met of which half during the rout. Maybe the most bloodiest battle in Persian History.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The time has come brothers! 1767

At the court of the emir of Diriyah the Emir Abdul Aziz Bin Mohammed Bin Saud and Sheikh Mohammed Bin Abdal Wahab are talking. The Emir of the Sauds is busy consolidating power in Nejd and prepares to strike on Qatif and the Emirs of the Persian Gulf.


Emir Abdul Aziz: “Thank you for coming Sheikh. I hope you’re well”.


Sheikh Mohammed: “God Willing I am fine. I was thinking about getting more tribes for our cause.”


Emir Abdul Aziz: “I’m glad you and I are thinking about the same. I can’t thank you enough for your effort in spreading the word against the heretics. The Sufis and Shias spread their kufr in the lands that the Sahaba spread the faith. As Muslims we are required to teach the population to repent from kufr.”


Sheikh Mohammed: “My Emir, Allah never makes a mistake. The time is right. The time is now to restore the glory of Islam. But we cannot achieve it all now. Your father Emir Mohammed was a blessed man to start it. May Allah bless those who fight for Quran and Sunnah.”

Emir Abdul Aziz: “Now you’re here I can tell you how I want to secure the land in the East. As you know the lands we have do have trouble to grow food and get water from our lands. My advisors have told me to take the land of the Shia heretics of Qatif and use the land for ourselves. Some tribes are also active in raiding the ships of the Heretics. If we get them to accept your teachings and our sovereignty we have new allies for our struggle. And when we’re stronger we’ll get rid of the Heretic Sultan of Constantinople.”


Sheikh Mohammed: "My Emir, Allah gave me legs and I can still walk. With your permission I want to go to the Emirs of the coast and will try to get them for you as your brothers in our mission. But I’ll have to worry about the Mamluk Beys of Baghdad and Cairo. Before the Sultan sends his Army the Mamluks are the threat”.


Emir Abdul Aziz: “Do not worry about the Mamluks honourable Sheikh. The Bey of Baghdad is incompetent and the Bey of Cairo will sell his honour if he could get a scrap of gold. And you have my permission. Go and set out to the Coast. You will be assisted by my soldiers and camels. Small steps first.”


The Sauds grew powerful and absorbed the tribes around in Nejd as well. By the 1770s most of the Arabian Persian Gulf Coast was taken by the Sauds. The Pirates of Persian Gulf intensified their raids on Ottoman and Persian Shipping and lands. The immediate growth of the Sauds resulted in observation by the Ottoman authorities towards the development. The Mamluk Beys of Baghdad warned about the hateful language of the Ikhwan towards the Ottoman Caliph. Sultan Mustafa III did not see the Sauds as a bigger threat than Russia or the Knights. By the 1780s the Sauds have reached the Coast of the Arabian Sea from Al Khaluf to Al Mukalla. When the Sauds threatened with the conquest of Sanaa and Muscat the Ottomans were alarmed. The alarm went even worse when the Saud forces reached as far as Karbala and Daraa.


The Georgian Janissaries, Tiflis, 1768

More than 10 years after the conquest of Tbilisi the Ottoman Authorities used Tbilisi as a base of operations against the Turkmen Khanates and Persians as well as recruiting ground. As an objective to form a new Infantry Corps, Hadzi Mustafa Pasha had recruited Turks from Eastern Anatolia as an example for the New Army to be formed. Army consisted of 12,000 men, 4 regiments. Supported by a completely reformed Artillery Corps recruited by French officers. There was also a cavalry division formed. The first Ottoman Cavalry in European style. These Cavalry units would have to replace the Sipahis as well. Although more loyal than the Janissaries they were still unreliable in battle. Most of the early recruits were Turkish. However, Hadzi Mustafa Pasha observed descent shares of Georgians as well. The condition of joining the Army was of course being a Muslim. The Georgian conscripts had no problem with doing so. This is where Hadzi Mustafa Pasha decided to experiment. As required, the Janissary Corps could also recruit from the newly acquired regions with the Sultans permit. This was also the case in Tbilisi. Hadzi Mustafa Pasha used this as a chance to form a distinctive version of the Janissary Corps only recruited by Christian Children and or converts. The Tiflis Corps became in the Russo-Turkish War one of the best forces next to the new Army. Proving to be a better version of the Janissaries than in Istanbul and all around the Empire, Hadzi Mustafa left his successor in Tiflis with the instruction. These new young Georgian Janissaries may replace the unorganised and rebellious Janissaries existing now. And it won’t be just Georgians. The recruitment of Serbs, Bulgarians, Greeks and Croats would as well. These Janissaries could serve as a Royal Guard. But their numbers have to remain low or it would turn back as the same problem the Ottoman state faced since Osman II. The new recruits were used in the Balkans as well. Overall their numbers were never higher than 15,000 men of the 120,000 Janissaries in the Corps. This is 1 out of 8. Numerically inferior. These new Janissaries were named ‘devshirme’ as to keep them distinctive from the the other Janissaries. A name from the original purpose of the Corps.

The 39,000 New Army recruits were from mostly Muslim origins: Turkmen, Bosniak, Albanian, Circassian, Egyptian. Both the ‘Devshirme’ And ‘Jadids” could go along and presented better results than one would expect. For this successful experiment, Sultan Mustafa III awarded Hadzi Mustafa Pasha with private lands in Bulgaria and became the governor of the Danube province.


Fall of Chotyn, August 1768, Principality of Moldova

In the early morning of August the Russian forces from Podolia marched straight towards Chotyn after they were informed about the declaration of war by Peter III. The Russian forces were 18,000 men. About 12,000 Infantry; 6,000 Cavalry and 30 Artillery pieces. The Russian mission was to Secure Moldova from the Ottomans and prevent them from crossing. The end of the mission is to occupy Galati before the Ottomans take it. The Russian forces were in Chotyn.The towns garrisons was 1,000 Moldovans and 800 Albanians. The Ottoman garrison could not hold the town for long as after three weeks the walls of Chotyn breached and the Russians stormed the town. Only a month Later Iasi surrendered to the the Russian Army in which the Russians now advanced toward Galati and occupied it. For now it was to wait out the reinforcements and new orders. The Ottomans would mobilise their Army by early March 1769 and start a counter Attack. The Crimean Khan mobilised 100,000 men, divided them in several Armies and used a hit and run tactic on the Russians expedition forces on the Right bank of the Dnjepr. The Russian Conquest of Chotyn was the first campaign of the war.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

Moldova Campaign, 1768-1769

The Russian occupation of Moldova did not go unnoticed by the landlords along the Danube. The landlords of Ruscuk, Silistre, Razgrad and Nigbolu warned the Sultan about the Russian incursion in the Danubian principalities. The Prince of Moldova fled with his Army to Bucharest and left behind his domain to the Russian vanguard. Mustafa III had already assembled an Army but it still needed around a week or two to march strait out to Nikopol. The Ottoman Army wants to avoid any ambush and the Russian Army isn’t big enough to stretch out to Wallachia. Mustafa forms an Army of 100,000 men. About 50,000 Cavalry and 50,000 Infantry. Of the 50,000 Infantry there are 33,000 Janissaries and 17,000 regular Infantry. The 50,000 Cavalry consists of 44,000 Sipahis and 6,000 Regular Cavalry forces.

On the first day of April Sultan Mustafa appoints Ahmed Pasha as the head of force with Hadzi Mustafa Pasha, Huseyin Pasha and Ali Pasha as aides in the Campaign.



The Grand cross of the Danube, March 1769

In order to force to Russians to peace, Sultan Mustafa and Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha prepared a plan for the Ottoman Army in which the Ottoman forces secure a connection with the Commonwealth and drive the Russians out of Polish Ukraine. Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha left with the Army for Nigbolu. From Nigbolu he ordered the Army to be divided in two Forces. The Army under Hadzi Mustafa Pasha with the regular forces will move in to Bucharest and order the Prince of Moldova and Wallachia to join the their Forces with that of the Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha. Hadzi Mustafa Pasha will move then towards Iasi and use the Pruth River as defence against the Russians. The Army of the Grand Vizier, the Janissaries and the Sipahis will besiege the Russian Expedition Army in Galati. Mehmed Pasha will be supported by the Danube fleet of 50 small vessels and gunboats to support the siege. Hadzi Mustafa Pashas main objective is to halt any Russian crossing of the Pruth River.

Principality of Moldova


Battle of Cernauti, Moldova, 3 May 1769

In early April, Hadzi Mustafa Pasha reached Iasi. The Russians had abandoned the town while moving towards Galati. The Russian Expedition Forces were ordered to occupy Galati as soon as possible and leave the rest of Moldova for the upcoming Russian Forces. Peter III had sendt two Armies to Moldova. The First one was active in Podolia and 40,000 men strong while the second one was in the Ukraine preparing to fight the Crimean Tatars and 30,000 men strong.
Hadzi Mustafa Pasha sendt several scouts to look for the Russian Armies anywhere near the Pruth River in Bessarabia. The Scouts found nothing and Hadzi Mustafa Pasha remained in his position. On 23rd of April, Mustafa Pasha got news from his Scouts. The Scouts have encountered some Roma’s traveling to Transylvania and they have seen Russians Soldiers advancing towards Cernauti. The Pasha immediately rallied his Army and advanced towards Cernauti. On 1 May 1769 the Pasha reached Cernauti. The Pasha build trenches, Artillery defences in the forest and used the buildings outside of town. On the night of 2 May 1769, the Pashas Scouts have observed a crossing to the town by boats and using a bridge. As soon as half the Russian Army crossed to town the Ottoman Artillery bombed the Russian positions. The Russians in disarray tried to form defences in town while the Bridge was destroyed and around 200 men died instantly. Due to the panic and rout another 1,400 died. When the Russian Forces on the other side was fleeing the soldiers in the town started to flee as well. Around 400 died during the cross while 2,600 died during the advance on the town. During the morning, the remaining 3,800 men of the Russian Army in town surrendered to Mustafa Pasha. The Russians lost 3,600 men in battle; 3,800 surrendered of half of them being wounded. With still more than 30,000 men, Hadzi Mustafa Pasha was cautious. He did not defeat the entire Russian Army nor did he make the Russian Army incapable. He did however halt the Russians and thus saved the Grand Viziers Army in the Siege of Galati. Hadzi Mustafa Pasha lost around 600 men in the battle and 500 more wounded. The dead Russians were thrown as much as possible in the Pruth river hoping the stream downwards will bring them towards Black Sea where additional Russian Forces in Bessarabia can encounter what happened. The dead Ottoman Soldiers were buried and Hadzi Mustafa Pasha sent scouts to look what the Russians are doing next. As soon as Hadzi Pasha realised that the Russians are retreating back to Chotyn Hadzi Mustafa Pasha decided to chase the Russians and give them a second blow before they can reorganise and restart the advance on Moldova. The captive Russians were kept in town where a garrison of Tatars were to keep them under control until Mustafa Pasha returns.


Battle of the Danube, 10 May 1769

Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha besieged Galati with his Army of 95,000 men. Mehmed Pasha was supported by the commander of the Danube fleet. The Danube fleet had around 50 small vessels and gunboats. The crew, veterans from the war with the Habsburgs, were highly motivated and not underestimated by the Russian Commander. Mehmed Pasha ordered the Ali Abdi Reis, the commander, to bomb the port of Galati to draw the Russian attention. “Do not allow them to be supplied. Do not let them fish or get anything from the river. Make them believe they think the attack comes from the Riverside.” These were the words of Mehmed Pasha to the commander of the fleet. Ali Abdi Reis sailed closer in range with his smaller vessels towards the shore while he bombed the Town with his biggest vessels. The crew landed and burned down any building close to the port. Wrecked anything to hinder the Russians to reach the port. Attacked all positions owned by the Russians. The attack had minimal deaths on both sides. The Russians lost 9 men while the Ottomans lost 12 men. However, the Russians had trouble with keeping the fire down, fearing for an entire burning town with them. After 6 hours of intense effort while under fire by the Danube fleet, the Russians put down most of the fire.
While the Russians were keen on holding the Army of the Grand Vizier out, the Russians put some of the Artillery in town in the buildings near the Port and bombing the Ottoman vessels as a response. The attack was effective, killing around 60 Ottoman crew members while wounding the commander of the fleet Ali Abdi Reis.

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The last leaf of the Tulip has fallen, Istanbul, January 1775

It has been the coldest winter in Constantinople for years. The People don’t go often in the streets due to the weather. However, enduring the cold weather went worse when the people heard about the recent illness of Sultan Mustafa III. On the 6th day of January, the tired Sultan Mustafa III finally closed his eyes never to be reopened again until the Apocalypse. Abdulhamid was called back to Constantinople after only staying a month or 5 in Athens. He remained at the side of his brother for nearly a week after Sultan Mustafa III khan (1757-1775) died. The Sultan of the Tulips is dead. The Janissaries have made their way to the palace to greet the new Sultan and say farewell to the deceased Sultan. Abdulhamid remained strong, he kept his feelings for himself and became Sultan in front of all the government officials and military commanders. The rule of Abdulhamid I Khan (1775-...) has started.

The first thing Abdulhamid I did was letting all of the government officials stay on their posts. Abdulhamid kept his brothers government active and sent Sehzade Murad to Bursa to become the governor there. Abdulhamid informed all ambassadors to that he continues the treaties his brother made and wished to continue the good relationship between Constantinople and all other European states. Mustafa’s war with Russia and his sudden displease with Louis XV peace proposal in which Mustafa believed he could have won. Abdulhamid was not sure about it but never told his brother. Abdulhamid sent several envoys to continue the treaty Mustafa and Ismail made. At last he considered the Crimean Khans offer for marriage between both Mustafa’s daughter and the Khans heir, the Khans daughter and Sehzade Murad. Murad was son of Mehmed and a twin. His twin brother Ibrahim which would actually be heir died in a hunting accident a few months before Mustafa died. The most popular Ibrahim died and was replaced by the rather unknown Murad. Abdulhamids sorrow for Ibrahims death prevented a worse reaction on his brothers death. Seeing both the orphans Ibrahim and Murad almost as his own children.

Abdulhamid on the second day went out to the Sultan Ahmed Mosque and was greeted by thousands of people. The people were positive about the Sultan. It seems that Abdulhamid won’t experience too much friction from the populace.


The Janissary problem, Vidin, 1775

As soon as Abdulhamid became sultan he abolished the law on giving the soldiers a sum of money. Abdulhamid saw it as a waste of money on those who were not interested in serving the Sultan. The Janissaries were unhappy. They considered it their right to get the money in which a conflict broke out between Government officials and Janissary Aga’s. As a punishment the Aga’s were sent to Vidin to perform Guard duty. The Janissaries here showed the first signs of what would be troublesome for the government. The exiled Janissaries in Vidin act like bandits. Taxing more from the locals while preventing the local Suleiman Pasha to tax for the Government. It went as bad as the Janissaries taking the control over Vidin. The Bandits of Vidin, although small in numbers, encouraged other Janissaries in the Area to behave as they wished. It went as far as illegally taxing to a murdering spree.

Abdulhamid was at first uneasy about what to think. He never had to deal with these problems even when he was on the front. In his presence there was Sehzade Selim. Selim did something what Princes would not actually dare. Selim advised the Sultan to put down the rebellion. The Pashas were horrified that a fourteen year old tells the Sultan what to do. However, Abdulhamid listened and sent his Gurcu (Georgian) Yunus Pasha to put down the rebellion with all that is necessary. Abdulhamid, not angry at all with Selim saw it as a net positive. If Selim ever would become a Sultan he would act immediately. Not be unsure what to happen. Yunus Pasha had an Army of 900 Regular Infantry and 300 Cavalry. With 1,200 men he went to put down the Janissary rebellion in Vidin. As soon as Yunus Pasha arrived he ordered a surrender in which the Janissaries refused. Yunus Pasha did not ask a second time and attacked immediately. The Janissaries were up to 900 men with around 1,300 irregulars who had supported them from the vicinity. Without any loss, Yunus Pasha regained Vidin and killed up to 600 men. Half of the victims died while trying to cross the Danube. Only a 100 men fled and the rest were taken captives to Constantinople. The leader of the rebellion, Haydar Aga fled to Bosnia in which he remained silent until the 1790s. The new governor of Vidin was Kara Ali Pasha. The brutal Pasha of Morea was experienced enough to prevent further rebellions. His harsh behavior for rebellious attitude and his zero tolerance policy kept Morea safe for quite some time.

Regardless of the success, the Corps showed signs of banditry and rebellious attitudes. It was a shock when Mehmed V was killed in which almost everybody suspected the Janissary Corps Aga’s prepared it. But twenty years further and some Janissaries are acting more like bandits than Soldiers. Abdulhamid is worried, his Pashas are worried, his heir is worried. And now the people may get worried as well.



The Bektashi Order as missionaries, Balkans & Caucasus, 1775

In the second half of the 18th century the Bektashi Order, supported by the Janissary Corps, started an active form of Missionary Activity. Especially among Bulgarians and Albanians. Their sudden activity did not come from nowhere. With the rising power of the Janissaries and, what the Order perceived as, declining loyalty of the Christian Clergy to the state, the Order began active missions for converts in the Balkans. Under protection of the Janissaries, the Order worked in towns and rural lands. In the 1775, after almost 20 years of their growing their missionary activity around 40,000 Albanians; 80,000 Bulgarians; 48,000 Greeks; 2,000 Croats; 78,000 Serbs; 102,000 Circassians; 38,000 Georgians and 4,000 Armenians converted. In 20 years, up to 392,000 Christians were converted. Many of them either Peasants, Slaves or Merchants. The Christian Nobles in Greece and Bosnia were almost entirely unconverted with a few exceptions.

This Missionary activity caused unrest among the Greek Orthodox Patriarch. Feeling that there was no possibility to have the Sultan to stop, the Greek Orthodox Church started their own missionary campaign but among Christians. Converting Muslims will by no means be accepted by the State and the Wrath of the Muslim elite is not desirable. The Greek Orthodox Church wants to strengthen the ties between the Orthodox Christians and the Church in which they believed it declined due to warfare and famines. The people have to regain trust in the Church. Not only among Orthodox Christians, the Church went as far as seeking converts among the Maronites in Mount Lebanon and the Alawites in Jebel Alawiyya. The Sultan tried to ease the tensions to reduce the Bektashi missionary campaign in The Caucasus with an exception on Armenians as well. The Order was not happy about it and neither were the Janissaries. The Sultan however feared that besides the tensions, the Order will get too powerful. They must be kept away from the Corps base in the Balkans. The conversions weren’t bad but the ties between the Corps and the Order need to weaken.


Flourishing region called Anatolia, 1776

Since the rule of Mehmed V there were concerns about the large lands of Anatolia being so underdeveloped. They have more potential yet the towns, cities and villages are poor. Mustafa made some efforts by letting more skilled people to settle in Anatolia. More Clergy were sent from the Balkans to Anatolia to have the populace being taught to read or write. The roads between Anatolian towns were renewed and expanded. Towns like Diyarbakir were no longer isolated from towns like Kayseri and Konya. The ties between Azerbaijan and Anatolia started to grow and the trade started to flourish as well. The Kurds in Eastern Anatolia who became wealthy due to trade started to leave Eastern Anatolia for Western Anatolia and the Balkans, buying lands. Greek and Jewish Merchants started take advantage of the growing Trade in Eastern Anatolia and started to settle there with their families. Egyptians who had a poor life in Egypt were offered land in Anatolia in which they could have in exchange of giving half their crops to the state. It would take almost 40 years until Anatolia would no longer be considered as the backwater of the Empire. The demographic and Economic growth of Anatolia had positive effects on the Neighbouring Mesopotamia and Levant as well. With People moving all around the Empire they learned more about it and the wealthy populace became more aware of their situation and that of the Empire. This had both positive as well as negative effects. The net positive of the People moving around the Empire was optimism to support the Sultans Armies in Wars while the negative was the growing corruption with the Autonomous Pasha’s and Janissary Aga’s. As far as Sehzade Murad could tell, Anatolia started to grow and will reach its place in the world it deserves. If fortunes do not look well for us, we will lose all lands except Anatolia. Where it all started…

Sultan Abdulhamid I Khan, (1775-...)

 

[Koprulu Mustafa Pasha]

The great mission in the east - 1792

The 18th century has seen Christian missionaries spreading their faith among believers of the other faiths. The missions of these Christians were also among the Christians in the Ottoman Empire. In this case Muslims were avoided to prevent angering the local clergy. However, several Sufi Orders had seen the activity of these missionaries among local Christians and were inspired. Something the Orders were doing centuries ago has now declined. As early as the 1780s several Sufi Orders were talking about the possibility to spread the Islamic faith among the non-Muslims in Central Asia and the Caucasus. This became even more popular among the Orders after the Sultan prevented the Missionary Activity to spread in the Balkan, leaving it to the Janissary Corps only. After the idea dying out for 20 years it once again gained popularity among the Sufi Orders. This time the region of interest was the Caucasus and Central Asia. Supported by Sultan Abdulhamid I and later Murad V, the Orders have set out from Istanbul to Erzurum and from there their paths have been divided. Some of them set out for the Caucasus and especially among the Georgians and Ossetians. The others left for the Lands of the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz and Uyghurs. The Sufi’s leaving for Central Asia were not only going to strengthen the Islamic faith among the steppe nomads, countering the Russian Orthodox. It was also to restore the ties between cities like Samarkand and Bukhara with Istanbul and the rest of the Middle East. The stronger the ties the stronger the Islamic Faith gets was their motivation. The travel to Central Asia however was problematic. Mohammed II had died in early 1792 and his younger yet ill brother Abbas IV succeeded him. The situation in Persia was tense and it looked like a succession war could start any moment with the oldest son of Mohammed II, Suleiman going for it. Other than the tense political situation, the problems the local Shia Clergy had with the Sufi’s heading for Baku to travel to Central Asia, the Georgian Outlaws hunting under Solomon of Kutaisi hunting on Muslim Pilgrims were a huge problem. The Pasha of Tiflis, Cerkes Suleiman Pasha, made several attempts to hunt down the bandits but failed as the bandits are too mobile to be caught by an expedition force and nobody knows where they are. In the 1790s, 1 in the 3 Sufi’s heading from Erzurum died during their travel of which three quarter of them by the Georgian Bandits. As far as the Order was concerned death did not scare them. Many left for their destination regardless. Other than going for Central Asia and the Caucasus, there were new Madrassa’s opened in the Crimea and the Caucasus to educate the locals and train new men to send them over to Central Asia.


The Firman of Murad V - 1792

Murad V saw the threat of the autonomy the Pasha’s on the edge had during his military campaign. Kara Ali Pasha had complained about the issue as well due to the threat of breaking away and being used by foreign powers. When Ali Pasha Tependeli acted like a King during the stay of Murad in Macedonia Murad was irritated. Telling the situation to Abdulhamid I did not really help as the old Sultan was ill and thought a simple warning would be okay. A rebellion during wartime was the last thing Abdulhamid wanted. When Abdulhamid I died Murad V declared several rights to be taken away from various Pashaluks and the power of the Pasha’s being reduced. This of course did not apply to all Pasha’s. Egypt and Baghdad Vilayets kept most of their autonomy the Sultans before Murad V granted them but Murad would accept no more autonomy in any part of his realm than the one in Istanbul. Russia being defeated helped the Ottoman Emperor gaining prestige and a safeguard on the frontiers. In order to quell rebellions Murad needed the support of the Crimean Khan. The Khan of the Crimea, Sahin Giray, declared all kind of support ready in case Murad needs it. The rights being taken away:

• The ruling Pasha will be appointed by the Emperor or Grand Vizier. Hereditary is not possible
  
• Taxation percentage will be as the Grand Vizier orders, no more no less
  
• The regional forces of the Pasha’s can not be more than 8,000 men
  
• The Pasha’s can not remain longer than 15 years in position unless the Emperor orders so
  
• The Pasha’s can not rule the Pashaluks from which they are from. This only counts for the successors after the last Firman
  
• The Pasha’s are not allowed to correspond or talk with foreign rulers, ambassadors unless the Emperor orders so
  
• The Grand Vizier has the only right to give orders on the Janissaries unless the Grand Vizier gives the Pasha’s below them the rights
  
• Taxation can not be more than 37,5% of the total income of the population. Taxation will be 25% of the income of the people after this Firman
  
• The Janissary Corps is no longer hereditary
  
• The Janissary Corps will only accept new recruits from the ages 8 to 18
  
• Janissaries will retire by the age of 50. They will get some land to get income from their retirement
  
• The Ayans will have no more armed militia than 150 men a maximum
  
• The Pasha’s will accept the new Garrisons settled by the Grand Viziers on the Frontier Pashaluks
  

The Firman of Murad V was not well taken. Most of the Army was still on the frontiers ready for the return. When the Firman reached the Pasha’s none were happy and the recently appointed Sancak Beyi of Vidin, Pazvantoğlu Osman Pasha revolted against Murad V in 1793 after being Sancak Beyi for only a few months. Supported by Bulgarian, Serbian and Turkish bandits and rebellious Janissaries Osman Pasha occupied Vidin and attacked nearby towns continuing his bandit lifestyle. In order to enforce the law, Murad V appointed the landlord of Ruscuk, Alemdar Mustafa, as the Pasha of the Tuna (Danube) Vilayet. Ordered by Murad V, Alemdar Mustafa had to put down the rebellion of the Bandit.



The Sultan who failed - 1793

In the late months of 1792 AD, Bedouins from the Nejd had marched to more populated areas as Hejaz and Al Haasa. The Bedouin tribes are loyal to the Emir of Diriyah, a man who is rather unknown among the local Pasha’s but only is known to be allied with a Sheikh who has rather strange believes to those of the Pasha’s and the natives. These tribes loyal to Emir Abdul Aziz bin Muhammad have been raiding Caravans, looting towns and killing those who resist against the armies of the Emir. Eventually, these raids reached the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina. When the raid of the two holy cities came to Istanbul it caused an outrage among the already unhappy Janissaries under command of Cebecibasi Cerkes Osman, a Janissary Veteran and Commander during the Russo-Turkish War. A Sultan, a Caliph who could not protect two of the three most holiest cities of Islam is not worthy of staying on the throne. As far as Cerkes Osman, other Janissary Officers and opponents of Murad V reforms were concerned, Murad V failed to do the most important job he had. Failing to see such threats, Murad V was in a position his predecessors never were. Unless he reacts fast, his position on the throne is uncertain.