America's Silver Era, The Story of William Jennings Bryan

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Theodore Roosevelt came into office as twenty-seventh President of the United States with widespread support. Even those who didn’t vote for him came to like the man. After 16 years of Democratic rule, Republicans had high hopes that the Executive Mansion would once again be dominated by the GOP. Roosevelt, in stark contrast to his predecessor, believed in a strong and active executive branch. He was not hesitant to use executive order as a means of enacting his agenda. Roosevelt was clearly in the party’s progressive wing, though he was much more palatable to the Eastern establishment than Robert La Follette. The 1910s can be seen as a high point for American progressivism as both major parties became dominated by their progressive wings. The Republican Party, which resisted progressive policies when Bryan was in office, now was often the driving force behind such reforms.

-Excerpt from The Guide to the Executive Mansion, an in Depth Look at America's Presidents, Benjamin Buckley, Harvard Press, 1999.

Roosevelt soon got to work on building his presidential cabinet. He chose Ohio Senator Joseph B. Foraker as Secretary of State. Lyman Gage of Iowa was chosen as Secretary of the Treasury (this gave some diehard Gold Standard supporters false hope for the new administration). Representative Elihu Root of New York was chosen as Secretary of War. His Attorney General was Charles Evans Hughes. For Postmaster General, 1904 Presidential nominee Robert La Follette was selected, though the two would clash later on in Roosevelt’s presidency. Rhode Island Senator Nelson W. Aldrich became Secretary of the Navy. His Secretary of the Interior was Fred Dubois, who served in that same position in the Bryan administration. And finally, the new Secretary of Agriculture would be Representative Frank Hanly of Indiana.

At the beginning of Roosevelt’s Presidency, the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified. Now, an income tax could be collected by the federal government. Roosevelt was a strong supporter of Bryan’s conservation policy, and doubled the amount of land set aside by the Bryan and Dewey governments. Seeing much of his agenda advancing, Bryan returned to politics and was elected Senator. He looked forward to working with Roosevelt. Roosevelt had been on Bryan’s side on many issues when he was a Representative. Senator Bryan and President Roosevelt worked together during the first few years of the Roosevelt’s Presidency. The two even went on a hunting trip together. Roosevelt was able to accomplish even more than Bryan in many areas. Roosevelt faced much less opposition from Congress and the Supreme Court. From conservation to regulation to trust-busting, Roosevelt went even further than Bryan.

There was one very important area of disagreement between Roosevelt and Bryan’s Progressivism. This difference was in foreign policy. Roosevelt did not share Bryan’s views on war. While Dewey established a small American presence on the Philippines, Roosevelt increased it dramatically. The islands began to be referred to as an American colony. In 1912 America became involved in an internal conflict in the country. The majority-Muslim islands tried to break away from the Philippines and form the Moro Sultanate. Many of these Moro rebels had fought the Spanish as well. The Philippine army was weak and failed to put down the rebellion. Thus, Philippine President Aguinaldo asked for American help. While there was some opposition to intervention within the US, thousands of soldiers were sent to crush the rebellion. After the defeat of the rebels American influence in the Philippines became even greater.

(American troops in the Philippines)​

The Roosevelt administration also worked to advance the cause of civil rights in America. The Republican-controlled Congress tried to pass bills designed to help African-Americans. Racially-motivated violence had been increasing over the last decade and white supremacist movements were becoming more organized and effective. Most of this was in the South, but Northern anti-Semitic movements sprung up as well. Historians believe that this trend began in the election of 1904 as a reaction against efforts to mobilize black voters in the South. Further enraging supporters of the Jim Crow system was the brief period of Republican control in North Carolina, which saw attempts by the state government to protect the rights of African-Americans. While federal civil rights legislation was derailed by filibustering Democrat Senators, the Roosevelt administration hired a significant number of black federal employees. Many Democrats used Roosevelt's support for civil rights against Republicans, and the GOP did lose seats in the 1910 midterms. However, it was not enough to hand control of Congress over to the Democratic Party.

-Excerpt from America's Silver Age, Edward S. Scott, Patriot Publishers, 2017.

 

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For the first time in decades, the Republican nomination was not seriously contested. Incumbent President Theodore Roosevelt was easily renominated. Things were different in the Democratic Convention at Kansas City. The election of 1908 had shown the party that they couldn’t just sweep the phenomenon of populism under the rug. Gone were the days of the Bourbon Democrats, and even most Northeasterners realized this. Ohio native Tom Johnson, House Speaker from 1897-1903 was considered a strong contender. South Carolina Senator Ben Tillman also had widespread support. 1904 Vice Presidential nominee and former Maryland Governor John W. Smith was also a popular figure. There was also North Dakota Senator John Burke of North Dakota, who advertised himself as the man who could bring the West back into the fold. As always, there were various favorite sons as well. Former President William Jennings Bryan, to the dismay of some, chose not to run.

(Tom Loftin Johnson)​

Most thought that the Democrats would nominate Tom Johnson, the House Speaker who presided over many of President Bryan’s signature achievements. But soon it became apparent that Ben Tillman was stealing the show. He came in first place on the first ballot, and it wasn’t even close. On the second ballot he won a clear majority. Johnson died not long after the convention. While Tillman ran a populist campaign, presenting himself as the champion of the common man, the major reason that he had so much support was racial resentment. The half-hearted attempts at winning over black voters by Bryan and Dewey would not be pursued by Tillman. Indeed, compared to Tillman, those two would be considered civil rights activists. While the problem with earlier Democrats was that they didn’t do anything about the horrific treatment of blacks in the South (and other parts of the country as well), Tillman actively supported the most heinous acts of racist violence. For Vice President, Charles W. Bryan was the favorite, but he withdrew his name from consideration at the convention, instead opting to pursue a House seat. Thus, Senator Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey was selected as Tillman’s running mate.

(Left: Ben Tillman, Right: Woodrow Wilson)​

While many think of racism as something exclusive to the areas of the former Confederacy and Border States, that was not the case in 1912 nor is it the case today. There was no shortage of people north of the Mason-Dixon Line who agreed with white supremacists. In the North and West, Jews, Asians, immigrants, and others were despised by a significant portion of the population. Thus there were plenty of Northerners who were more than happy to vote for Ben Tillman. There were other areas of disagreement between Tillman and Roosevelt to be sure, mainly on tariffs and some other minor issues, but race issues were clearly at the forefront of the 1912 election. While some Democrats tried to put a peace plank in the platform, they were unsuccessful. This left Eugene Debs as the only candidate opposing the deployment of US troops in the Philippines.

The Socialists made gains this year as they surpassed 5% of the vote. The Socialist Labor Party Presidential nominees wouldn’t dip below this number until the 1930s. The party also continued to make gains at the local level, mostly in the West and Midwest. Eugene Debs’ running mate was state representative Emil Seidel. The Populist Party also ran a candidate. 1908 nominee Thomas Watson lost his Senate seat and wasn’t under consideration for nomination. The party decided to go with newspaper editor William Randolph Hearst of New York. His running mate was US Representative and former governor Frank Steunenberg of Idaho. The election of 1912 would be the last time that the Populists ran a candidate for president.

(William Randolph Hearst)​

Theodore Roosevelt was still popular, despite backlash against his support for civil rights. The economy was doing well and American casualties in the Philippines were few. Roosevelt was able to cruise to victory quite comfortably as a result. The results were closer than they were in 1908, however. The lower Midwest, New York, New Jersey, and Massachusetts saw significant swings to the Democrats. The states of New Jersey and Indiana went into the Democratic column, but they were very close. Parts of New England and the Upper Midwest saw swings towards the Republicans. The Western States were also uncertain, but in the end Roosevelt won the majority of them. Tillman was able to outperform Dewey in this region, picking up Colorado and Montana, but losing Utah to Hearst.

-Excerpt from America's Silver Age, Edward S. Scott, Patriot Publishers, 2017.

https://uselectionatlas.org/TOOLS/g...A=1;12;6&WA=2;7;4&WV=1;8;4&WI=2;13;5&WY=2;3;4

Theodore Roosevelt (R-NY)/Leonard Wood (R-NH), 6,478,004 votes (45.94%), 293 Electoral Votes
Benjamin Tillman (D-SC)/Woodrow Wilson (D-NJ), 6,111,378 votes (43.34%), 234 Electoral Votes
Eugene Debs (S-IN)/Emil Seidel (S-WI), 706,461 votes (5.01%), 0 Electoral Votes
William Randolph Hearst (P-NY)/Frank Steunenberg (P-ID), 554,170 votes (3.93%), 4 Electoral Votes
Others[1], 250,998 votes (1.78%), 0 Electoral Votes

1: Mostly Prohibition Party.

 

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On February 13, 1903 general Dong Fuxiang surrendered at Lanzhou. This should have been the end of China’s civil war but it was not. The Yihequan, commanded by Cao Futian continued to fight. By 1903 they were increasingly resorting to guerilla warfare and scorched earth tactics. The Yihequan tried to avoid large-scale open combat with Qing forces. Much of the fighting after the fall of Lanzhou was characterized by Qing soldiers chasing rebels across Western China. Meanwhile, some officers and generals tried to negotiate with Russia, and began a retreat to the West, hoping to be received well once they entered Russian territory. They believed that a war between the Russian Empire and the Qing Dynasty was inevitable. When that happened, they hoped to be part of a pro-Russian government in the event of a Russian victory over China. Unfortunately for them, Tsar Nicholas II did not support this plan. They surrendered in the summer of 1903.

(Cao Futian)​

Tibet became a battleground during the later months of the Lanzhou government’s existence. In late 1902 the 13th Dalai Lama, seeing the writing on the wall, declared his allegiance to the Kaifeng government. Pro-Lanzhou forces then arrested him. This caused a massive uprising against the Lanzhou government. The pro-Lanzhou forces retreated with the Dalai Lama to Qinghai. The pro-Lanzhou forces in Qinghai and Kham did not surrender after the fall of Lanzhou, as Yihequan fighters made an example of anyone who advocated laying down arms. They were decisively defeated at Yushu in April and at Golog in May. The Dalai Lama was at Golog and was freed with the fall of the city. The Southern anti-Qing forces made their final stand at Chengguan, which fell on July 1, 1903. The town was filled with the dead bodies of Yihequan, Qing soldiers, and the corpses of attempted deserters who were hung.

(Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama)​

In the North, Cao Futian and tens of thousands of Yihequan continued to harass the Qing army. Yihequan made their way into Mongolia and tried to stir up unrest in that region. The Mongols, by and large, were uninterested in joining the losing side. The Yihequan were unable to get very many Mongol recruits. An assault on Hohhot in the summer was easily repelled by Qing soldiers and locals. The Yihequan began to conscript Mongol villagers into their army. Many of these conscripts were used as cannon fodder. The Yihequan burned villages and killed livestock as the Qing army advanced. The Mongolian people became even further enraged at the Yihequan, and in December 1903 the citizens of Uliastai slaughtered the Yihequan fighters stationed there. Cao Futian then retreated to Xinjiang, where they still had some support left.

(Colorized image of anti-Yihequan Mongol fighter)​

The Qing army developed a large and well-trained cavalry corps to chase down the remaining resistance. Cavalry played an important role in the vast steppes of Mongolia. Ethnic Mongols made up a large percentage of these mounted troops. Western China in these days had a feel similar to the cultural image of the Wild West. The Yihequan were like outlaws evading the authorities. The main objective for the government was to capture Cao Futian, alive or dead. A cavalry detachment opened fire with Cao Futian and a small group of Yihequan in January 1904, but they were defeated. Cao retreated even further into Xinjiang. The Qing army moved in to the province, securing most of the major urban areas in the spring of that year. But supplies were constantly being raided. In August of 1904, 15,000 Yihequan (the majority of their soldiers) were cornered at the town of Ili[1]. They ran out of ammunition and charged with swords and bayonets. They were mowed down by machine guns.

Most of the rest of the Yihequan were chased down by Qing cavalry. But Cao Futian continued to evade capture. He had escaped Xinjiang entirely and went into Gansu province. He and some of his men were aided by some Lanzhou loyalists who helped escape detection from the authorities. Someone eventually gave Cao’s location away to the military, and soon he was on the run again. He went to Xinjiang again, with 100 men, hoping to incite rebellion among the Muslim inhabitants. He was intercepted by a regiment of Qing cavalry outside Korla on December 15, 1905, and a fight ensued. After shots were fired, Cao’s men charged the Qing forces and it became a swordfight. Cao himself took down several Qing cavalrymen. But then he received a mortal wound from a lance carried by a Mongolian soldier. He died soon afterwards and the rest of his men surrendered. In 1906, the war was declared over, and Yihequan attacks became rare.

On November 13, 1903, the Guangxu emperor became a father. Consort Zhen bore him a son. He now had an heir to the throne. He named his son 趙政, Zhao Zheng. The birth of Zhao Zheng was the cause of great celebrations throughout China. Guangxu had become an extremely popular emperor for most Chinese. People had high hopes for the Guangxu Emperor. He also pardoned many former anti-Qing dissidents, and many of them returned to China. With peace coming in 1906, elections were held for a provisional government. The elections were a landslide for pro-reform candidates as most of those opposed to reform had fought on the losing side of the civil war. A constitution would be written and elections would be held again in 1910.

(Consort Zhen)​

It was determined that the new Constitution should be modeled after that of the United States. Several American politicians, including former President William Jennings Bryan were sent to China to help. A bicameral legislature was established with a House of Representatives and a Senate. It worked much the same way as in the United States besides the fact that Senators had four year terms and were chosen by the provincial legislatures. Kang Youwei, from Guangdong province, became the first Prime Minister under the new constitution. A judicial branch was established as well. The executive branch was the emperor, who could veto any bill. At first, suffrage was restricted to men, but thanks to the tireless efforts of women like Qiu Jin, and eventual imperial support, women were eventually granted the right to vote.

(Kang Youwei)​

For foreign relations, China had to be cautious. The Qing developed close relations with the United States during the presidencies of Bryan, Dewey, and Roosevelt. China also became somewhat friendly with Germany, and the Chinese army increasingly imitated that of Germany (while imitating Britain’s Navy). It was observed that there were three countries that could do the most to undermine Chinese sovereignty; Russia, Japan, and Britain. The Qing court determined that Russia had the worst intentions, followed by Japan, followed by Britain. In order to survive, China would need to play the major powers against each other. One day, the Guangxu Emperor hoped, China would become powerful enough to compete with the West and Japan on its own.

-Excerpt from Guangxu, Jiang Jieshi, Beijing Books, 1933.

1: Modern Day Yining

 

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While Britain controlled the largest amount of land area at the turn of the 20th century, Russia by far had the largest contiguous land empire of the time. While Russia was counted among the great powers, there was much that separated it from the other European empires. It was neither Catholic nor Protestant, but Eastern Orthodox. It had considerably less access to ports that wouldn’t freeze over in the winter. It was an absolute monarchy in an age of liberalization. And from 1902 to 1915 it was largely isolated in the realm of international relations with the exception of France and some of the Balkan states. Britain feared Russian expansionism. Germany and Austria-Hungary saw their large neighbor as a threat. Japan also desired the same spheres of influence in East Asia, which had almost led to war. In fact, Russia had only narrowly averted a war against not only Japan, but also Britain and the Qing in East Asia.

(Tsar Nicholas II)​

Russia began to focus inward. It sought to build up its army and navy, continue industrialization, and countering dissent in its vast empire. An attempt on the Tsar’s life in 1908 left him increasingly paranoid. There was a massive crackdown on anti-tsarist groups, especially the far left. Communist agitator Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov was hung in Moscow the next year after being convicted of having played a role in the assassination attempt. The Romanovs were determined to not allow revolution in their country. And they were successful in this endeavor, in the short term if not the long term. The inward focus of Russia would soon come to an end, as events to the South and West drew the empire’s attention.

The Ottoman Empire was experiencing unrest, especially among the non-Turks in the empire. In 1910, the Serbs rebelled and drew the Kingdom of Serbia, led by King Alexander I, into war with the Ottomans. While the rebels, aided by the Serbian Army, initially gained some ground, they were eventually pushed back into Serbia by Ottoman troops. Ottoman advances into Serbia were also repelled, and so the Ottoman Army decided to fortify the border. Russia sensed this as the perfect time to strike at the “Sick Man of Europe.” The government hoped that a war would inspire patriotism and unity as well. Thus on August 15, 1910, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Fighting between the two countries began in the Black Sea and Eastern Anatolia. The Russian Black Sea Fleet had a clear advantage over its Ottoman counterparts. The early naval engagements were decisive.

(Serbian King Alexander I)​

On land, the war was not nearly as one-sided, though the Russians had the upper hand. The Russian advance was stopped by a smaller Ottoman force at Rize. The Ottomans were forced to transfer troops from Europe to Anatolia to deal with the Russian invasion. In response, the Serbians launched another offensive into Ottoman lands. Serbian forces were only able to capture small border towns, and the Balkan front remained a stalemate. In the Spring of 1911, Russia began a new offensive, and this time it was bringing more and better prepared troops. Rize fell in late March after naval bombardment and an all-out assault. Meanwhile, Britain, Germany, and the United States condemned Russian aggression against the Ottoman Empire. The Russian government realized that war with Germany was a distinct possibility and that Russia would not be prepared. Thus Russia entered into peace talks with the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Sultan accepted a ceasefire with the Russian Empire.

(Sultan Abdul Hamid II as a much younger man than he was during the War with Russia)​

On April 19, Greece entered the war. Greek forces advanced quickly, gaining much ground from the Ottomans. At the same time, the Serbians broke through Ottoman defenses and were advancing again. They captured Pristina after fighting for two weeks on May 30. Ottoman forces retreated to Skopje, where they anticipated being attacked from both sides by Greeks and Serbs. The attack never came. Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II was desperate to end the war before even more territory was lost. An armistice was agreed to. The Treaty of Vienna ended the war. The Ottoman Empire was forced to give up land to Russia, Serbia, and Greece. The victory and annexation of parts of Western Anatolia is thought to have increased the Tsar’s popularity back home. There was also relief that what could have become a major international conflict had been averted.

-Except from The Dying Man of Europe, the Ottoman Empire in the 20th Century, Debora Nestani, Harvard Press, 2018.

 

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Theodore Roosevelt entered his second term on March 4, 1913. He was only the third Republican to win a second term, the other two being Lincoln and Grant. There were a full four decades in between Grant’s second term and Roosevelt’s. To be fair, the Democratic Party was older yet only three Democrats had made the same achievement (Jackson, Cleveland, and Bryan). Many believed then, and many historians believe now, that Roosevelt was the only thing keeping the Republicans in power at this time in history. Republican leaders looked towards 1916 not with optimism, but anxiety. They knew that Leonard Wood didn’t have the same charisma that Roosevelt did. They began to suggest that he run for a third term.

-Excerpt from The Guide to the Executive Mansion, an in Depth Look at America's Presidents, by Benjamin Buckley, Harvard Press, 1999.

At the beginning of Roosevelt’s second term, Robert La Follette resigned from his position as Postmaster General. He did so in protest of Roosevelt’s hawkish foreign policy. He would later win a Senate seat. He remained very popular in his home state of Wisconsin, and the state legislature even passed an amendment requiring the state’s electoral votes to go to the winner of the popular vote. La Follette had hoped that the trend would spread to other states, but it didn’t. La Follette was replaced by former Tennessee Governor Henry Clay Evans. Secretary of the Navy Nelson Aldrich died in 1914 and was replaced by John Coit Spooner of Wisconsin. House Speaker Whitelaw Reid had died in 1912 and he was replaced by James Mann of Illinois.

(James Robert Mann)​

In 1914 Congress passed the 18th Amendment, which established women’s suffrage. It was the culmination of decades of activism going back to antebellum times. Unfortunately, high-profile activists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony never lived to see it happen. The Amendment still had to be ratified by a sufficient number of state legislatures, and thus it would not apply to the 1914 midterms. Nonetheless, it was ratified in 1915 and would be in full force for the 1916 Presidential election. A proposed amendment to put free silver in the Constitution failed because it was seen as pointless. The new House Speaker also blocked a vote on a proposed amendment that would ban alcohol.

Roosevelt had the United States take a more active role in Latin America. He thought that Dewey had been foolish for allowing France and Britain to take most of the ownership of the Panama Canal. As a side note, America was not as greatly affected by the anti-Imperialist movement in Colombia during the 20s and 30s as the European powers were. The American military presence in Cuba doubled during the early 1910s. America also increasingly sought to influence the Cuban government. Thus resentment against the United States, which was rare during the Bryan and Dewey administration, grew exponentially during the Roosevelt administration.

Roosevelt decided that a second canal in Central America should be built. And thus began the Nicaragua affair, which was a disaster for multiple countries. Nicaraguan President José Santos Zelaya had entered into negotiations with Germany and Japan for building a canal through his country. He was also pursuing closer relations with Spain. This had been going on for almost a decade and little progress had been made. In 1914 Secretary of State Joseph Foraker made an offer to the Nicaraguan government for America to build a canal. President Zelaya considered the offer, and then determined that America’s terms were not generous enough. Meanwhile, he reopened negotiations with Japan and Germany. In 1913, he had agreed to allow a contingent of Japanese soldiers into the country to train the country’s military.

(José Santos Zelaya)​

The presence of Japanese soldiers, though they were small in number, gave confidence to Zelaya. Nicaragua was having troubles with its neighbors, particularly Honduras. Zelaya had been working behind the scenes to topple the conservative Honduran government led by Fransisco Bertrand and replace it with the liberal former president Policarpo Bonilla. On June 30, 1914, he ordered an invasion of Honduras. The Nicaraguans were aided by local anti-government forces. The United States responded by deploying troops to Honduras before Nicaraguan forces overran the country. In September American troops entered the besieged Honduran capital of Tegucigalpa and drove away the Nicaraguan attackers. Zelaya then attempted to get other Latin American nations join in his war that was now being portrayed as a fight against imperialism. Meanwhile, the Japanese sent more troops to Nicaragua. Zelaya was overjoyed at this news until he learned that they came to force him to enter into peace talks.

Japan wanted the war to end in a status-quo antebellum. Until peace was signed they would help resist any invasion into Nicaraguan territory, however. President Roosevelt and Secretary of State Foraker both condemned the Japanese presence on the Americas as a violation of the Monroe doctrine. The Japanese claimed that the Monroe Doctrine only applied to Europe and then criticized the US for expanding its influence in the Philippines (by this time the Philippine government was firmly pro-American and was subjecting Japanese businesses to regulations it never enforced on American companies). Japan would not back down and war seemed likely. But in the end both sides agreed to a compromise. Japan would be allowed to keep no more than one thousand soldiers in Nicaragua, and that Nicaragua would be the only American nation Japan could station soldiers in. American businesses would still be allowed to operate in the country. Nicaragua was forced to pay light reparations to Honduras. Peace was agreed to by December as no one wanted this crisis to spiral into a larger war.


-Excerpt from Blood for Bananas, US Policy in Latin America, Alfred Andreas, Harvard Press, 2018.

Nicaragua became a puppet state of Japan, and Japanese businesses increasingly invested in the country. Honduras was already almost entirely controlled by American fruit companies, but after 1914 America established a military presence on the island, beginning with a naval base at La Ceiba. The American government under Roosevelt, and many of his successors, was determined to protect American business interests in the region. On May 5, 1915 Nicaragua signed a contract to build a canal and give 50% ownership to Japan, 30% to Germany, 10% to Nicaragua, and 10% to other nations. The Canal construction was postponed indefinitely shortly afterwards. The day after the contract was signed, an event occurred halfway across the world in a town on China’s Hainan island. And it was something the world was not prepared for.

 

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Though upstart nations like the United States and Japan were certainly influential nations and formidable opponents in war, the center of power in the early 20th century was Europe. The first-rate European powers were Britain, France, Germany, and Russia. Second-rate empires included nations such as the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Portugal. If one was being very generous Spain could fit into this category. And then there were the third-rate empires like Belgium and the Netherlands. The other nations of Europe couldn’t really be considered empires. Europe was in a sort of uneasy peace in which there were tensions between nations but none of the Great powers had gone to war with each other in decades. Nevertheless, two major alliances emerged in the late 19th century. One was the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The other was the Triple Entente consisting of Britain, France, and Russia.

-Excerpt from Europe's Golden Age, Alice Davis, Oxford, 1990.

Europe in the years from 1900-1915 saw continuing industrialization, with nations like Russia trying desperately to catch up with Western Europe. These years also saw European nations finish carving up almost the entirety of the African continent. The only independent nations left on the continent were Morocco, Abyssinia, Liberia, and the white-dominated Boer Republics. Europeans expanded their power elsewhere, too. British and French companies (with minor American help) built a canal in Panama in 1905, allowing for ships to avoid sailing around South America. The Great Powers, as well as the smaller ones, were engaged in an arms race to see who could get the best ships and the best guns first. To the average observer in 1915, it seemed like power would stay concentrated in Europe forever.

There was also the rise of political ideologies, particularly those on the left. Socialism’s popularity was rising in those years. Russia responded by infiltrating radical leftist organizations and making examples of many of their leaders. Others allowed them to participate in elections and hoped that they would remain on the fringes of political opinion or moderate their positions. Such was the case with many Social Democratic movements in countries like Germany or Britain. One of the rising stars of Socialism was Adolphe Cartier, an author from French Guyana who spent several years in America before moving to Paris. He wrote scathingly of the American political system after he volunteered for the 1904 Eugene Debs campaign. He soon became a member of the chamber of deputies and helped popularize the far-left in France. He and his almost cult-like supporters were fierce critics of what they perceived as the increasing aggressiveness of the French government.

The odd man out in Western Europe was Spain, which had been forced to come to terms with the fact that its days in power were over after the Cuban War and the subsequent disastrous Dos Equis Movement. And while one may think that the Dos Equis Movement was only a disaster for Spain, it had one unintended consequence that shook the whole world. During the Qing Civil War, Spain bought itself a concession port on Hainan Island called Aichow. However, France believed that Aichow belonged in its own sphere of influence and was furious over the situation. In 1915, France decided that it had enough and on May 6, 1915 French ships blockaded the Spanish concession port. The French government was convinced that Spain would give up the port. Instead, Spain refused and ordered the French ships to lift the blockade, which it declared an act of war. Spanish Prime Minister José Canalejas gave the French Navy 24 hours to leave the port of Aichow. French President Paul Doumer was unfazed by Spanish threats and did not yield. On May 7th, Spanish artillery fired upon the French ships. French ships responded by bombarding the Spanish positions.

(Edgar Quinet, one of the French ships present at the blockade of Aichow)​

The next day, May 8th, France and Spain declared War on each other. Cuba declared war on Spain on the 9th, hoping to liberate Puerto Rico with French help. Most of the early fighting was on water, as neither side had mobilized yet. France had the clear advantage. It looked like it would be a swift and decisive French victory. However, Spain had entered into a secret alliance with Germany a decade earlier. Germany began mobilization, but waited until May 15, 1915 to declare war on France. On the 16th, Russia declared war on Germany and then Austria-Hungary declared war on both Russia and France. Italy remained neutral despite being part of the Triple Alliance. At first it looked like Britain would stay out of the war as well. However, after Belgium refused to allow German troops to travel through it to invade France, Germany invaded Belgium on May 20th. Britain was bound by treaty to protect Belgian neutrality and thus Britain declared war on Germany on the 21st. By early June, France, Britain, Russia, Belgium, and Cuba were at war with every nation of the opposing alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Spain. Europe was at war.

 

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The first moves in the war were made by France. The port of Aichow was captured a few days into the war. The French high command planned to cross the Pyrenees and invade Spain, but this plan was cancelled when Germany declared war. Meanwhile, French and Spanish ships clashed in the Atlantic, with France getting the better of most engagements. Germany invaded Belgium, and though its army fought heroically, the German Army occupied the entire country before August. In July, Germany rapidly advanced through Northeastern France, getting closer and closer to Paris. Spanish troops invaded from the South but were having a much harder time advancing. The Pyrenees Front, sometimes called the Southern Front, would not decide the outcome of the war. However, it did serve a purpose as it tied down French troops that would otherwise be fighting the Germans.

-Excerpt from The World's War, Ludwig Faerber, Globe Books, 2015.

In the first three months of the war, Germany won every meaningful engagement with France and Britain on land. The German advance was finally halted at Beauvais on August 17, though tens of thousands of British and French soldiers lost their lives in the city’s defense. Germany was forced to divert troops to the Eastern front to help its ally Austria-Hungary, which was losing ground to a Russian invasion. They city of Krakow fell in August and the Russian advance continued. However, Austro-Hungarian forces, aided by German reinforcements, regrouped and took the city back in September. To the South, Russia captured Ternopil in October and was able to hold it against Austro-Hungarian counter-attacks, albeit at the cost of high casualties. Russia did not go on the offensive again for the rest of 1915. Austrian agents operating in Belgrade uncovered that Russia had contacted Serbia in preparation for an upcoming offensive in 1916. Serbia had rejected the offer to coordinate an offensive with Russia as it had no enmity with Austria-Hungary and officially declared its neutrality. Austria Hungary decided that it would be better to err on the side of caution and so decided to station troops and build fortifications on the border.

After being stopped at Beauvais, Germany faced a British counterattack and repelled it easily. Other German divisions to the South began to cut off the city, threatening to encircle hundreds of thousands of Entente soldiers. Then German artillery bombarded the city once more. The French and British then retreated towards Paris, with the Germans following them. On October 24, they began to bombard the French capital. If Paris fell, all agreed that the war would be over. Millions of troops fought during the Siege. The Germans captured the northeastern suburbs of Paris, but advanced no further. Nevertheless, artillery shells landed in Paris, killing many and destroying much of the city. Many cultural treasures were lost. On March 5, 1916, the last German soldiers in Paris retreated. It was a French victory, but France lost 1,450,000 men, while Britain lost 950,000, and Germany lost 1,550,000. The battle proved that the war would not end quickly and that the Entente was not going to go down easily.

(German guns like this were used to shell Paris)​

Though the war started as a conflict between Spain and France, It was soon apparent that Spain would contribute much less to the Allies than France would contribute to the Entente. On June 12 Spain used overwhelming force to take Gibraltar from Britain, though the outnumbered British troops inflicted high casualties on the Spanish attackers. Spain’s Caribbean fleet was wrecked by British and French ships. Ironically, Spain’s weakness gave it a hidden advantage; it was often underestimated by the Entente. On November 1, a Franco-Cuban force that included many Puerto Rican exiles landed at Mayagüez. They were expecting the people in the countryside to rise up against Spain. This did not happen in large enough numbers. The Spanish forces on the island responded quickly and forced the French and Cubans to retreat back to their ships.

There was much lobbying by both sides in the neutral countries. The Alliance believed that if Italy could be convinced to join, France would quickly be overrun due to fighting a three-front war. Italy was technically breaking its alliance by not joining the war. Italy demanded that Austria-Hungary hand over areas of its empire that were ethnically Italian, and in return it would declare war on the Entente. Austria-Hungary refused. The Alliance also lobbied the Ottoman Empire, China, and Japan into the war with promises of land from Russia. Throughout 1915, the British tried and failed to get Portugal to declare war on Spain. However, they were able to convince Moroccan Sultan Abd Al-Hafid to join the Entente. The Entente also tried to get the United States involved in the war, the US had a pro-Entente President but a mostly neutral populace. The European war would be hotly debated in America’s towns and cities.

 

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When France and Spain went to war in May 1915, most Americans were not terribly concerned. They assumed that it would be a quick French victory and that Spain would finally lose the last remnants of its colonial empire. That all changed when the war expanded. The war was now affecting the American economy. The majority of Americans favored neutrality, but their sympathies lied with the Entente. Pro-Alliance individuals and groups did exist, but their influence on society was almost non-existent. From 1915 until the end of the war, British operatives infiltrated American cities and spread pro-Entente propaganda. Much of this propaganda was based on truth, but the truth was stretched in a way that almost dehumanized the average German or Spaniard.

-Excerpt from The World's War, Ludwig Faerber, Globe Books, 2015.

Public opinion was opposed to getting involved in a European war. Those who wanted America to join the war were a large and well-organized minority, but a minority nonetheless. But that minority just happened to include the President of the United States. Theodore Roosevelt was unconcerned with the fact that his views put him at odds with the majority; he was determined to shift America’s opinion. He spoke eloquently in favor of the Entente’s cause. However, he knew that the American people were not yet ready for war. America would have to start small. While most opposed involvement in the war, few objected to strengthening the military just in case war broke out. In 1915 and 1916 the US increased its military budget and it was at this time that the potential of military aviation was truly recognized.

In August, Congress approved an act to allow the sale of weapons to the Entente. Before the vote, Roosevelt appeared before Congress and emphasized that good must triumph over evil and freedom must triumph over tyranny. Around the same time Roosevelt determined that he was the only one who could lead America through the war and announced he was running for a third term. The passage of the act prompted Senator and former President William Jennings Bryan to give a series of speeches in favor of neutrality. 1904 Republican nominee Robert La Follette also gave speeches against American involvement in the war. This energized the anti-war movement across the country. Irish and German immigrants, still angry over an immigration control act passed in March, rallied against the war. The War in Europe would become the most important issue for both parties in the upcoming 1916 Presidential election.

(William Jennings Bryan arguing for American neutrality)​

 

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As 1915 became 1916 the Entente seemed to be on its last legs on the Western Front. But Russia was in a much better position. And following the Siege of Paris it was determined to save the Entente’s war effort. Russian commander Aleksei Brusilov formulated a plan to defeat the Alliance. This plan was christened “Operation Poseidon.” It got its name because it was a three-pronged invasion, like Poseidon’s trident. One army would attack Germany while two larger ones would attack Austria-Hungary. The main goal of Operation Poseidon was to knock Austria-Hungary out of the war. If Austria-Hungary surrendered, Russian high command assumed, the war would be won. And thus on March 5, 1916, Operation Poseidon began.

-Excerpt from The World's War, Ludwig Faerber, Globe Books, 2015.

The first Russian force was the smallest. It marched towards Konigsberg. Its purpose was to tie down German troops, not to actually gain much ground against the Germans. The Second Army’s goal was to capture Lvov and Przemysl. The Third Army’s goal was to cross the Dniester and capture Chernivtsi. After the two armies completed their objectives they would push into Hungary. The invasion started off according to plan. The First Army fought minor battles with the Germans, with neither side gaining an upper hand. Then, the Second and Third Armies attacked. The largely Hungarian defenders, who had seen little action over the last few months, described the attack as a “horde of men, horses, railway guns, and planes.” The defenders were outnumbered and quickly overwhelmed and in early April the objectives were met.

(Austro-Hungarians facing an onslaught of Russian cavalry)​

On May 12, the two armies met up to attack Austro-Hungarian positions just to the East of Uzhhorod, an ethnically Hungarian city. The Austro-Hungarians forces largely consisted of soldiers who were on the run from the Russian advance. They had little time to prepare and they were easily defeated. After the battle of Uzhhorod, the Russian advance continued. The next goal was to take Kosice, a city in the empire’s Slovak lands. This time, the Alliance was better prepared. Germany began to push back the First Army, and sent reinforcements (many taken from France) to stop the Russian advance. Austro-Hungarian troops fortified the city (which already had natural defenses in the form of a river). Some Russian generals advocated skipping Kosice and race towards to Budapest, but Brusilov said that doing so would overstretch supply lines.

Russian artillery began to bombard Kosice in June. A war for air supremacy also ensued, which was won by the Germans and Austro-Hungarians. At the same time the First Army retreated into Russian territory where it was being pursued by German forces. Germany advanced further into the Russian-controlled areas of Poland. In France, the Entente went on the offensive, and pushed the Germans back to Beauvais. On July 1, Russian troops crossed the Tisza River. Most of the bridges were demolished by the defenders, so Russia was unable to get a large number of men across the river quickly. As the first men crossed over the bridges, they were mowed down by hidden machine-gun crews. It was a massacre; highly demoralizing for the Russians. By the time a sizable Russian force had crossed over the river, reinforcements arrived. The two sides fought for a few hours, after which a rout began. More than ten thousand Russians died or were taken prisoner in one day.

After the battle, the two sides would spend the next few weeks bombarding each other’s positions. Russian commanders were confident that Alliance forces would have similar problems crossing the river as they had. However, a new German army flanked Russian positions from the North, negating the defensive advantage of the river. The Russians then retreated. Many Russian soldiers were sent to the Far East to fight Japan, who declared war in June. Russian Far East soldiers were hopelessly outnumbered by the Japanese (many had been diverted to the West for Operation Poseidon). Others were sent to the Caucasus, as the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in July. The Russian numerical advantage was disappearing. Eventually, Russia fell back to the Dniester and San rivers. On September 30, a joint force of Germans and Austro-Hungarians took Przemysl. To the North, German troops occupied most of the Polish lands of the Russian Empire. Operation Poseidon, in the end, was just a waste of men and resources.

 

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​

By the fall of 1916, it most were convinced that the Triple Alliance would win the war. France was facing a two-front war, with Germany not very far from Paris. Russia’s grand offensive failed to knock Austria-Hungary out of the war. And now Japan and the Ottoman Empire were taking advantage of Russian weakness. Kaiser Wilhelm, Emperor Franz-Josef, and King Alphonso, along with Sultan Abdul Hamid and Emperor Taisho were confident that the war would end within a year. Morale was dropping among the Entente powers, in both the soldiers on the front and the people back home. However, the fall of 1916 would see two major blunders from two of the members of the Alliance. Predictions that the war would end within a year would turn out to be as groundless as predictions that Operation Poseidon would force Austria-Hungary to surrender.

-Excerpt from The World's War, Ludwig Faerber, Globe Books, 2015.

After Poseidon, the front lines in Europe became more stable, both in France and in Eastern Europe. In Africa, the Alliance was at a clear disadvantage and was losing. The German colonies in the Pacific were also being picked off one-by-one. It was in Anatolia and East Asia that the Alliance was gaining ground. The Russian Far Eastern Fleet was no match for the Japanese Navy. Japanese troops stationed in Korea attacked Vladivostok as well as Russian positions in their sphere of influence in China. Japan only declared war on Russia, and stated that it had no quarrel with Britain and France. Some in Britain advocated remaining at peace with Japan, but eventually Britain and France declared war. The Ottomans quickly overran the outnumbered Russian forces in the lands annexed during the Balkan Wars. The Ottoman war effort was motivated by revenge.

In May Spanish forces had tried and failed to capture the Southern French city of Foix. Spain had also lost most of its territory in North Africa to French and Moroccan troops. Its African colonies further south were taken by France. Of all the Alliance powers, Spain was clearly doing the worst. Spain’s decision to try to reconquer some of its North African territory is considered by most military historians to be a severe miscalculation. On August 20, Spanish troops captured the port of Tangier. Tens of thousands of conscripts were then sent in as reinforcements to Ceuta, the remaining Spanish stronghold in North Africa. Tetouan fell in early September. At Larache, Spanish troops encountered heavier resistance, but the town was taken on September 20. Then in October, the British and French Navies fought Spain at the Strait of Gibraltar. The Spanish fleet was outnumbered and outgunned; it lost three armored Cruisers and several other ships. The Entente Navy from that point forward effectively blocked Spanish forces in Morocco from receiving supplies or reinforcements from Spain. The Spanish troops in Africa were effectively stranded.

(Moroccan troops armed with captured Spanish weapons)​

After the Ottomans quickly drove the Russians out of Anatolia, they advanced into the Caucasus where Russia had much easier time defending. The Ottoman government then determined to get revenge in the Balkans. On August 29, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Serbia, hoping to force Austria-Hungary to invade the Balkan nation from the North. But to the Sultan’s dismay, Austria-Hungary and Germany both declared that “The war between the Serbs and the Turks is not part of the war between the Triple Alliance and the Entente.” The Turks invaded in September, but the Serbs held strong, making the Ottoman invaders pay for every inch in blood. The entire Balkan region turned against the Ottomans. Greece declared war on the Ottoman Empire on September 9. Bulgaria declared its complete independence from the Ottoman Empire on the 19th. Albania was in revolt as well. Constantinople itself was under threat from both the Russian Black Sea Fleet and the Bulgarians invading from the North. The Ottomans began to fill their capital with whatever soldiers they could spare.

-Except from The Dying Man of Europe, the Ottoman Empire in the 20th Century, Debora Nestani, Harvard Press, 2018.

In North Africa, the stranded Spanish soldiers continued to fight, hoping that they would eventually be resupplied and reinforced. This never happened. Moroccan forces were bolstered by the arrival of French colonial troops, and they attacked the Spanish relentlessly. Larache fell on October 25. Spanish forces retreated to Tangier and Ceuta, building as many defenses as they could before the enemy arrived. In November, British Indian troops took Gibraltar back from Spain. Around the same time, across the Atlantic, San Juan fell to French, Cuban, and Canadian troops, ending Spain’s control over Puerto Rico. Portugal, enticed by the promise of land from Spain and Germany’s colonial empires, declared war on the 20th. Many in Spain began to agitate for peace. On November 30, Tangier fell to Moroccan and French West African troops aided by British Naval bombardment. On December 13, the Spanish garrison at Ceuta surrendered. Tens of thousands of Spanish soldiers would spend the rest of the war in prison camps in the deserts of North Africa.

Back home, the Spanish public was furious. Protests erupted in all of Spain’s major cities. Propaganda leaflets were dropped from Entente planes. Most of these leaflets contained messages pleading with the Spanish people to not be “pawns in the Kaiser’s game.” Spain now faced the possibility of an invasion from both France and Portugal. There were also rumors that the Entente was planning an invasion from North Africa. While some in the German government were concerned that Spain might surrender, Kaiser Wilhelm stated in private that “Whether Spain surrenders or continues to fight, it makes little difference. It will only affect the length of the war, not its outcome.” Despite Allied blunders, Kaiser Wilhelm and most of the German high command believed that the Alliance would win the war. They believed that these were merely setbacks.

Meanwhile, Ottoman troops put up a brave fight at Skopje, but were outnumbered by Serbian, Greek, and Albanian troops. The city fell on October 10. Britain and France made short work of the Ottoman forces in Libya. Persia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on the 11th. The Ottomans realized how desperate their situation and called for help from the Triple Alliance. But the Triple Alliance was not in a great position to help. Austro-Hungarian diplomats tried to persuade some of the Balkan states to make peace, but it was to no avail. On October 25, The Bulgarians arrived at Constantinople and put the great city under siege. A smaller Greek contingent was supposed to help but it didn’t come. The Greeks wanted to be the ones who took the city. The Bulgarian attack on Constantinople failed and Bulgaria blamed Greece. Both nations wanted the honor of taking the “Queen of Cities.” The fragile alliance between Bulgaria and Greece fell apart when Bulgaria declared war on December 1, 1916. The Ottoman Empire was given a reprieve.

 

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A sinister agenda is being advanced in the halls of power in this country. The American people want peace but there are people working day and night to bring us into a war that does not concern us. The war is being framed as a battle between freedom and tyranny, but that is a lie. The war began as a dispute over colonial possessions. It is a war of empires, not republics. One group of empires is engaged in a quest to expand their possessions at the expense of another group of empires. It is a contest to determine which empire will be the largest and wealthiest. Do not be fooled, there are no higher principles at stake here. We as Americans, we as Christians, must oppose this unnecessary war and pray for peace.

-William Jennings Bryan, Speech to the Democratic National Convention in Indianapolis, Indiana, June 28, 1916

In 1904 the precedent set by George Washington when he declined to seek a third term was broken. William Jennings Bryan attempted a third term, but was unsuccessful. But his decision would encourage others to do the same. Grover Cleveland died before the 1908 election and it was unlikely that he would seek a third term at that late in time anyway. George Dewey failed in his bid for a second term, and retired from politics entirely after leaving the executive mansion. Theodore Roosevelt was the next man in a position to seek a third term, which he did. Then, the only other living person to already serve two terms decided to do the same. Of course, there were those in both parties who sought to prevent both men from doing so.

-Excerpt from America's Silver Age, Edward S. Scott, Patriot Publishers, 2017.

In the Republican Party, various candidates stepped up to challenge Theodore Roosevelt. But the only one with a large enough organization backing him was Robert La Follette. La Follette was the GOP nominee in the disastrous 1904 election and was Roosevelt’s Postmaster General during his first term. He was a fierce critic of Roosevelt’s foreign policy in Latin America and Asia and opposed moves from the president trying to force America into the war in Europe. Despite the fact that America was not at war, the war would be the issue of utmost importance at the convention. Roosevelt gave a defense of the Entente’s cause. He claimed that the Entente was defending freedom and Democracy against authoritarianism. He used the example of France, a free country, being invaded by Germany and Spain. Robert La Follette retorted that the Entente also included Russia, a nation that shouldn’t be considered “free.”

Senator Benjamin Tillman believed that 1916 would be more favorable for him than 1912. Tillman took a position against the war, but not nearly as unequivocally as La Follette or Bryan. When Bryan went on a speaking tour denouncing Roosevelt’s foreign policy Tillman knew that he was preparing for a Presidential run. And he knew that he was at a huge disadvantage; he had to formulate a plot to counter Bryan’s appeal. He would attack Bryan for breaking Washington’s precedent, “Two terms were good enough for Washington; does Bryan think himself to be a better President than the father of our country?” That wouldn’t be enough though. He combined this with campaigning to Bryan’s left in some areas, saying that he would fight the influence of corporations in politics even more than the ex-president. He also doubled down on racial rhetoric. He advocated for federally-enforced segregation and the repeal of the 14th and 15th amendments. In his speech at the convention he began yelling and many delegates described him as sounding like an “unhinged, raving lunatic.”

Bryan, for his part, stated that he was in favor of states’ rights and avoided the issue of race altogether at the convention. He argued for the creation of a national organization to help farmers, which he advocated on the 1904 campaign trail. He laid out a plan to get electricity to rural areas, a message that certainly resonated among Southerners. He also made mention of tariffs, an issue that many Democrats were still passionate about. But in his speech to the Democratic National Convention in Indianapolis, he spent most of his time condemning the war in Europe. He then responded to criticism that he was abandoning Washington’s precedent by claiming that he was the one who was upholding Washington’s legacy (he quoted Washington’s address where he condemned “entangling alliances).” The speech was compared by some to his Cross of Gold Speech 20 years earlier and it won him the nomination.

(William Jennings Bryan leaving the convention hall)​

At the Republican convention in New York, Robert La Follette was facing an uphill battle. Most of the delegates favored Roosevelt and everyone knew it. La Follette still managed to have a respectable showing, winning the Wisconsin delegation handily. He also won the delegations from Montana and Washington. Some delegates from other states supported him as well. But when the first ballot was finished, it wasn’t even close. He conceded but did not endorse Roosevelt. Many of his supporters launched a write-in campaign that would do very well in Wisconsin in November. As for Roosevelt, he was optimistic, but not overly so. He had the advantage of incumbency and he had a superb organization behind him. However, he also recognized that William Jennings Bryan was a much tougher opponent than George Dewey or Ben Tillman.

 

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The Great War was truly a world war. It started with a dispute in China involving two European powers. Though the main focus of the war was always in Europe, every continent would be affected in some way. The people living in the colonies of the competing European powers would not be able to escape the effects of the war. Millions of Africans, Indians, Canadians, Australians, and many others would fight and die far away from home. The war in the colonies intensified as nations like the Ottoman Empire, Morocco, the Boer Republics, Japan, and others joined the war. The Great War was also important in that it showed some of the early signs of resistance to European Imperialism.

-Excerpt from The World's War, Ludwig Faerber, Globe Books, 2015.

The War in the Americas went decisively to the Entente. The Spanish Naval forces there were quickly thrashed by France and Britain. Puerto Rico held out until October 26, 1916, at which point Spain’s presence in the Caribbean was limited to a small number of ships that were given a safe haven in Nicaragua’s ports (which they had been given since early in the war). These ships would raid Entente trade routes. Britain declared war on Nicaragua on November 14. In December British and Cuban troops captured Puerto Cabezas. Nicaraguan and Japanese soldiers would fight Britain and Cuba in the small Central American nation for the rest of the war.

In Africa, the war was less lopsided, but the Entente still held the advantage. Germany and Spain were on the defensive with the exception of the ill-fated Spanish campaign in Morocco. The only Alliance colony in Africa that held out was German West Africa. Ottoman-owned Libya lasted for only months after that country’s entrance into the war. However, the Entente war effort was hindered by rebellions against British and French rule. Small-scale revolts broke out all over French West Africa throughout 1916, but they were quickly suppressed. In Sudan, the story was different. In August of 1916, thousands of Sudanese led by Osman Digna took up arms against Britain. While the British authorities were convinced that the Ottomans were behind this, it was never proven. They waged a guerilla war that tied down British troops that could have gone to fight in Europe.

(Osman Digna)​

The Orange Free State and Transvaal declared war on Britain in October of 1916. Tensions had been high between the Boer Republics and Britain for decades and war had only been narrowly averted. But now the Boers were eager to seize upon British weakness in the region. British South African troops were mostly sent to fight Germany in other parts of Africa. Afrikaner soldiers quickly took land from the British in South Africa and Rhodesia. When Portugal joined the war not long after, the Boer Republics were surrounded. On December 1, Portuguese troops captured Lobamba with help from local Swazis. The victory was short-lived as a larger Boer force captured the city on the 15th. After this point, the South African front became mostly a stalemate.

Soldiers from the British colonies featured prominently in the fight against the Ottoman Empire. The British attacked from three directions. A small contingent fought alongside Greece in Europe. Another force invaded Palestine from Egypt. British troops also fought alongside Persia in Mesopotamia. This force consisted of mainly Indian and ANZAC soldiers. On October 13, they fought the Ottomans at Basra. The Ottomans, though heavily outnumbered, inflicted high casualties upon the Entente attackers. The city fell on the 28th and it was hailed as a great victory in the press, especially in Australia and New Zealand. Many were convinced that the collapse of the Ottoman Empire was imminent. Such predictions turned out to be premature. The Mesopotamian Campaign, though it had its share of triumphs, was characterized by poor planning and high casualties.

(Indian Cavalry)​

 

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In June of 1915, the Guangxu Emperor spoke to China’s legislature. He gave a speech calling for China to remain neutral. After some debate, a clear majority in the Chinese Congress backed the emperor’s proposal. Factions supporting both sides were present and argued for Chinese entry into the war, but they were unsuccessful. From 1915 to the end of the war, the Qing Dynasty remained officially neutral. But unofficially, China was very much involved in the war. Though they would not serve in official Qing uniforms, there were people in China who fought for both sides. Neutrality did not stop China from making an impact on the war.

-Excerpt from The World's War, Ludwig Faerber, Globe Books, 2015.

At the onset of the war the vast majority of the Chinese public favored neutrality. China supported Spain’s claims to Aichow over France, but did not want to go to war over it. There was much more sympathy for the Alliance than there was for the Entente. Anti-Russian sentiment was high, especially in the north. Bandits in Manchuria attacked Russians, but that had been going on since before the war began. As far as the government was concerned, war was a bad idea. The country was barely holding together as it was, and entering the war on one side would allow the other side to take advantage of internal divisions within the country.

Fighting took place on Chinese soil while China itself stayed on the sidelines. France captured Aichow and Britain captured Tsingtao early in the war. France and Britain hired a small number of Chinese mercenaries in 1915, mostly from their own spheres of influence. However, one hundred Tibetans also fought for Britain. They were sent to fight the Germans in New Guinea and were later transferred to France to fight in the Pyrenees as they were thought to be natural mountain soldiers. As all of this was happening, the Chinese military continued to focus on modernization. After Japan entered the war, the number of Chinese who volunteered to fight skyrocketed.

Japan, like China, had come to be uneasy with Russia’s presence in the Far East. The two countries nearly went to war in 1902 over influence in China. Many Chinese hated Japan after the Sino-Japanese war but others, like Sun Yat-sen and Song Jiaoren, admired it as a model for modernization and a counter to Russian ambitions. Shortly after the Japanese declaration of war against Russia, Japan and the Qing Dynasty signed a secret treaty. Japan would take all of Russia’s sphere of influence in Manchuria, but would let Russia’s sphere of influence elsewhere in Northern China revert back to Qing control. Japanese troops were also allowed to move through Northern China. Japan was provided with intelligence about Russian forces in their concessions. Thousands of Chinese joined the Imperial Japanese Army in special regiments, including the famous biographer Jiang Jieshi.

(Japanese soldiers attacking by sea)​

Japanese troops in Korea captured Vladivostok in July. Then, the Japanese army moved north, capturing Russian towns and cities with ease. Russia attempted to put a stop to Japanese aggression at the small town of Dalnegorsk. Russian soldiers were ordered to stand their ground until reinforcements from the West arrived. 70,000 Russians in the area fought heroically against over 200,000 Japanese soldiers. The town fell on August 30. Japan did not advance much further due to weather and supply issues. Meanwhile, Japan quickly drove Russia out of China. Pro-Japanese Mongolian fighters went into Siberia and raided Russian supply lines. Russia was furious at China for allowing Japan to operate in Northern China and some called for war. However, most agreed that this would be a mistake.

While Japan’s standing in China was improving, not all were happy. On August 4, one thousand veterans of the Sino-Japanese War demonstrated against Japan in Beijing. Anti-Japanese sentiment was widespread. The pro-Entente movement was led by Sa Zhenbing, an Admiral who fought in the Sino-Japanese War. Some British officials suggested supporting a coup in China to put Sa Zhenbing, or someone similar, in power. Prime Minister Asquith and British General Hubert Gough opposed the plan out of fear that it would backfire. Admiral Sa claimed in the 1940s that he was never contacted by the Entente and never would have went through with such a plan. The pro-Entente movement was unable to mobilize much public support and many politicians perceived as being pro-Entente were voted out in the 1916 elections.

(Sa Zhenbing)​

Japan was winning the war against Russia. The Japanese government wanted to only fight Russia, not the rest of the Entente. This proved to be unrealistic and Japan soon found itself at war with Britain, France, and later Portugal. The combined Entente Naval forces were able to overpower Japan and some in the Japanese government wondered if entering the war was a mistake. British agents stirred up trouble in Korea, but it failed to inspire a large anti-Japanese revolt. ANZAC and French Indochinese troops also launched an invasion of Formosa. They would quickly get bogged down on the island and the fighting there was fierce and lasted until the end of the war.

 

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Though there were many candidates, the election of 1916 came down to two larger-than-life figures. Former President William Jennings Bryan challenged sitting President Theodore Roosevelt. Even though there were many issues facing America that year, the one that seemed to matter the most was the war in Europe. Roosevelt had already pursued policies that were unequivocally pro-Entente. America was sending weapons and supplies to France and Britain. But America was not yet ready for war. Roosevelt believed that if he won in November against peace candidate Bryan, it would give him a mandate for war. The election of 1916 could be considered the most important in American History, even more so than 1800, 1860, and 1896. The world was watching, awaiting the result. It has been said that when November 7th finally came, both Kaiser Wilhelm II and King George V received telegraphs updating them on the results. Regardless of the outcome, one Monarch was bound to be sorely disappointed.

-Excerpt from America's Silver Age, Edward S. Scott, Patriot Publishers, 2017.

The Democrats would heavily campaign for the votes of German and Irish immigrants. This was one of the reasons that Senator David Walsh of Massachusetts was chosen to be the running mate of William Jennings Bryan. Both groups strongly opposed war with Germany. This was a cause of concern for Republicans in the large Eastern cities like New York and Boston. 20 years earlier, Bryan performed very poorly in New England. In 1916, Republican leaders in Massachusetts were shocked when Bryan gave a speech in Boston to large cheering crowds. The local Democrats were also taking full advantage of Roosevelt’s alienation of immigrant groups, and Republican control of the state was in jeopardy. Some Republicans tried to counter the Democrats’ appeal by painting Bryan as an ignorant, fundamentalist, country bumpkin[1]. But the average American didn’t care about how old the former President believed the Earth was, and many Americans shared his beliefs and loved him even more for it.

(David Walsh, Bryan's running mate)​

Foreign agents were involved in the election of 1916. British agents spread information defaming William Jennings Bryan. German agents were present but not in significant numbers. There were reports that the British government was bribing American newspapers to write pro-war and pro-Roosevelt articles. William Randolph Hearst, despite his pro-war leanings in the past, opposed the war and supported Bryan’s campaign once again. Bryan’s former Postmaster General, Milford W. Howard, became a local media mogul and helped mobilize Southern opinion against the war. However, the majority of media outlets favored Roosevelt. Bryan had to deal with the same disadvantage he had in 1896. And just as in 1896, Bryan actively campaigned. This time he focused his efforts on major cities, though he still made plenty of stops in small towns. He went to Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit, Indianapolis, Chicago, and others. He ended his tour in Nebraska.

Not to be outdone, Roosevelt made many appearances of his own. He defended his foreign policy eloquently. Like Bryan, he attracted large crowds as well. He declared that the Kaiser was a threat to not only Europe but the entire world. He also spoke against Japanese aggression in the east. He contrasted the free societies of Britain and France (Russia was ignored, of course) to the authoritarian governments found in Germany, Austria-Hungary, Spain, the Ottoman Empire, and Japan. “We must not be complicit in allowing the light of liberty to be extinguished in Europe.” This was a common theme of his speeches. He also spoke of America’s duty to help France by invoking the memory of Lafayette. He also spoke of atrocities committed by the various Alliance nations, particularly Germany and Spain. Political cartoonists painted Bryan as a puppet of the Kaiser. When it was discovered that he was friends with the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne they began to portray him as an Austrian puppet.

(Roosevelt speaking to supporters)​

Anti-war media made good use of reports of Entente atrocities. They emphasized political repression in Russia. But the story that helped their cause the most was that of a dozen Irish executed for being suspected revolutionaries on October 1, 1916. This story is considered to have inspired greater turnout from Irish-Americans. While Bryan benefited from anti-war sentiment among immigrants, Roosevelt benefitted from anti-immigrant sentiment from native-born Americans. Anti-immigrant protests erupted. People’s patriotism was called into question. German-Americans were accused of supporting the Kaiser over America. Immigrant communities knew that things would get even worse if America actually went to war. Both campaigns would have to wait until November to see which group would be more useful in bringing about victory at the ballot box.

There were also third party candidates (the Populists endorsed Bryan, they would never again field their own Presidential candidate). All of them opposed involvement in the war. The unorganized La Follette write-in campaign theoretically took Republican votes away from Roosevelt, but it also may have taken anti-war votes away from Bryan. Then of course there was the Socialist Labor Party. Bill Haywood campaigned against the war but also for an end to the capitalist system. His running mate was George Ross Kirkpatrick, a writer and anti-war activist from New Jersey. Haywood would more than double his own performance in 1908 and did significantly better than Eugene Debs had done in 1912. The success of Socialists in America was part of a wider trend. In France, Spain, and Russia, the far-left was also becoming increasingly popular.

Conservatives were divided on who to support. Neither Bryan nor Roosevelt was articulating a conservative message. The conservative movement in America was weaker during these years than at any other time in American history. Conservatism as a political would not emerge as a serious threat to progressivism again until the late 1920s. Some hardcore conservatives, including many diehard Gold supporters, sat out the election. Others, out of spite for Bryan, voted for Roosevelt. Some voted out of party loyalty. Conservatives, like progressives, were also divided among themselves on the war. Those who supported the Entente would vote for Roosevelt while those who favored the Alliance or neutrality would vote for Bryan.

When November 7th came, neither camp was confident in victory. Bryan prayed for victory but accepted that in the end it was God’s decision. Roosevelt was, according to all reports, much more worried about the outcome. And he was right to be. It was a disaster not only for Roosevelt but for the Republican Party in the House, Senate, and at the local level. Bryan won the popular vote by more than 8%. He swept the South and the West, winning most of those states by double digits (it is worth noting that Bryan underperformed in the West compared to 1896 and 1900). In the Midwest, the margins were much closer, but Bryan won every state in the region with the exception of Michigan. In Wisconsin, over a quarter of voters wrote in Robert La Follette, putting Roosevelt in third place. The only region that supported Roosevelt was the Northeast. But even there, Bryan exceeded expectations by winning New York and New Jersey (the former by less than 7,000 votes, however). The only states where Roosevelt won a majority rather than a plurality were Connecticut, Rhode Island, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine.

William Jennings Bryan (D-NE)/David I. Walsh (D-MA), 13,977,930 votes (48.81%), 434 Electoral Votes
Theodore Roosevelt (R-NY)/Leonard Wood (R-NH), 11,643,475 votes (40.66%), 95 Electoral Votes
Bill Haywood (S-UT)/George Ross Kirkpatrick (S-NJ), 2,236,465 votes (7.81%), 0 Electoral Votes
Others[2], 780,202 votes (2.72%), 2 Electoral Votes

Twelve years after his first attempt, Bryan succeeded in winning a third term. The results were cause joy for some and despair for others on both sides of the Atlantic.

1: Basically how he was inaccurately portrayed in a certain movie.
2: Prohibition Party, write-ins (most notably Robert La-Follette), two faithless electors from Michigan cast their ballots for La Follette.

 

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-William Jennings Bryan received the highest percentage of the vote in the state of Nevada (69%). His worst state was Vermont (30.5%).

-Theodore Roosevelt's best state was Vermont (65.5%). His worst state was South Carolina (5%).

-Bill Haywood's best state was Nevada (17.5%). His worst state was South Carolina (0.5%).

-The best state for "Other" was Wisconsin (27.6%).


Northeast:


This was Roosevelt's strongest region. He won over 60% of the vote in New Hampshire and Vermont. Despite this, Bryan did very well, winning New York and New Jersey as well as coming within single digits of Roosevelt in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Maine. Bryan also won the marginally Northeastern states of West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware. Haywood received high single digits in Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, and West Virginia.


Theodore Roosevelt won 4,475,628 votes (47.26%).
William Jennings Bryan won 4,185,698 votes (44.20%).
Bill Haywood won 650,802 votes (6.87%).
Other candidates won 157,697 votes (1.67%).

Spoiler: Northeast Sub-regions

New England:


Theodore Roosevelt won 1,135,954 votes (53.18%).
William Jennings Bryan won 853,134 votes (39.94%).
Bill Haywood won 110,272 votes (5.16%).
Other candidates won 36,840 votes (1.72%).


Mid-Atlantic:


Theodore Roosevelt won 3,339,674 votes (45.54%).
William Jennings Bryan won 3,332,564 votes (45.44%).
Bill Haywood won 540,530 votes (7.37%).
Other candidates won 120,857 votes (1.65%).

Midwest:


This was a close region in terms of popular vote, with Roosevelt doing better further north and Bryan doing better further South. The only state where either candidate won an outright majority was Bryan in Missouri. A shift of just 2% region-wide would have shifted Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota to Roosevelt. Minnesota was won by less than 1,000 votes. Haywood finished with double digits in most of these states. Wisconsin saw a large number of its residents write in favorite son Robert La Follette.


William Jennings Bryan won 4,534,399 votes (44.85%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 4,272,497 votes (42.26%).
Bill Haywood won 885,734 votes (8.76%).
Other candidates won (418,093) votes, (4.14%).

Spoiler: Midwest Sub-regions

Upper Midwest:


Theodore Roosevelt won 1,515,792 votes (41.69%).
William Jennings Bryan won 1,508,938 votes (41.50%).
Bill Haywood won 334,758 votes (9.21%).
Other candidates won 276,651 votes (7.61%).


Lower Midwest:


William Jennings Bryan won 3,025,461 votes (46.73%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 2,756,705 votes (42.58%).
Bill Haywood won 885,734 votes (8.76%).
Other candidates won 141,442 votes (2.18%).

South:


William Jennings Bryan won every state in this region, as is to be expected of a Democrat. Only in Kentucky and Tennessee did Bryan's support fall below 60%. He did even better in this region than he had in earlier elections. This was a result of Tillman's wing of the party increasing voter suppression, making it even harder to support the Republican Party in the South than it was in 1896. Haywood did surprisingly well in Florida where he won 10% of the vote.

William Jennings Bryan won 2,202,037 votes (63.89%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 1,072,126 votes (31.11%).
Bill Haywood won 110,905 votes (3.22%).
Other candidates won 61,532 (1.79%).

Spoiler: South Sub-regions

Upper South:

William Jennings Bryan won 1,497,792 votes (59.66%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 897,692 votes (35.75%).
Bill Haywood won 70,522 votes (2.81%).
Other candidates won 44,734 votes (1.78%).

Deep South:

William Jennings Bryan won 704,245 votes (75.25%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 174,434 votes (18.64%).
Bill Haywood won 40,383 votes (4.32%).
Other candidates won 16,798 votes (1.79%).

West:

The West was unsurprisingly won by Bryan. He exceeded 60% of the vote in Nebraska and many of the Mountain states. Roosevelt, while performing better than McKinley had 20 years earlier against the Great Commoner, was really only competitive on the West Coast. This was Haywood's best region, more than 10% of voters there cast their ballot for him. He even came in second place in Nevada.

William Jennings Bryan won 3,055,796 votes (54.46%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 1,823,224 votes (32.49%).
Bill Haywood won 589,024 votes (10.50%).
Other candidates won 142,880 votes (2.55%).

Spoiler: West Sub-regions

Great Plains:

William Jennings Bryan won 806,596 votes (54.15%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 517,523 votes (34.74%).
Bill Haywood won 129,293 votes (8.70%).
Other candidates won 36,156 votes (2.43%).

Mountain West:

William Jennings Bryan won 569,857 votes (61.72%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 214,352 votes (23.22%).
Bill Haywood won 119,007 votes (12.89%).
Other candidates won 20,070 votes (2.17%).

Southwest:

William Jennings Bryan won 816,936 votes (58.68%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 396,097 votes (28.45%).
Bill Haywood won 155,752 votes (11.19%).
Other candidates won 23,450 votes (1.68%).

West Coast:

William Jennings Bryan won 862,407 votes (47.76%).
Theodore Roosevelt won 695,252 votes (38.50%).
Bill Haywood won 184,972 votes (10.24%).
Other candidates won 63,204 votes (3.50%).

 

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By the end of 1916 the Entente appeared to be making a comeback. Spain was struggling to stay in the war and the Ottoman Empire wasn’t doing much better. On the other hand, France was in a very precarious position as well. Adding to this was the knowledge that shipments from the US would stop in March with a change in leadership. France and Russia were experiencing an increase in anti-war sentiment, though not to the same extent as in Spain. The need to end the war quickly was realized by both sides, but the question was how to do so. The Entente and the Alliance were both planning offensives to deliver the final blow to knock the enemy out of the war.

-Excerpt from The World's War, Ludwig Faerber, Globe Books, 2015.

France, Britain, and Portugal were plotting how to force Spain to surrender. If Spain dropped out of the war, soldiers in Southern France could be sent to protect Northern France from Germany. Britain sent over 200,000 soldiers to Southern France in preparation for an offensive there. British and Portuguese troops would also attack Spain from the West. The French forces in the South under Ferdinand Foch had, up until this time, almost exclusively been used defensively. Spanish forces under Antero Rubín always had numerical superiority. In January, Spanish manpower in the region was reduced as men were desperately needed to defend Spain itself. This, coupled with the arrival of British soldiers and new French recruits, meant that the Southern Army could now go on the offensive. On March 15, British and French forces attacked Spanish positions at Saint-Lizier. Rubín’s soldiers had been building fortifications in the region for almost two years. The Entente expected a tough fight that could last for a month. However, Spanish soldiers were in poor morale and supplies were low. The fighting lasted for only nine days.

Within a month of the battle of Saint-Lizier all Spanish forces in France surrendered or retreated over the Pyrenees. At the same time, Portuguese General Tamagnini de Abreu, aided by Britain, launched the Extremadura Campaign. Their goal was to reach Madrid. At the battle of Caceres they routed the Spanish defenders. The advance continued. Neither King Alphonso XIII nor any government or military leader was able to reassure the Spanish public. People took to the streets to demand peace. Socialists, Communists, and Anarchists were out in full force on the streets of Madrid. Alphonso sent an appeal to Kaiser Wilhelm and the newly-crowned Franz Ferdinand. He stated that Spain cannot remain in the war much longer and that help was needed. Germany was planning an offensive against France and Alphonso was told by the Kaiser himself that the war would soon come to an end. In May Spanish forces regrouped and defeated the Portuguese and British at Oropesa. Spain could continue to fight for a little longer.

(Portuguese soldiers during the Extremadura Campaign)​

In the Balkans, 1917 proved to be just as chaotic as 1916. None of the Balkan nations were part of the Entente; they were simply co-belligerents in the war against the Ottoman Empire. Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria were at war with the Ottomans but at peace with the rest of the Alliance. Friendship between the royal families of Serbia and Austria-Hungary prevented the latter’s intervention in the region. It was an uneasy peace, however. Bulgaria was also at war with Greece. Britain was the only Entente power operating in the region, fighting alongside Greece. The British tried to avoid internal conflict in the Balkans, but this proved to be impossible. On January 31, seven British soldiers were killed in a Skirmish between Bulgaria and Greece near Alexandroupoli. Britain declared war on Bulgaria the following day and Greece became a part of the Entente. Germany and Austria-Hungary declared war on Greece in response.

(Bulgarian soldiers fought against the Ottomans as well as the Entente)​

In Austria-Hungary, a new year brought in a new ruler. Emperor Franz-Joseph died on January 2, 1917 at the age of 86. Franz-Ferdinand’s coronation occurred later in the month. The new Emperor disagreed with Conrad von Hötzendorf on the direction of the war. Hötzendorf wanted to launch a new offensive against Russia, while the Emperor wanted to stay on the defensive on the Eastern Front. Germany was not on board with a new Eastern offensive, as it was planning a massive assault on France. Franz-Ferdinand wholeheartedly supported this, and offered for some of his country’s soldiers to be sent to France in order to hasten the end of the war. Unlike the Germans, he believed that Spain was on the brink of a revolution, which could be averted through a ceasefire with France and Britain. Troops were also deployed to the Adriatic Coast in case Britain tried to make an attack there. Austrian generals formulated a plan to invade Montenegro and attack the British stationed in Albania.

(Emperor Franz Ferdinand)​

In Germany, the military and political leadership viewed these other fronts as distractions from the real struggle in Northeastern France. Commander Alexander von Kluck was convinced that, had Austria-Hungary not lost so much ground to Operation Poseidon, Germany would have won the war in France by now. This was also the front where most of American supplies were sent. On November 8, 1916, the defeat of President Theodore Roosevelt was announced in every German newspaper. This meant that there would be no more US weapons shipments to the Entente. While this in and of itself was not a game-changer, the victory of William Jennings Bryan meant that the US was not going to declare war on Germany. The German embassy in Washington celebrated the news; German-Americans, the Bundestag, the German high command, and the Kaiser himself did the same. In May of 1917, Germany would launch another offensive against France, the results of which would determine the outcome of the war.

 

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In the spring of 1917 there was a newfound confidence for many on both sides. And both sides certainly had things going their way that they could point to. The most powerful nation in the Alliance, Germany, had occupied Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of France and Russia. Not an inch of German soil in Europe had been taken (in Germany’s colonies, the story was very different). The Entente could point to the fact that Spain seemed to be on the verge of collapse and morale was improving on the Western Front. German commander Alexander von Kluck, French Commander Joseph Joffre, and British Field Marshall Douglas Haig all were confident that their armies would claim victory over the enemy within a year. At least one of them would be proven wrong very soon.

-Excerpt from The World's War, Ludwig Faerber, Globe Books, 2015.

Millions of Germans poured into the forts and trenches of Northern France in the early months of 1917. They were accompanied by a quarter of a million Austro-Hungarians. The Entente knew that an attack was coming. In April, the Germans launched a small-scale offensive at British positions near Rouen, but they made very little progress and halted after only a week. For the rest of the month the Alliance took the fight to the sky. Flying aces from the Eastern Front were transferred to France for this very purpose. The Alliance established air superiority over the Entente by early May. During this time there had been what Entente veterans described as “endless, unrelenting artillery bombardment.” Then, at multiple points along the front, the attack began.

(German troops attack)​

On May 15, French forces at Vitry-le-François were attacked by German and Austro-Hungarian troops. They were overwhelmed and did not hold their positions for long. The Alliance also attacked the Entente near Rouen, Senlis, and Chaumont. Within a few days, Vitry-le-François and Chaumont had fallen. Senlis was well-fortified and the Oise department which it belonged to had become home to over 2 million soldiers fighting on both sides. It would be the toughest section of the front line. Germany brought in more men after the failed attack on Rouen in the previous month. Within two weeks that city also fell. Senlis continued to hold out. However, German planes bombed their supply lines, which contributed to their eventual victory. A common misconception was that the Austrian Motorgeschütz [1] was decisive in the Alliance victory. In reality, the weapon was not very effective in its early days and the British were actually developing a similar weapon at the same time. Senlis fell on June 13. 250,000 French, 75,000 British, and 180,000 Germans died. Over one hundred thousand were taken prisoner. The Kaiser’s Army continued to advance, and was not going to stop until Paris.

Meanwhile, the Alliance was also in the process of pacifying the Balkans. While earlier in the war the Alliance largely ignored the Ottoman Empire’s struggles, by 1917 their tune had changed. It was decided that the fighting in the Balkans must end so that Ottoman troops could be used elsewhere against Britain and Russia. On May 16, Austria-Hungary invaded Montenegro (legally part of the Ottoman Empire but effectively independent). The small country’s armed forces were no match for the attackers. Montenegro surrendered on the 22nd. The Austro-Hungarians then marched on Albania, where the British had been stationing troops. The British were aided by Albanian Rebels and the Greek Army but were heavily outnumbered and ultimately lost. After the Austro-Hungarians entered Tirana on June 1, Kaiser Wilhelm and Emperor Franz-Ferdinand called upon the Balkan nations to make peace with the Ottoman Empire or face the consequences. None of the Balkan nations accepted and after some hesitation, Serbia and Austria-Hungary were at war.

At the beginning of June, Russia began two offensives; one against Germany and one against Austria-Hungary. They had been planned to begin in July, but the plans were moved forward. Commander Brusilov hoped that maybe he could succeed where he had failed in the previous year. Serbia had finally gone to war with Austria-Hungary, invading the lands to their west which had large Serbian populations. Many Alliance soldiers had been diverted to the Western Front or the Balkans, and both Tsar Nicholas II and the Russian high command were convinced that this was their golden opportunity. Russia was able to take some ground, but it wasn’t enough. And as German forces continued to advance closer and closer to Paris, any optimism felt by the leaders of the Entente was quickly vanishing.

With the trenches taken open warfare was possible once again on the Western Front. Cavalry were used by both sides in limited situations. The French and British tried to make a stand at Provins, but were routed by Germans and Austro-Hungarians on June 15. The road to Paris was open from both the North and the East. In the city itself people took to the streets to demand peace as French, British, and Canadian troops rushed to enter the city. Planes and airships dropped bombs on the French capital, demoralizing civilians and soldiers alike. On June 29, Alliance troops were already in the suburbs of Paris once more. On the 30th, a division of Canadian soldiers (many of whom were Quebecois) put up a brave defense at the northern Parisian suburb of Sarcelles, but were decimated by the advancing Germans. A state of panic ensued as Alliance soldiers fought their way into Paris itself.

(Canadian soldiers in France)​

While the fighting in France was not going well for the Entente, they were still winning victories on other fronts. In May the British captured Jerusalem from the Ottomans. On May 14, the city of Barcelona revolted against the Spanish government. The rebels were a mix of socialists, communists, liberals, and Catalan separatists. The separatists quickly moved to declare independence on the 16th. This declaration of independence was ignored by both Madrid and the other anti-government factions. However, Britain and France recognized the new government and Britain sent a small force to help the Catalans. This was the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, which would continue after the Great War ended. In June, Serbian forces captured the town of Tuzla from Austria-Hungary. Many local Serbs welcomed them as liberators.

In July, the fighting for Paris proper began. The city’s defenders had been reduced in number by aerial and artillery bombardment. They had little hope of victory. However, there were enough of them to prevent a quick capture of the city. One German Army attacked from the North while a combined German and Austro-Hungarian force attacked from the East. The defenders were ordered to make the Alliance fight for every block. But the average Entente soldier did not want to make a heroic last stand, they simply wanted peace. The French government itself retreated to Orleans on the 7th. Still, tens of thousands of Alliance troops were being killed. The Italian government watched the situation and determined that the war was almost over and wanted to be on the winning side. On the 12th Italy declared war on the Entente.

By the end of July the Alliance held almost a third of Paris while Italian troops under Luigi Cadorna had taken Castellane. France did not have enough troops in the South to counter the Italian Army. Italy also landed near Tunis. French soldiers were surrendering and deserting in large numbers. On August 1, France agreed to a ceasefire with Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Spain. A few days later they did the same with the Ottoman Empire and Japan. British soldiers in France evacuated as quickly as possible. British and Russian military leaders tried to think of any possible way to still win the war. Anti-war protests in London and Moscow turned into riots. Radical leftists in both countries were hoping that the revolution beginning in Spain might spread to their nations as well.

1: Literally "Motor-gun"

 

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After the ceasefire in France, the outcome of the war was in little doubt. However, the war would not officially end until later in the year. The Entente still had millions of soldiers and a massive naval advantage. The Royal Navy was powerful enough to make a landing on the British Isles nearly impossible. The vast Russian lands would also be difficult to conquer and hold. On paper, the Entente could possibly hold out for years. But in reality, the situation was increasingly hopeless. Domestic pressures made long-term continuation of hostilities impossible. Entente governments were worried about the possibility of revolution. Indeed, the final months of the Great War would be characterized just as much by revolutions and civil wars as they would be by war between the Alliance and Entente.

-Excerpt from The World's War, Ludwig Faerber, Globe Books, 2015.

British troops continued to fight and die in Spain, Nicaragua, in the Balkans, in East Asia, and on the high seas. Some British generals thought that a capture of Madrid was possible and would put Britain in a better position at the peace negotiations. On August 2, the day after the French ceasefire, British ships engaged with Japan at the former German concession port of Tsingtao and won decisively. Britain and her Balkan allies had stopped the Austro-Hungarian advance as well. But British high command knew that once Alliance troops from the Western Front arrived in the Balkans there would be little they could do to hold them back. Britain’s efforts would be hampered once more on the 9th as protests in Ireland turned into a full-blown rebellion. The United Kingdom lost control of Dublin as well as much of the Irish countryside. The soldiers sent to quell the rebellion were the demoralized soldiers who had just seen France fold. Casualties would be high for both sides.

(Irish Rebels)​

In September, many of the German and Austro-Hungarian soldiers who fought in France arrived in the Balkans. On September 6, Serbia capitulated to Austria-Hungary. Serbia was forced to allow Alliance troops to move through Serbian territory. The next day, though not as a result of Serbia’s capitulation, Britain’s government finally caved in to pressure and agreed to a ceasefire with Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain, and the Boer Republics. On the 8th the British government made peace with the Ottoman Empire, Nicaragua, and Japan. It was the official end of British involvement in the war, though they never got around to signing peace with Bulgaria until 1918. This left Russia, Portugal, Greece, Cuba, Belgium, Morocco, and Persia as the only remaining members of the Entente. And most of these countries were in no shape to continue the war much longer.

Portugal, Greece, and Belgium made peace with Germany on the 8th. Cuba and Morocco made peace on the 9th. Persia agreed to a ceasefire with the Ottomans on the 15th. Russia was the last man standing. After France agreed to a ceasefire, Tsar Nicholas had declared that the mighty Russian Empire, with the aid of the world’s most powerful navy, would fight on to victory against the Alliance. Sweden declared war on Russia on August 3, Romania declared war on September 1, bringing even more men into the fight against Russia. There was widespread opposition to continuing the war, not only among the general public, but also among some in the government and military. Nevertheless, the Russian Army fought well. But as more and more reinforcements from the West came in, defeat seemed more obvious. This was even more obvious after Britain exited the war. The only person who refused to believe this was Tsar Nicholas II. Under pressure from Commander Alexsei Brusilov, Russia agreed to a ceasefire on the 21st. The last battle of the Great War was fought between Germany and Russia near the city of Bialystok in Poland. After more than two years, the fighting officially ended.

Technically Bulgaria was still in the war. It had made peace with the Ottomans on the 18th, but was still fighting Greece. The two nations fought some small skirmishes for the rest of the month until making peace on the 2nd of October. Fighting continued elsewhere, most notably Ireland and Spain. On June 14, revolutionaries took control of Madrid, declaring the establishment of the Republic of Spain as the government fled. On the 24th, Spanish forces under the command of Antero Rubín recaptured the capital, but the rebellion was growing. In July the cities of Zaragoza and Pamplona fell to the rebels. Britain and Portugal were still in the war at this point, and they defeated Spain at the Second Battle of Oropesa on July 1. They were stopped at Toledo in August and the war ended a month later.

(Antero Rubín fought in the Cuban War, the Great War, and the Spanish Civil War)​

During the time that Britain was still at war with Spain, 30,000 Spanish POWs who originated in Catalonia were armed. They were sent to fight the Spanish government. The Catalan Separatists were a small part of the rebellion in May, but with veteran soldiers on their side they quickly became the most powerful rebel group in the region. All rebel groups were aided by defections from the Spanish Army. By the time that the Great War ended all royalist forces in Northeastern Spain had been defeated. The coastal town of Ferrol in the Northwest was taken over by authoritarian leftist revolutionaries. The different groups put aside their differences and marched towards Madrid. They would be stopped by pro-government forces at Guadalajara in November.

Negotiations began shortly after the war ended. There were two treaties in 1918 that put an official end to the Great War. The first was the Treaty of Berlin on March 28, which dealt with the majority of the fighting worldwide. The second was the Treaty of Vienna on April 16, which dealt with the war in the Balkans. The territorial changes were much lighter than they would have been had the Entente won. Russia lost much of its lands in the west to the European Alliance members, as well as some of its Far Eastern lands to Japan. Belgium was to become a German protectorate. Italy took some French border towns as well as Corsica, while parts of the French colonial empire were given to different Alliance members. Britain lost some of its Empire, though it came out much better than France or Russia. Aichow, the concession port that started the whole war, was handed back to Spain. There were also some reparations paid to the members of the Alliance. At the Treaty of Vienna, the Ottoman Empire’s borders largely reverted back to the pre-Balkan War days. Bulgaria and Montenegro became protectorates of the Ottoman Empire while Serbia became an Austro-Hungarian protectorate. And with that, Europe would be mostly at peace.

 

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Spain was unprepared for the war it entered in 1915. It lacked the resources and military power to effectively prosecute war against France. It also had a sizable portion of its population that opposed the war from the start. It was the only nation that had a significant anti-war movement in 1915. From very early in the war, it was subject to a blockade and few supplies made it into the country. It was closed off from trade with every nation except Portugal (until Portugal declared war in late 1916) and suffered from food shortages. As the war dragged on, much of the Spanish populace came to despise their government, especially once it was discovered that Spain had rejected multiple peace offers from Britain, France, and Portugal. That civil war broke out should surprise no one.

-Excerpt from The Spanish Civil War, Julio Lino, Seville Press, 2018.

The official beginning of the Spanish Civil War was May 14, 1917 when the Kingdom of Spain lost control of Barcelona to rebels. The largest rebel group at that time was the Socialists, the second largest was the Liberals, the third largest was the Communists, and the fourth largest was the Catalan Separatists. It should be noted, however, that there was some overlap between the last group and the other three. On the 16th, the separatists met and declared independence, but they were ignored by the other rebels. The Entente powers, on the other hand, quickly moved to recognize the new Republic and Catalans in Entente POW camps were armed and sent into Catalonia. By the end of the Great War the separatists were the most powerful group within Catalonia. The other rebels largely opposed their claims to independence but were mainly focused on fighting the government and an alliance of convenience was maintained.

The rebels quickly moved to capture nearby towns. They were aided by defections from the Spanish Army. On June 14, revolutionaries seized control of Madrid. They declared the abolition of the monarchy and proclaimed the establishment of the Republic of Spain. The government and the Royal family fled the city. Ten days later, Royalists under Antero Rubín recaptured the city. In July, the revolutionaries went on the offensive in the Northeast, capturing the cities of Zaragoza and Pamplona. Royalist forces in Northeastern Spain found themselves increasingly cut off from supplies and they surrendered easily, with some switching sides. Far-leftist revolutionaries focused on taking smaller cities and towns. Northwestern Spain saw Communists take over several towns, most notably Ferrol, and using them as recruitment centers. The more liberal-minded revolutionaries took little notice of this trend during the early months of the Civil War.

The majority of Spain remained in the control of the government. When Italy joined the war, it sent a small force to help fight the British and Portuguese. By the time they reached the front line, the war against the Entente was over and. These Italian soldiers would be used to help fight against anti-government forces. Days before the end of the Great War, the Spanish government secured food shipments from the United States, which helped with the food shortage. In the final months of the war, the military began to increase its power over the government. Many resented the generals’ influence in government as those same people had shown little success during the Great War. Many of the generals had supported the neo-Imperialist Dos Equis Movement fifteen years earlier. Some within the Spanish government itself began to sympathize with the more moderate revolutionaries.

(King Alphonso XIII surrounded by officers)​

On July 31, various rebel groups joined together to form the Ejército Revolucionario Unido (United Revolutionary Army). The ERU’s immediate goal would be to capture and secure Madrid as soon as possible. Some would be left behind to finish off the remaining pro-government forces in the Northeast. The ERU suffered from poor military leadership, as the vast majority of the higher-ranking officers remained loyal to Madrid. But there was little to halt their advance as most of the Spanish Army was fighting Britain and Portugal. In October, the rebels reached Guadalajara. They advanced into the city and there was fierce fighting. However, once Spain entered into a ceasefire with Britain and Portugal, troops at the front line were immediately sent to relieve the defenders at Guadalajara. On November 1, the rebels retreated and the Spanish government was in complete control of the city.

After their victory at Guadalajara, the Royalists went on the offensive. They wanted to destroy the rebellion before the peace talks so they could negotiate from a position of strength. They also knew that, with the hard times the Spanish people were going through, the longer the war lasted the more attractive the revolutionaries would be. The plan was to send one army to capture Zaragoza and another to capture Barcelona. The Spanish Army reached Zaragoza by the end of the year, but after several attempts was unable to take the city. Royalists captured Tarragona on December 23, but it was a pyrrhic victory. Casualties were high and the army abandoned the city in early January.

The Spanish government sent representatives to Berlin in 1918. Even though Spain was in a miserable condition at the time, it was on the winning side of the war. All former Spanish lands occupied by the Entente were to be handed back to Spain. In Puerto Rico, the pro-Cuban government led by Juan Ríus Rivera refused forfeit the island’s independence. Rivera reportedly said “How could Spain possibly enforce its claim over our island?” When the German Navy showed up to enforce Spain’s claims in August, his soldiers abandoned him. Britain handed over Gibraltar. Spain was given partial ownership of the Panama and Suez Canals. Finally, Spain was given back Aichow, and its sphere of influence would now include all of Hainan Island. The Spanish government hoped that this would increase their popularity back home.

(Juan Ríus Rivera led the Puerto Rican government from 1916 to 1918)​

The Spanish public was largely unimpressed with the gains made at Berlin. The average citizen was disillusioned with imperialism, the very thing that dragged Spain into a disastrous war, anyway. The Royalist advance had been stopped and desertions were becoming more common as people increasingly did not want to die for the King Alphonso or the Spanish High Command. The Spanish Army had also begun fighting against leftist guerrillas in Galicia and Asturias, which proved to be much more difficult than anticipated. The royalists were in retreat. Commander Rubín ordered his troops to make a stand at Guadalajara. The Second Battle of Guadalajara lasted from June 30-July 5. This time, the royalists were heavily outnumbered and reinforcements could not come quickly enough to save the city. The road to Madrid was now open.

Even before the fall of Guadalajara, some within the Spanish government were plotting against the King. A group of officers and politicians hatched a plan to kidnap the King and force him to negotiate with the moderate rebels. Prime Minister José Canalejas, angered by the reduction of his power, supported the plan. The plotters were betrayed and on the 8th, more than 100 people were arrested for their real or alleged role in the plot. Some plotters escaped to rebel lines. Canalejas was replaced as Prime Minister by Eduardo Dato. On August 3, the ERU entered Madrid and the government fled to Cordoba. A provisional government was established and former Liberal Member of Parliament Manuel García Prieto was chosen as President.

(Manuel García Prieto)​

On August 8, Toledo fell to the ERU. Then, royalist forces in Castile and Leon came under attack from Communists to the North and the ERU to the South. They all surrendered by the end of August. In September the ERU routed the royalists in Extremadura and on the other side of the country, Valencia fell on September 7. The Rebels now controlled the majority of the country. Andalusia and Murcia as the only two regions of continental Spain under complete royalist control. The leadership of the liberal faction became increasingly concerned with the radical left, however. Italian radical Benito Mussolini had traveled to Spain to fight against capitalism and was able to convince Italian soldiers in Spain to defect. He and his fanatical followers enforced collectivization of agriculture and murdered suspected counterrevolutionaries. Other authoritarian leftists controlled large parts of northern Spain.

On October 1, the Catalan Separatists held elections that were not recognized by the provisional government. They elected Officer Francesc Macià as Prime Minister of the Catalan Republic. The government in Madrid declared the election non-binding and that legitimate elections would be held in January. On October 8, revolutionary forces celebrated the capture of Seville. Celebrations would be short-lived, however, as on 11th, President Prieto was assassinated. He was succeeded by Socialist leader Pablo Iglesias. The assassin escaped and was not found. Most assumed that the royalists were behind the assassination, but some Liberals blamed the Socialists, Communists, or Catalan Separatists. The ERU still held together and surrounded Cordoba as the King and hundreds of military and government officials began to escape the country altogether. Abandoned by their own government, the garrison surrendered on November 5.

(Pablo Iglesias)​

Within two weeks the royalists had retreated from Continental Spain. The government would relocate to Puerto Rico. In addition to their possessions outside of Europe, the Kingdom of Spain still held Gibraltar and the Balearic Islands. By the end of the year, most of the world would recognize the Republic of Spain rather than the Kingdom of Spain (with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy being some of the few holdouts). A state of war remained as the Republic of Spain was committed to liberating some of the lands still held by the royalists. On January 7, 1919, elections were held. The two major parties were the Liberal Party led by Álvaro de Figueroa and the Socialist Party led by Pablo Iglesias. When the votes were counted, the Socialists won just under 60% of the vote. But it was hardly a free and fair election.

(Álvaro de Figueroa)​

Leftist militias intimidated voters in the North. Álvaro de Figueroa demanded that the government order all militias to disband and for there to be a recount. His demands were rejected. There were widespread protests against the government. At Leon, protesters were attacked by armed Communists. The government in Madrid did nothing. In Valencia, armed leftists were met by armed rightists in a bloody street fight. The army was then sent in to counter a “right-wing rebellion” as the government called it. Liberal elements of the ERU marched on Madrid and ousted Iglesias in favor of Figueroa on January 22. Alejandro Lerroux, Benito Mussolini, and other militia leaders were given 48 hours to lay down their arms.

Before 48 hours had passed, the leftist elements within the ERU were organizing themselves against the Liberals’ coup. They allied with the Communists and went on the attack. Months earlier, a far-left government came to power in France and the Communists were receiving French weapons and supplies. Pro-coup forces met with anti-coup forces at Salamanca on the 27th. The pro-coup forces were hopelessly outnumbered and retreated after less than a day of fighting. Madrid lasted for one week, falling on February 7. In the South, anti-coup forces established control over every port city to prevent Figueroa and the other Liberals from escaping. Fortunately, tens of thousands were able to escape when Portugal opened its borders to Spanish refugees. On February 18, the last pro-coup soldiers surrendered in Extremadura.

When the Socialist elements of the ERU and the leftist militias entered Madrid they were greeted by many as liberators. But not long after they arrived, they terrorized the city. Suspected Monarchists and coup supporters were rounded up and executed. Priests were murdered, churches were burned. And as they travelled south they brought their reign of terror with them. In March they turned their attention to Catalonia. Lerroux’s militia controlled the Catalan city of Girona, where they started executing Catalan Separatists. On March 3, the Catalan Army drove them from the city. On the 6th, the ERU began aerial bombardment of Barcelona. On the 17th, the ERU used chemical weapons against the city, killing thousands of soldiers and civilian alike. On the 30th, the city fell and the Catalan government was no more.

After the victory over the Catalonians, the Republic of Spain focused its efforts on building a Navy to take the Balearic and Canary Islands as well as Gibraltar. Disorganized resistance movements would emerge throughout the 1920s, but they would all be brutally suppressed. The government became increasingly authoritarian. The Liberal Party was banned as a so-called “counter-revolutionary” organization. Religion in general (and Catholicism in particular) was persecuted. The new government would try to eradicate the language and culture of Catalans and Basques. Increasingly, it became isolated from the rest of Europe, with only France as an ally. Meanwhile, King Alphonso, operating from San Juan in Puerto Rico, continued to claim that he represented the legitimate Spanish government. He vowed to do all in his power to take his country back.

 

[CELTICEMPIRE]

This is a very rough map of the world after the Treaty of Berlin. I'm pretty sure I included everything.