This is my submission for AltHistoryHub's "Alternate Countries 5" contest
A massive map and an even more massive wall of text.
“Across from the river Odra from Central Europe and the German states, bordered by the Carpathian mountains in the south and the Yaik mountains to it’s far east, lies the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or simply known as Poland. Having its origins in the signing of the Union of Lublin on July 1, 1569, as the evolutionary next step of a pre-existing union between the nations of Poland and Lithuania first established in 1386, now, it’s flag flies proudly from the river Volga in its east to the Vistula in it’s west, and it stands as one of the most powerful states in Europe, if not the world. It stands as a democratic state with elections. From the capital city of Warsaw that harbors various architectural marvels from the Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical periods, all of which are located within walking distance of the city center; to the city of Kijow which was a historic cultural center of East Slavic civilization and retained its cultural and historical importance through the centuries of relative decay and disorder; to the city of Carycyn on the shores of the Volga river in the far east of the country. The ascension of Poland has significantly shifted Eastern Europe into a region of rich cultures, of wealth, and a region one will usually associate with liberty and democracy.
Although there were other important events that predate the Union of Lublin; the Union of Krewo, signed in 1385, was a personal union that brought the Grand Duke of Lithuania at the time, Jogaila, to the Polish throne; the Union of Vilnius and Radom, signed in 1401, strengthened the Polish–Lithuanian union further; the Union of Horodło, signed in 1413, which granted many szlachta rights to the Lithuanian nobility; the Union of Grodno, signed in 1432, was an attempt to renew a more closer union; the Union of Mielnik, signed in 1501, renewed the pre-existing personal union, and was the last major event before the eventual signing of the Union of Lublin in 1569, which created the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In 1605, the Polish–Muscovite War, also known as the Dmitiriads, would break out and be fought between the Tsardom of Russia and Poland from 1605 and would end in 1613. At the time, Russia was experiencing a period of political crisis as a consequence of the death of Tsar Fyodor I, this period is referred to as the Time of Troubles or Smuta. Tsar Fyodor I was the last of the Rurikids, and his death would put the final end to the Rurikids, leading to a violent succession crisis with numerous usurpers and false Dmitrys claiming the title of tsar. Another catalyst for the Time of Troubles was that Russia had experienced a very severe famine from 1601 to 1603 after extremely poor harvests, with nighttime temperatures in the summer months at times below freezing. The famine would kill around 2 million people, 30% of the Russian population at the time within 3 years of Fyodor's death. The famine was a result from the series of the greater worldwide record cold winters and crop disruption at the time.
Poland would exploit Russia's current state when members of the szlachta had begun influencing Russian boyars and supported false Dmitrys for the title of Tsar of Russia against the crowned Boris Godunov and Vasili IV Shuysky. The Second Volunteer Army took Yaroslavl in March 1612 and set up a Russian provisional government that was supported by a number of cities. In August 1612 a 9,000-strong Polish army under the hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz was on the way to Moscow, and on 1 September, the Battle of Moscow would begin when Chodkiewicz's forces reached the city, after early successes, Chodkiewicz's forces were successfully able to hold Moscow. Russia would formally announce its surrender and negotiations would begin and a peace treaty was signed in March 1613. The treaty would end the war and would also effectively dismantle the Russian state, turning the territories not directly annexed by Poland into vassal states.
Following the victory in Russia, Poland would begin to look east once more in the search of fur, towards the frigid land of Siberia. The conquest of Siberia was primarily driven by the pre-existing fur trade and was helped by Russian and Ukrainian Cossack forces.With support from the government, the Cossacks expanded eastward from the Don to the Pacific Ocean and were early colonizers of Siberia, helping to drive the frontier further and further east. Though it was during this very same time that an issue was discovered, Warsaw’s authority in a region as far away as Siberia, was merely a phantom, and that anything east of the Yaik mountains was out of reach, that was the case before the railroad.
As a way to alleviate this issue, colonization of the region would be driven entirely by the Cossacks, along with taking advantage of the pre-existing series of winter outposts and forts at the confluences of major rivers, streams and important portages that were built years earlier in order to subjugate the natives. The rivers here were also of primary importance in the process of conquest and exploration of vast Siberian territories eastwards. Advancing further east, the Cossacks would reach the Pacific Ocean in the year 1643. Siberia would eventually become an independent Cossack state separate from the rest of the Commonwealth, now known as the Hetmanate of Siberia.
Though this march to the east was not bloodless. The conquest of Siberia was sometimes accompanied by massacres due to the emergence of resistance by the indigenous peoples to the colonization by the Cossack forces, who would later on crush the natives. In 1630, indigenous peoples like the Daur were slaughtered by Cossack forces to some extent that it would be considered genocide. In another example, in the Kamchatka peninsula alone 8,000 out of a population of 20,000 remained after being subjected to half a century of Cossack slaughter. In the 1650s and the 1720s, Yakuts, Koryaks, and many other peoples were also subjected to massacres by the Cossacks. A native Kamchatkan rebellion in 1708 resulted in a mass suicide. Today the original population of 150.000 native Kamchatkans that once stood has been reduced to 10.000.
The Hetmanate itself is anomalous politically, anomalous primarily because of the political system that it inherited. Though effectively a stratocracy by nature, it is one that is highly libertarian and emphasizes democracy. Observers have dubbed this form of stratocracy as “military libertarianism”, and it seems to be entirely unique to the country. Economically, it has managed to fully take advantage of the extraordinary mineral wealth that lies below Siberia. 70% of the country’s oil fields lie in the region of Western Siberia, which would be later refined and shipped throughout the world.. The country alone contains about 40% of the world's known resources of nickel at a deposit near the town of Yeniseysk. Although severely restricted by the rather short growing season of most of the region, it is primarily in the southwest where the climate is more moderate and the land exceedingly fertile that Siberia houses it’s food powerhouse, in the form of the cropping of wheat and other grains along with the grazing of large numbers of cattle. In Education, Siberia is primarily known for it’s fairly high level of literacy, including a high number of elementary schools per population in the country.
Meanwhile in the west, the concert of Europe was rapidly changing. As part of the greater background of preventing further Ottoman expansion into Europe, including the fact that the Poles already drove out the native Turks out of Southern Ukraine, and showed the weakness of the Ottomans, culminated in the Great Turkish War which was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League, an alliance of several European nations, of which Poland was a member. The alliance included a large portion of Europe's military strength which led to unprecedented military successes, in what has been called a “14th crusade”. As the conclusion of the conflict after it was ended by the Treaty of Karlowitz, it shifted the balance of power away from the Ottomans, and further diminished Ottoman presence in Europe. The Holy League was dissolved in 1699 following the signing of the treaty.
The 18th century would see the development of ideas of the Enlightenment in Poland, which developed around the same time as Western Europe. The period of the Enlightenment in Poland would begin in the 1720s–30s, with the theater and the arts flourishing in the nation and would end around the 19th century. With Warsaw as the main center of the movement after 1740. Important institutions of the Enlightenment in Poland included the founding of the National Theater or Teatr Narodowy in 1765 in Warsaw by the country’s monarch at the time. The Sejm established the Commission of National Education in 1773; the Society for Elementary Books; and the Corps of Cadets. The Warsaw Society of Friends of Science was established in 1800 in Warsaw, and was one of the earliest Polish scientific societies, operating from 1800 to 1832. This period would also see the rise of several newspapers including Monitor and Games Pleasant and Useful or Zabawy Przyjemne i Pożyteczne.
The early 19th century would see another devastating conflict occur in Europe, in the form of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1805, Austria and Poland formed the Third Coalition and declared war against France. In response, Napoleon defeated the allied Austro-Polish army at the Battle of Austerlitz in December 1805, following the defeat at Austerlitz, Austria ceded lands and left the Third Coalition. On 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish navy was sunk by the British in the Battle of Trafalgar, firmly placing the seas in British hands and preventing the invasion of Britain itself. Napoleon would launch an invasion of Portugal in winter of 1807, Portugal being the last remaining British ally in continental Europe. With Lisbon occupied in November 1807, Napoleon would turn against his former ally, Spain, and placed his brother as King of Spain in 1808. Though the occupation was initially successful, with British support, the Spanish and Portuguese revolted and successfully expelled the French from Iberia in 1814.
The formation of the Fourth Coalition with Poland, Saxony, and Sweden would cause the war to resume in October 1806. After the defeat of Coalition forces, the Treaties of Tilsit would bring fragile peace to the continent. Though, the peace fell apart quickly, as war would break out again in 1809, with the badly prepared Fifth Coalition, led by Austria. Although met by an initial victory at Aspern-Essling, they were defeated at Wagram. Poland, briefly being French aligned following Tilsit, but the alliance broke down in 1810, prompting Napoleon to launch a massive invasion of the country in 1812, which ended in disaster and the La Grande Armée, France’s imperial army, almost being destroyed.
Encouraged by the massive defeat in Poland, the Sixth Coalition would emerge and immediately launched a renewed campaign against Napoleon, defeating Napoleon at Leipzig in October of 1813. While the Peninsular War would spill over into southwestern France, Coalition forces invaded France from the east, ending in the capture of Paris at the end of March 1814. With the Treaty of Fontainebleau signed a month later, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and then exiled to the island of Elba, along with the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty. But Napoleon would manage to escape Elba in February 1815 and managed to restore control of France for 100 days. With the creation of the Seventh Coalition, and a crushing defeat at Waterloo, he was exiled to the island of Saint Helena, in which he never managed to return to France, and would die 6 years later in 1821. The Congress of Vienna would see the borders of Europe redrawn and would bring an end to the years of devastating wars that affected the continent and its people.
In 1848, the winds of change would again sweep over the continent in the form of the Springtime of the Peoples, and to this day it remains the most widespread wave of revolutions in European history. Having its beginning in France in February of 1848, it would begin to rapidly spread over the entire continent and would affect up to 50 nations, including those outside Europe. It’s origins lie from a wide variety of causes. The uprisings were primarily led by temporary coalitions of liberal reformers, radical politicians and urban workers who desired reshaping the nations of the continent in their image. Poland did not see major unrest during the revolutions, but did see some mild political reforms. Following its end in Autumn of 1848, it was ultimately defeated because of a significant lack of coordination or cooperation among the revolutionaries, as a result the coalitions broke down and the revolutions were quickly repressed, though its effects lasted far past 1848, including indirectly inducing a food crisis in Europe that resulted in mass starvation. It was during these times that the factors and conditions that would culminate in the First and Second Great Wars began to slowly emerge.
The early and mid 20th century saw Europe endure through it’s final tests after the turn of the new century. The emergence of the First and Second Great Wars resulted in massive numbers of deaths, the wars brought another new age of revolutions into Europe that would result in the emergence of a global geopolitical standoff between the 2 communalist powers of France and the People’s Union of Revolutionary Councils, which emerged from the carcass of the former Ottoman Empire. These 2 nations formed the bulk of the International System, against Poland, Britain and other nations, in the form of the Warsaw Pact, both alliances were the 2 dominant powers in the world. This period in history is now known as the Cold War.
The Cold War dominated European and global geo-politics from 1947 to 1979. After the collapse of the International System due to a large amount of infighting over ideological lines, and the Warsaw Pact dissolving in the absence of a common enemy, by the dawn of the 21st century, the former Warsaw Pact and International System member states had drifted away in their own paths, and ever since, the bipolar world order that came before has given birth to a new fragile multipolar order, in which the global balance of power could tilt in any direction.
Poland is an incredibly remarkable country. It is extraordinary for its rich history that stretches back a thousand years and it’s pluralistic society that harbors uncountable numbers of differing identities, which it has maintained even through years of decay and disorder. For it has survived through the devastating wars of Europe, for it has passed through the thunderstorms. However, predicting the future is impossible. Whatever the future holds for this state could be either for the best, or for the worst.”
-Segment from “Across the Seas: An International History of Nations” (Arthur Hawkins, 2014)
A massive map and an even more massive wall of text.
“Lithuania, my country! You are as good health.”
Opening sentence of Pan Tadeusz, a Polish epic poem first published in 1834.
Introduction
Opening sentence of Pan Tadeusz, a Polish epic poem first published in 1834.
Introduction
“Across from the river Odra from Central Europe and the German states, bordered by the Carpathian mountains in the south and the Yaik mountains to it’s far east, lies the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or simply known as Poland. Having its origins in the signing of the Union of Lublin on July 1, 1569, as the evolutionary next step of a pre-existing union between the nations of Poland and Lithuania first established in 1386, now, it’s flag flies proudly from the river Volga in its east to the Vistula in it’s west, and it stands as one of the most powerful states in Europe, if not the world. It stands as a democratic state with elections. From the capital city of Warsaw that harbors various architectural marvels from the Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical periods, all of which are located within walking distance of the city center; to the city of Kijow which was a historic cultural center of East Slavic civilization and retained its cultural and historical importance through the centuries of relative decay and disorder; to the city of Carycyn on the shores of the Volga river in the far east of the country. The ascension of Poland has significantly shifted Eastern Europe into a region of rich cultures, of wealth, and a region one will usually associate with liberty and democracy.
History
The roots, the origins of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, can be traced back to the aforementioned pre-existing initial union that would lay the foundations of the Commonwealth that would be formed later on; the Polish-Lithuanian union. Though it is rather an umbrella term for a series of acts and alliances enacted between the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that would last for prolonged periods of time starting from the year 1385 and ended in the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a result of the signing of the Union of Lublin in July 1, 1569. The Union of Lublin of 1569 more or less replaced the previously existing personal union of the two countries with the creation of a single state; culturally speaking, the signing of the Union would also accelerate the process of Polonization in several regions.
Although there were other important events that predate the Union of Lublin; the Union of Krewo, signed in 1385, was a personal union that brought the Grand Duke of Lithuania at the time, Jogaila, to the Polish throne; the Union of Vilnius and Radom, signed in 1401, strengthened the Polish–Lithuanian union further; the Union of Horodło, signed in 1413, which granted many szlachta rights to the Lithuanian nobility; the Union of Grodno, signed in 1432, was an attempt to renew a more closer union; the Union of Mielnik, signed in 1501, renewed the pre-existing personal union, and was the last major event before the eventual signing of the Union of Lublin in 1569, which created the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In 1605, the Polish–Muscovite War, also known as the Dmitiriads, would break out and be fought between the Tsardom of Russia and Poland from 1605 and would end in 1613. At the time, Russia was experiencing a period of political crisis as a consequence of the death of Tsar Fyodor I, this period is referred to as the Time of Troubles or Smuta. Tsar Fyodor I was the last of the Rurikids, and his death would put the final end to the Rurikids, leading to a violent succession crisis with numerous usurpers and false Dmitrys claiming the title of tsar. Another catalyst for the Time of Troubles was that Russia had experienced a very severe famine from 1601 to 1603 after extremely poor harvests, with nighttime temperatures in the summer months at times below freezing. The famine would kill around 2 million people, 30% of the Russian population at the time within 3 years of Fyodor's death. The famine was a result from the series of the greater worldwide record cold winters and crop disruption at the time.
Poland would exploit Russia's current state when members of the szlachta had begun influencing Russian boyars and supported false Dmitrys for the title of Tsar of Russia against the crowned Boris Godunov and Vasili IV Shuysky. The Second Volunteer Army took Yaroslavl in March 1612 and set up a Russian provisional government that was supported by a number of cities. In August 1612 a 9,000-strong Polish army under the hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz was on the way to Moscow, and on 1 September, the Battle of Moscow would begin when Chodkiewicz's forces reached the city, after early successes, Chodkiewicz's forces were successfully able to hold Moscow. Russia would formally announce its surrender and negotiations would begin and a peace treaty was signed in March 1613. The treaty would end the war and would also effectively dismantle the Russian state, turning the territories not directly annexed by Poland into vassal states.
Following the victory in Russia, Poland would begin to look east once more in the search of fur, towards the frigid land of Siberia. The conquest of Siberia was primarily driven by the pre-existing fur trade and was helped by Russian and Ukrainian Cossack forces.With support from the government, the Cossacks expanded eastward from the Don to the Pacific Ocean and were early colonizers of Siberia, helping to drive the frontier further and further east. Though it was during this very same time that an issue was discovered, Warsaw’s authority in a region as far away as Siberia, was merely a phantom, and that anything east of the Yaik mountains was out of reach, that was the case before the railroad.
As a way to alleviate this issue, colonization of the region would be driven entirely by the Cossacks, along with taking advantage of the pre-existing series of winter outposts and forts at the confluences of major rivers, streams and important portages that were built years earlier in order to subjugate the natives. The rivers here were also of primary importance in the process of conquest and exploration of vast Siberian territories eastwards. Advancing further east, the Cossacks would reach the Pacific Ocean in the year 1643. Siberia would eventually become an independent Cossack state separate from the rest of the Commonwealth, now known as the Hetmanate of Siberia.
Though this march to the east was not bloodless. The conquest of Siberia was sometimes accompanied by massacres due to the emergence of resistance by the indigenous peoples to the colonization by the Cossack forces, who would later on crush the natives. In 1630, indigenous peoples like the Daur were slaughtered by Cossack forces to some extent that it would be considered genocide. In another example, in the Kamchatka peninsula alone 8,000 out of a population of 20,000 remained after being subjected to half a century of Cossack slaughter. In the 1650s and the 1720s, Yakuts, Koryaks, and many other peoples were also subjected to massacres by the Cossacks. A native Kamchatkan rebellion in 1708 resulted in a mass suicide. Today the original population of 150.000 native Kamchatkans that once stood has been reduced to 10.000.
The Hetmanate itself is anomalous politically, anomalous primarily because of the political system that it inherited. Though effectively a stratocracy by nature, it is one that is highly libertarian and emphasizes democracy. Observers have dubbed this form of stratocracy as “military libertarianism”, and it seems to be entirely unique to the country. Economically, it has managed to fully take advantage of the extraordinary mineral wealth that lies below Siberia. 70% of the country’s oil fields lie in the region of Western Siberia, which would be later refined and shipped throughout the world.. The country alone contains about 40% of the world's known resources of nickel at a deposit near the town of Yeniseysk. Although severely restricted by the rather short growing season of most of the region, it is primarily in the southwest where the climate is more moderate and the land exceedingly fertile that Siberia houses it’s food powerhouse, in the form of the cropping of wheat and other grains along with the grazing of large numbers of cattle. In Education, Siberia is primarily known for it’s fairly high level of literacy, including a high number of elementary schools per population in the country.
Meanwhile in the west, the concert of Europe was rapidly changing. As part of the greater background of preventing further Ottoman expansion into Europe, including the fact that the Poles already drove out the native Turks out of Southern Ukraine, and showed the weakness of the Ottomans, culminated in the Great Turkish War which was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League, an alliance of several European nations, of which Poland was a member. The alliance included a large portion of Europe's military strength which led to unprecedented military successes, in what has been called a “14th crusade”. As the conclusion of the conflict after it was ended by the Treaty of Karlowitz, it shifted the balance of power away from the Ottomans, and further diminished Ottoman presence in Europe. The Holy League was dissolved in 1699 following the signing of the treaty.
The 18th century would see the development of ideas of the Enlightenment in Poland, which developed around the same time as Western Europe. The period of the Enlightenment in Poland would begin in the 1720s–30s, with the theater and the arts flourishing in the nation and would end around the 19th century. With Warsaw as the main center of the movement after 1740. Important institutions of the Enlightenment in Poland included the founding of the National Theater or Teatr Narodowy in 1765 in Warsaw by the country’s monarch at the time. The Sejm established the Commission of National Education in 1773; the Society for Elementary Books; and the Corps of Cadets. The Warsaw Society of Friends of Science was established in 1800 in Warsaw, and was one of the earliest Polish scientific societies, operating from 1800 to 1832. This period would also see the rise of several newspapers including Monitor and Games Pleasant and Useful or Zabawy Przyjemne i Pożyteczne.
The early 19th century would see another devastating conflict occur in Europe, in the form of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1805, Austria and Poland formed the Third Coalition and declared war against France. In response, Napoleon defeated the allied Austro-Polish army at the Battle of Austerlitz in December 1805, following the defeat at Austerlitz, Austria ceded lands and left the Third Coalition. On 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish navy was sunk by the British in the Battle of Trafalgar, firmly placing the seas in British hands and preventing the invasion of Britain itself. Napoleon would launch an invasion of Portugal in winter of 1807, Portugal being the last remaining British ally in continental Europe. With Lisbon occupied in November 1807, Napoleon would turn against his former ally, Spain, and placed his brother as King of Spain in 1808. Though the occupation was initially successful, with British support, the Spanish and Portuguese revolted and successfully expelled the French from Iberia in 1814.
The formation of the Fourth Coalition with Poland, Saxony, and Sweden would cause the war to resume in October 1806. After the defeat of Coalition forces, the Treaties of Tilsit would bring fragile peace to the continent. Though, the peace fell apart quickly, as war would break out again in 1809, with the badly prepared Fifth Coalition, led by Austria. Although met by an initial victory at Aspern-Essling, they were defeated at Wagram. Poland, briefly being French aligned following Tilsit, but the alliance broke down in 1810, prompting Napoleon to launch a massive invasion of the country in 1812, which ended in disaster and the La Grande Armée, France’s imperial army, almost being destroyed.
Encouraged by the massive defeat in Poland, the Sixth Coalition would emerge and immediately launched a renewed campaign against Napoleon, defeating Napoleon at Leipzig in October of 1813. While the Peninsular War would spill over into southwestern France, Coalition forces invaded France from the east, ending in the capture of Paris at the end of March 1814. With the Treaty of Fontainebleau signed a month later, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and then exiled to the island of Elba, along with the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty. But Napoleon would manage to escape Elba in February 1815 and managed to restore control of France for 100 days. With the creation of the Seventh Coalition, and a crushing defeat at Waterloo, he was exiled to the island of Saint Helena, in which he never managed to return to France, and would die 6 years later in 1821. The Congress of Vienna would see the borders of Europe redrawn and would bring an end to the years of devastating wars that affected the continent and its people.
In 1848, the winds of change would again sweep over the continent in the form of the Springtime of the Peoples, and to this day it remains the most widespread wave of revolutions in European history. Having its beginning in France in February of 1848, it would begin to rapidly spread over the entire continent and would affect up to 50 nations, including those outside Europe. It’s origins lie from a wide variety of causes. The uprisings were primarily led by temporary coalitions of liberal reformers, radical politicians and urban workers who desired reshaping the nations of the continent in their image. Poland did not see major unrest during the revolutions, but did see some mild political reforms. Following its end in Autumn of 1848, it was ultimately defeated because of a significant lack of coordination or cooperation among the revolutionaries, as a result the coalitions broke down and the revolutions were quickly repressed, though its effects lasted far past 1848, including indirectly inducing a food crisis in Europe that resulted in mass starvation. It was during these times that the factors and conditions that would culminate in the First and Second Great Wars began to slowly emerge.
The early and mid 20th century saw Europe endure through it’s final tests after the turn of the new century. The emergence of the First and Second Great Wars resulted in massive numbers of deaths, the wars brought another new age of revolutions into Europe that would result in the emergence of a global geopolitical standoff between the 2 communalist powers of France and the People’s Union of Revolutionary Councils, which emerged from the carcass of the former Ottoman Empire. These 2 nations formed the bulk of the International System, against Poland, Britain and other nations, in the form of the Warsaw Pact, both alliances were the 2 dominant powers in the world. This period in history is now known as the Cold War.
The Cold War dominated European and global geo-politics from 1947 to 1979. After the collapse of the International System due to a large amount of infighting over ideological lines, and the Warsaw Pact dissolving in the absence of a common enemy, by the dawn of the 21st century, the former Warsaw Pact and International System member states had drifted away in their own paths, and ever since, the bipolar world order that came before has given birth to a new fragile multipolar order, in which the global balance of power could tilt in any direction.
Poland is an incredibly remarkable country. It is extraordinary for its rich history that stretches back a thousand years and it’s pluralistic society that harbors uncountable numbers of differing identities, which it has maintained even through years of decay and disorder. For it has survived through the devastating wars of Europe, for it has passed through the thunderstorms. However, predicting the future is impossible. Whatever the future holds for this state could be either for the best, or for the worst.”
-Segment from “Across the Seas: An International History of Nations” (Arthur Hawkins, 2014)
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