America's Silver Era, The Story of William Jennings Bryan
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Chapter LV, Britain and her Empire
The United Kingdom was on the losing side of the Great War. Compared to France and Russia, however, Britain was doing well. Britain lost Gibraltar, a few of its smaller colonies in Africa and the Middle East, and some of its ownership of the Suez and Panama Canals. But most of Britain’s power was retained. Britain’s influence in world affairs, though significantly weakened, remained strong. Britain was still able to effectively project its power across the world. Britain’s massive empire was still the envy of lesser powers. Across the vast British Empire, the seeds of discontent had already been sown. The people of the colonies were beginning to oppose British rule.
-Excerpt from The Sun Never Sets, Jack Lucas, Oxford, 2000.
The British public was predictably upset by the defeat in the Great War. The people’s response was to vote out the Liberal Party and vote in the Conservative Party. There was also a growth in the popularity of the British Communist Party, though they only elected a small number of MPs. The British Communist Party took away a lot of support from the Labour Party, further weakening the left in the United Kingdom. Ireland was no longer part of the United Kingdom, though it was a Commonwealth realm. Ireland’s government quickly became dominated by left-wing anti-British politicians and eventually complete independence was declared. Ireland pursued close ties with France until the early 1930s.
Canada was certainly affected by the loss of the war. Many Canadians felt that thousands of their fellow countrymen had died for nothing. Canadians threw out their liberal government for a Conservative one during the war instead of after. Wilfrid Laurier had Prime Minister for two decades, from 1896 to 1916. In 1899 the Silver Party of Canada was formed, based off of the American Populist movement and inspired by US President William Jennings Bryan. Only a small number of Liberal Party members defected (there was a significant pro-Silver minority within the Liberal Party, however). After 1915, the Silver Party began to see an increase in popularity due to their opposition to the war. In 1916 Silverites, led by Thomas Crerar, took enough support from Liberals to put the Conservative Party in power.
(Wilfrid Laurier)
In 1920 the Silver Party won over one-fourth of seats in the Canadian Parliament. They partnered with the Liberal Party and the Socialist Party to form a narrow majority. The Silver Party demanded a referendum on the establishment of a Silver Standard. In 1922 their wish was granted. Canada gave Free Silver a resounding “no” with 54.4% opposed. Ontario and Quebec both voted no by over 60%. In 1923 a new election was held and the Silverites lost almost half of their seats. The Conservative Party dominated Canadian politics for the rest of the decade. Canada saw economic growth until 1927, when it was affected by the Great Depression as was most of the rest of the world.
Australia and New Zealand saw many of its young men killed in a war that was fought far away from home. The years following the war saw an uptick in national identity in both British dominions. An anti-Monarchist movement arose in both countries but especially Australia, with Irish-Australians being its base of support. Some began to argue that Australia look towards America rather than Britain for the future. In 1928 about a dozen leftists shot police officers in Sidney, hoping to incite a revolution. The majority of them had recently been to France. This led to worry that France was supporting revolution not only in Latin America but in the British Empire as well. It was eventually discovered that there was no connection between these revolutionaries and the French government.
While Australia wasn’t on the list of places where France was causing trouble, another British possession was. The Indian Student Socialist Alliance was founded in 1925 and advocated for complete independence from Britain. The organization was thoroughly secular and was often as antagonistic against Hindu or Muslim nationalists as they were to the British. A 1932 raid on the organization’s headquarters proved that the French were behind the movement. Fortunately for Britain, opposition to colonial rule was divided. A 1929 rebellion in Bengal was put down without great difficulty. Many of the soldiers who helped put down the revolt were Indians serving in the British Army.
In the 1920s most Indians were sympathetic to at least one of the many pro-independence groups. But at the same time they had little hope of defeating Britain militarily. Small-scale uprisings took place after news reached the subcontinent of Britain’s defeat in the war. But these were relatively insignificant. Less than 1000 British soldiers were killed suppressing local revolts from 1918 to 1920. What concerned Britain was the possibility of China supporting anti-British revolution sometime in the future. Many Indians were inspired by the fall of French Indochina, and hoped that something similar might happen one day in India.
After the end of the war, Britain was still facing an Islamic rebellion in Sudan led by Osman Digna. The peace treaty ended any hopes on the part of the Sudanese rebels that the Ottoman Empire would give them any aid. Digna was killed in battle with the British in December 1918 at El Fasher. His rebellion quickly disintegrated. Elsewhere, Africa was at peace. In South Africa there was strong anti-Boer sentiment as the Boer Republics took land from both Britain and South Africa. Some Africans became nationalists during the 20s, especially those few who had the opportunity to study in Europe. The general consensus among the nationalists from Nigeria to Rhodesia was to support peaceful and gradual decolonization. African decolonization would become a fashionable cause in the United States, Russia, and China during the 1930s.
Britain’s economy was building itself back to pre-war levels and beyond in the decade following the war. This all ended when Britain was hit by the Great Depression in 1927. British voters responded by voting out the Conservative government. There was also widespread discontentment with the Conservative Party’s establishment of closer ties with Germany and its hostility towards France. A Labour-Liberal coalition led by Ramsay MacDonald ruled Britain for the next few years. From 1928 to 1934, British military spending was only a fraction of what it had been in the past. While military spending was down, a series of social programs were enacted in 1929. The government provided employment and enacted some price controls. Conservatives saw these new programs and thought they were eerily similar to what was going on in France. Others opposed MacDonald’s reforms because they required massive tax hikes.
(Ramsay MacDonald)
-Excerpt from The Sun Never Sets, Jack Lucas, Oxford, 2000.
The British public was predictably upset by the defeat in the Great War. The people’s response was to vote out the Liberal Party and vote in the Conservative Party. There was also a growth in the popularity of the British Communist Party, though they only elected a small number of MPs. The British Communist Party took away a lot of support from the Labour Party, further weakening the left in the United Kingdom. Ireland was no longer part of the United Kingdom, though it was a Commonwealth realm. Ireland’s government quickly became dominated by left-wing anti-British politicians and eventually complete independence was declared. Ireland pursued close ties with France until the early 1930s.
Canada was certainly affected by the loss of the war. Many Canadians felt that thousands of their fellow countrymen had died for nothing. Canadians threw out their liberal government for a Conservative one during the war instead of after. Wilfrid Laurier had Prime Minister for two decades, from 1896 to 1916. In 1899 the Silver Party of Canada was formed, based off of the American Populist movement and inspired by US President William Jennings Bryan. Only a small number of Liberal Party members defected (there was a significant pro-Silver minority within the Liberal Party, however). After 1915, the Silver Party began to see an increase in popularity due to their opposition to the war. In 1916 Silverites, led by Thomas Crerar, took enough support from Liberals to put the Conservative Party in power.
(Wilfrid Laurier)
In 1920 the Silver Party won over one-fourth of seats in the Canadian Parliament. They partnered with the Liberal Party and the Socialist Party to form a narrow majority. The Silver Party demanded a referendum on the establishment of a Silver Standard. In 1922 their wish was granted. Canada gave Free Silver a resounding “no” with 54.4% opposed. Ontario and Quebec both voted no by over 60%. In 1923 a new election was held and the Silverites lost almost half of their seats. The Conservative Party dominated Canadian politics for the rest of the decade. Canada saw economic growth until 1927, when it was affected by the Great Depression as was most of the rest of the world.
Australia and New Zealand saw many of its young men killed in a war that was fought far away from home. The years following the war saw an uptick in national identity in both British dominions. An anti-Monarchist movement arose in both countries but especially Australia, with Irish-Australians being its base of support. Some began to argue that Australia look towards America rather than Britain for the future. In 1928 about a dozen leftists shot police officers in Sidney, hoping to incite a revolution. The majority of them had recently been to France. This led to worry that France was supporting revolution not only in Latin America but in the British Empire as well. It was eventually discovered that there was no connection between these revolutionaries and the French government.
While Australia wasn’t on the list of places where France was causing trouble, another British possession was. The Indian Student Socialist Alliance was founded in 1925 and advocated for complete independence from Britain. The organization was thoroughly secular and was often as antagonistic against Hindu or Muslim nationalists as they were to the British. A 1932 raid on the organization’s headquarters proved that the French were behind the movement. Fortunately for Britain, opposition to colonial rule was divided. A 1929 rebellion in Bengal was put down without great difficulty. Many of the soldiers who helped put down the revolt were Indians serving in the British Army.
In the 1920s most Indians were sympathetic to at least one of the many pro-independence groups. But at the same time they had little hope of defeating Britain militarily. Small-scale uprisings took place after news reached the subcontinent of Britain’s defeat in the war. But these were relatively insignificant. Less than 1000 British soldiers were killed suppressing local revolts from 1918 to 1920. What concerned Britain was the possibility of China supporting anti-British revolution sometime in the future. Many Indians were inspired by the fall of French Indochina, and hoped that something similar might happen one day in India.
After the end of the war, Britain was still facing an Islamic rebellion in Sudan led by Osman Digna. The peace treaty ended any hopes on the part of the Sudanese rebels that the Ottoman Empire would give them any aid. Digna was killed in battle with the British in December 1918 at El Fasher. His rebellion quickly disintegrated. Elsewhere, Africa was at peace. In South Africa there was strong anti-Boer sentiment as the Boer Republics took land from both Britain and South Africa. Some Africans became nationalists during the 20s, especially those few who had the opportunity to study in Europe. The general consensus among the nationalists from Nigeria to Rhodesia was to support peaceful and gradual decolonization. African decolonization would become a fashionable cause in the United States, Russia, and China during the 1930s.
Britain’s economy was building itself back to pre-war levels and beyond in the decade following the war. This all ended when Britain was hit by the Great Depression in 1927. British voters responded by voting out the Conservative government. There was also widespread discontentment with the Conservative Party’s establishment of closer ties with Germany and its hostility towards France. A Labour-Liberal coalition led by Ramsay MacDonald ruled Britain for the next few years. From 1928 to 1934, British military spending was only a fraction of what it had been in the past. While military spending was down, a series of social programs were enacted in 1929. The government provided employment and enacted some price controls. Conservatives saw these new programs and thought they were eerily similar to what was going on in France. Others opposed MacDonald’s reforms because they required massive tax hikes.
(Ramsay MacDonald)
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By the looks of it, it seems the decolonization process will begin a lot sooner than OTL.
Fixed. I think I've used the British spelling every other time I've talked about that Party.
Have I mentioned I really like this timeline? I’m a sucker for prairie progressive folk and this era is fertile ground for interesting ideas, which indeed you’ve explored!
The Australians going with Labor no “u” is the most maddening thing and I’m Canadian lol.
The Australians going with Labor no “u” is the most maddening thing and I’m Canadian lol.
I don't know if you've mentioned it, but I appreciate it nonetheless!
Chapter LVI, Two Empires
Though the 19th century saw the rise of nationalism, some multi-ethnic empires remained. The Russian Tsar, the Austro-Hungarian Emperor, and the Ottoman Sultan all continued to reign over populations divided by language, ethnicity, and religion. By 1920 things had changed in Russia; the Tsar increasingly became a figurehead while the Finns, Lithuanians, Poles, and Ukrainians were no longer part of the empire. But Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire expanded their domains. Both empires were increasingly seen as anachronistic in the 20th century. Both empires suffered from internal unrest and separatism which sometimes took a violent and revolutionary form. While both empires faced similar challenges, their paths diverged when it came to how they dealt with the challenges they faced.
-Excerpt from Nationalism in the 20th Century, Samil Gunay, Harvard, 2009.
The Ottoman Empire gained territory at the expense of Britain, Russia, Serbia, and Greece. It also gained partial ownership of the Suez Canal. A new era of Ottoman glory was proclaimed and many believed that the days of decline were over. But before peace was signed, Sultan Abdul Hamid II died at the age of 75 in November of 1917. He was succeeded by Şehzade Mehmed Selim. His death made little difference as the son governed like the father. Şehzade was an authoritarian opponent of both democracy and nationalism. The first nationalities to cause trouble for the new sultan were the Armenians and Georgians, who both rebelled against the empire in 1919. The Ottoman response was swift and brutal. Hundreds of thousands were estimated to have been killed in only a few months.
(Şehzade Mehmed Selim)
The Ottoman Empire experienced an economic boom during the 1920s as even more sources of oil were discovered within her southern lands. Much of this new wealth went to German oil companies, however. Nevertheless, the standard of living for Turks in the Empire increased. But as the 20s went on, the government had to spend an increasing portion of its budget on the military. Opposition to Ottoman rule was apparent everywhere. Try as it might, the Ottomans could not stop the tide of nationalism that was sweeping through its empire. Hussein bin Ali (Emir of Mecca) was viewed with suspicion for his lack of cooperation with Şehzade’s father. During the Great War, Hussein had privately hoped for an Ottoman defeat so the empire’s authority could be weakened. When Hussein caught wind of a plot hatched in Constantinople to remove him from power, he decided that he wasn’t going down without a fight. In 1923 the Great Arab Revolt began.
(Hussein bin Ali)
By 1924 the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, and Tabuk had broken free of Ottoman control. On March 31, Ottoman forces tried and failed to retake Tabuk. After the Arab victory at Tabuk, Britain and Italy both recognized Hussein’s Kingdom of Hejaz. The Arab rebels advanced north but were stopped in Palestine. Meanwhile, Bulgaria stopped paying the tribute to the Ottoman Empire mandated by the 1918 peace treaty. Bulgaria also began building up its army beyond the 50,000 allowed by the treaty. Ottoman armies invaded the Kingdom of Bulgaria on August 2. One army marched along the coast of the Black Sea while the other advanced towards Sofia. The first army ran into some trouble along the way but wasn’t badly battered. The second encountered fierce resistance at Plovdiv. The city fell in December but the defenders inflicted high casualties. The Ottomans offensive halted there. They would need reinforcements before attacking again.
Those reinforcements wouldn’t be coming. In 1925 violence broke out once again in the Caucasus. Arabs in Mesopotamia began to rebel as well. The Hejaz rebels were now being supplied by Britain. Russians were travelling to Bulgaria to volunteer in the army. Josef Stalin, writing from prison, urged young Russian men to fight for the freedom of their Slavic brothers. The Ottomans would stay on the defensive. 1925 was a stalemate on all fronts. The Bulgarians built up their forces that year and in 1926 went on the attack. Bulgarian troops recaptured Plovdiv in April. The Ottomans were now losing on that front but they could not spare soldiers from Mesopotamia and the Levant. The Ottoman strategy had relied on a swift occupation before Bulgaria could train a large army. This had failed and now the Ottomans were now greatly outnumbered. Bulgaria was slowly being liberated.
By 1927 the Ottomans had largely pacified Mesopotamia. But now they had to defend against a renewed Hejaz offensive in Palestine. On January 4, Jerusalem fell. The Ottomans transferred troops from Mesopotamia to Palestine and placed the city back under siege. In May the Ottomans recaptured the city, but not before taking over 200,000 casualties. In September the last Ottoman forces in Bulgaria surrendered and the Bulgarian Army invaded Ottoman territory. There was a fear that the Bulgarians might capture Constantinople. For the next few months the two sides fought a series of mostly inconclusive battles. Bulgaria was able to capture some border towns and in 1928 signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans. Bulgaria was now completely independent of Ottoman rule and annexed a small amount of Ottoman Territory.
The war in the Middle East was largely inconclusive until 1931. In that year Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire was no match for the Italian forces. Libya, Albania, and several Islands including Cyprus fell within six months. The Ottoman Navy, which was already weak, was decimated. This was the impetus for Italian ejection from the Alliance of Nations the following year. The Hejaz rebels took Jerusalem again in July 1931 and continued advancing through the Levant. Arab soldiers in the Ottoman Army were defecting to Hejaz. The Ottoman Empire was in freefall. By 1932 most of Syria had fallen to the Arab rebels. Greece then declared war and rapidly advanced through the remaining Ottoman territory in Europe.
(Italian infantry)
On May 29, 1932, 479 years after the Ottoman conquest to the day, Constantinople fell to Greek and Italian troops. A few days later, the Ottoman Empire surrendered to Italy and Greece. The Kurds were in revolt. The Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijani had kicked out the Turks. The Arab lands were slipping out of the sultan’s hands. 100,000 Ottoman soldiers made a brave last stand in Baghdad. But on November 1, the city fell to Arab rebels and the remaining Ottomans in Mesopotamia surrendered. The Ottoman Sultan now only ruled over lands with a Turkish majority, and not even all of those. The Ottoman Empire went from being a third-rate power to being irrelevant on the world stage within a decade.
After the Great War ended, Austria-Hungary began to allow for greater regional autonomy. Emperor Franz Ferdinand saw the precarious position his empire was in and determined to do something about it. Thus the government was able to reduce internal ethnic tension. This allowed for the empire to survive the 20s and 30s. Of course, this time was not without its hardships. Separatists were still active and they were not always peaceful. But what happened to the Ottoman Empire did not happen to Austria-Hungary. In fact, Austria-Hungary face more threats from foreign powers than from within during this time. Austria-Hungary would continue to play an important role in global politics, at least for the foreseeable future.
Austria-Hungary continued to have friendly relations with its ally Germany. Closer relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire. But Austria-Hungary was never able to get along well with one of its Great War allies. The Italians were not held in particularly high esteem during the war. Italy was supposed to have joined the war against the Entente, but instead elected to remain neutral until the moment it was obvious that the Alliance was going to win. Had Italy joined the war during the early phase France would probably have capitulated much sooner. Though Franz Ferdinand and Kaiser Wilhelm publicly praised the Italian soldiers for their role in the war, but in both of their countries Italy was seen as opportunistic. Italy also coveted Italian-majority lands in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
When Italy began to carve up the Ottoman Empire with Greece, Austria-Hungary led a campaign to expel the two nations from the Alliance of Nations. With Germany’s help, they were successful. This led to a growing perception that the AON was a German and Austrian-dominated organization. In Britain, where many were already skeptical of cooperation with Germany, there was increased pressure to leave the Alliance of Nations. And in 1932 Ramsay MacDonald was on board and the United Kingdom was out. Austria-Hungary went further and tried to get other nations to place trade embargoes on Italy. The reasoning behind this was not just Italian aggression against the Ottomans, but Italy’s alleged support for separatists inside the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Tensions were rising.
On March 3, 1933, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. Italy struck at this time because there was some instability within the empire, with riots in Budapest and other cities. Italian forces quickly overran the outnumbered defenders on the border. Italy called upon Ferdinand to give up the Italian-speaking regions of the empire in exchange for peace. The emperor refused and instead asked Germany to help its ally. Germany declared war on the 9th and the tide soon turned. German and Austro-Hungarian troops pushed back the Italians and captured Venice in July. In August, a status-quo antebellum peace was signed where Italy simply agreed to pay reparations. Another nation was ready to take advantage of Italian weakness, however.
France had lost territory to Italy with the peace treaty of 1918. Not just colonies, but towns on the border as well as Corsica. And many in France were eager for a chance to get these territories back. On September 1, France declared war and attacked from three points. One army invaded Northern Italy. Another Army invaded Tunis. And French marines invaded Corsica. Italy lost every major battle in the war. On November 30, the French captured Genoa. In February 1934 France was on the attack once more. As French troops closed in on Bologna, the Italian government called for a ceasefire. France accepted and a peace was signed. Italy gave away all land taken during the Great War along with Libya and Cyprus.
-Excerpt from Nationalism in the 20th Century, Samil Gunay, Harvard, 2009.
The Ottoman Empire gained territory at the expense of Britain, Russia, Serbia, and Greece. It also gained partial ownership of the Suez Canal. A new era of Ottoman glory was proclaimed and many believed that the days of decline were over. But before peace was signed, Sultan Abdul Hamid II died at the age of 75 in November of 1917. He was succeeded by Şehzade Mehmed Selim. His death made little difference as the son governed like the father. Şehzade was an authoritarian opponent of both democracy and nationalism. The first nationalities to cause trouble for the new sultan were the Armenians and Georgians, who both rebelled against the empire in 1919. The Ottoman response was swift and brutal. Hundreds of thousands were estimated to have been killed in only a few months.
(Şehzade Mehmed Selim)
The Ottoman Empire experienced an economic boom during the 1920s as even more sources of oil were discovered within her southern lands. Much of this new wealth went to German oil companies, however. Nevertheless, the standard of living for Turks in the Empire increased. But as the 20s went on, the government had to spend an increasing portion of its budget on the military. Opposition to Ottoman rule was apparent everywhere. Try as it might, the Ottomans could not stop the tide of nationalism that was sweeping through its empire. Hussein bin Ali (Emir of Mecca) was viewed with suspicion for his lack of cooperation with Şehzade’s father. During the Great War, Hussein had privately hoped for an Ottoman defeat so the empire’s authority could be weakened. When Hussein caught wind of a plot hatched in Constantinople to remove him from power, he decided that he wasn’t going down without a fight. In 1923 the Great Arab Revolt began.
(Hussein bin Ali)
By 1924 the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, and Tabuk had broken free of Ottoman control. On March 31, Ottoman forces tried and failed to retake Tabuk. After the Arab victory at Tabuk, Britain and Italy both recognized Hussein’s Kingdom of Hejaz. The Arab rebels advanced north but were stopped in Palestine. Meanwhile, Bulgaria stopped paying the tribute to the Ottoman Empire mandated by the 1918 peace treaty. Bulgaria also began building up its army beyond the 50,000 allowed by the treaty. Ottoman armies invaded the Kingdom of Bulgaria on August 2. One army marched along the coast of the Black Sea while the other advanced towards Sofia. The first army ran into some trouble along the way but wasn’t badly battered. The second encountered fierce resistance at Plovdiv. The city fell in December but the defenders inflicted high casualties. The Ottomans offensive halted there. They would need reinforcements before attacking again.
Those reinforcements wouldn’t be coming. In 1925 violence broke out once again in the Caucasus. Arabs in Mesopotamia began to rebel as well. The Hejaz rebels were now being supplied by Britain. Russians were travelling to Bulgaria to volunteer in the army. Josef Stalin, writing from prison, urged young Russian men to fight for the freedom of their Slavic brothers. The Ottomans would stay on the defensive. 1925 was a stalemate on all fronts. The Bulgarians built up their forces that year and in 1926 went on the attack. Bulgarian troops recaptured Plovdiv in April. The Ottomans were now losing on that front but they could not spare soldiers from Mesopotamia and the Levant. The Ottoman strategy had relied on a swift occupation before Bulgaria could train a large army. This had failed and now the Ottomans were now greatly outnumbered. Bulgaria was slowly being liberated.
By 1927 the Ottomans had largely pacified Mesopotamia. But now they had to defend against a renewed Hejaz offensive in Palestine. On January 4, Jerusalem fell. The Ottomans transferred troops from Mesopotamia to Palestine and placed the city back under siege. In May the Ottomans recaptured the city, but not before taking over 200,000 casualties. In September the last Ottoman forces in Bulgaria surrendered and the Bulgarian Army invaded Ottoman territory. There was a fear that the Bulgarians might capture Constantinople. For the next few months the two sides fought a series of mostly inconclusive battles. Bulgaria was able to capture some border towns and in 1928 signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans. Bulgaria was now completely independent of Ottoman rule and annexed a small amount of Ottoman Territory.
The war in the Middle East was largely inconclusive until 1931. In that year Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire was no match for the Italian forces. Libya, Albania, and several Islands including Cyprus fell within six months. The Ottoman Navy, which was already weak, was decimated. This was the impetus for Italian ejection from the Alliance of Nations the following year. The Hejaz rebels took Jerusalem again in July 1931 and continued advancing through the Levant. Arab soldiers in the Ottoman Army were defecting to Hejaz. The Ottoman Empire was in freefall. By 1932 most of Syria had fallen to the Arab rebels. Greece then declared war and rapidly advanced through the remaining Ottoman territory in Europe.
(Italian infantry)
On May 29, 1932, 479 years after the Ottoman conquest to the day, Constantinople fell to Greek and Italian troops. A few days later, the Ottoman Empire surrendered to Italy and Greece. The Kurds were in revolt. The Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijani had kicked out the Turks. The Arab lands were slipping out of the sultan’s hands. 100,000 Ottoman soldiers made a brave last stand in Baghdad. But on November 1, the city fell to Arab rebels and the remaining Ottomans in Mesopotamia surrendered. The Ottoman Sultan now only ruled over lands with a Turkish majority, and not even all of those. The Ottoman Empire went from being a third-rate power to being irrelevant on the world stage within a decade.
After the Great War ended, Austria-Hungary began to allow for greater regional autonomy. Emperor Franz Ferdinand saw the precarious position his empire was in and determined to do something about it. Thus the government was able to reduce internal ethnic tension. This allowed for the empire to survive the 20s and 30s. Of course, this time was not without its hardships. Separatists were still active and they were not always peaceful. But what happened to the Ottoman Empire did not happen to Austria-Hungary. In fact, Austria-Hungary face more threats from foreign powers than from within during this time. Austria-Hungary would continue to play an important role in global politics, at least for the foreseeable future.
Austria-Hungary continued to have friendly relations with its ally Germany. Closer relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire. But Austria-Hungary was never able to get along well with one of its Great War allies. The Italians were not held in particularly high esteem during the war. Italy was supposed to have joined the war against the Entente, but instead elected to remain neutral until the moment it was obvious that the Alliance was going to win. Had Italy joined the war during the early phase France would probably have capitulated much sooner. Though Franz Ferdinand and Kaiser Wilhelm publicly praised the Italian soldiers for their role in the war, but in both of their countries Italy was seen as opportunistic. Italy also coveted Italian-majority lands in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
When Italy began to carve up the Ottoman Empire with Greece, Austria-Hungary led a campaign to expel the two nations from the Alliance of Nations. With Germany’s help, they were successful. This led to a growing perception that the AON was a German and Austrian-dominated organization. In Britain, where many were already skeptical of cooperation with Germany, there was increased pressure to leave the Alliance of Nations. And in 1932 Ramsay MacDonald was on board and the United Kingdom was out. Austria-Hungary went further and tried to get other nations to place trade embargoes on Italy. The reasoning behind this was not just Italian aggression against the Ottomans, but Italy’s alleged support for separatists inside the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Tensions were rising.
On March 3, 1933, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. Italy struck at this time because there was some instability within the empire, with riots in Budapest and other cities. Italian forces quickly overran the outnumbered defenders on the border. Italy called upon Ferdinand to give up the Italian-speaking regions of the empire in exchange for peace. The emperor refused and instead asked Germany to help its ally. Germany declared war on the 9th and the tide soon turned. German and Austro-Hungarian troops pushed back the Italians and captured Venice in July. In August, a status-quo antebellum peace was signed where Italy simply agreed to pay reparations. Another nation was ready to take advantage of Italian weakness, however.
France had lost territory to Italy with the peace treaty of 1918. Not just colonies, but towns on the border as well as Corsica. And many in France were eager for a chance to get these territories back. On September 1, France declared war and attacked from three points. One army invaded Northern Italy. Another Army invaded Tunis. And French marines invaded Corsica. Italy lost every major battle in the war. On November 30, the French captured Genoa. In February 1934 France was on the attack once more. As French troops closed in on Bologna, the Italian government called for a ceasefire. France accepted and a peace was signed. Italy gave away all land taken during the Great War along with Libya and Cyprus.
Damn, everything unraveled on the Ottomans at once. I would think that Germany would want to preserve their ally simply for the oil purposes?
Italy tried to be a backstabbing opportunist and paid the price. A revanchist government is likely to take over.
Italy tried to be a backstabbing opportunist and paid the price. A revanchist government is likely to take over.
I see the Ottomans managed to survive somewhat longer, though their end was a lot messier. Oh, and quick correction - shouldn't Constantinople be Istanbul?
Good for the Austrians, holding onto their empire. Let's see how long that lasts.
Italy, meanwhile, didn't turn out so well in the long run, did they? I'm sure there'll be consequences for that.
Good for the Austrians, holding onto their empire. Let's see how long that lasts.
Italy, meanwhile, didn't turn out so well in the long run, did they? I'm sure there'll be consequences for that.
They gave the Ottomans some weapons.
Well, technically the Ottoman Empire still exists, just in an extremely truncated state.
Istanbul wasn't the official name until OTL 1930 under Ataturk.
Chapter LVII, War of Brothers
The Guangxu Emperor was widely popular during most his reign, especially after the victory over France in the Indochina War. Then, on February 28, 1930, he died at the age of 58. His death was followed by a period of great morning by all Chinese. He was succeeded by his 26 year old son Zhao Zheng. During his 55 year reign, the Guangxu Emperor had won a civil war, instituted major reforms, and even helped establish Democracy in China. Perhaps his greatest accomplishment was to defeat a European power (France) in a war. The Guangxu Emperor and his great achievements will never be forgotten.
-Excerpt from Guangxu, Jiang Jieshi, Beijing Books, 1933.
Zhao Zheng had served in the Chinese Army as a general, a position he obtained solely by being the son of the emperor. His record in the war was mediocre. People like Song Jiaoren, leader of the People’s Party since the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1929, saw opportunity in the midst of tragedy. He, and many others, hoped that the power of the monarchy would be weakened with the arrival of a less popular emperor. But Zhao Zheng was extremely resistant to any attempts to reduce his power. He clashed with congress many times when he tried to appoint unqualified friends and family to important positions within the government and military. This, combined with a famine that hit parts of China in 1930, greatly hurt his popularity.
(Song Jiaoren)
Peasant revolts broke out in multiple provinces, but these were more of nuisances than legitimate threats to the Qing Dynasty. There was, however, concern about Communist infiltration of peasant rebels (though this is unsubstantiated). A much larger threat would come from a rebellious Qing general. In December 1930 Zhu De led a rebellion against the central government in Sichuan and attracted the support of some of the rebellious peasants. Zhu De’s forces began to gain ground. Emperor Zhao Zheng and Prime Minister Song Jiaoren requested Japanese aid in putting down the rebellion. Japan sent over 50,000 soldiers to China. Many in China didn’t want Japanese troops in their country, however.
(Zhu De)
There were still many Japanese troops stationed in Dai Nam. Some of these soldiers, on their way to Sichuan, encountered a Zhu-affiliated peasant army in Guangxi. The peasants were easily routed. After the battle, the Japanese soldiers killed hundreds of civilians suspected of opposing the government. This led to an outpouring of anti-Japanese sentiment. There were riots in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangdong. Some Japanese businessmen were killed in Shanghai in March 1931. Zhao Zheng immediately condemned the murders and the anti-Japanese sentiment in general. But it seemed like the emperor was alone. The Gold Party and the Reform Party were solidly anti-Japan. The Qing Party was mostly anti-Japan. Anti-Japanese People’s Party members like Yip Man and Mao Zedong were gaining support. Even Song Jiaoren began to distance himself from his earlier pro-Japanese positions.
Meanwhile, the Qing Army was losing ground to rebel forces. In 1932, over a year after the riots, Zhao Zheng requested additional Japanese troops. Song Jiaoren announced that he would resist the emperor on this. Then, on April 7, protests erupted in Beijing. People called Zhao Zheng a Japanese puppet and demanded his abdication. The protests became increasingly violent and the emperor escaped with his family on the 10th. They fled from the capital to Tianjin where they were under Japanese protection. Song Jiaoren acted as the head of state in the emperor’s absence and China became an empire without an emperor. Some tried to take advantage of this by getting Congress to officially abolish the monarchy. But it was rejected. Elections were held in June, and Prime Minister Song Jiaoren’s People’s Party was defeated by Admiral Sa Zhenbing. Sa was hated by the Japanese, who were plotting to restore Zhao Zheng to the throne.
The Japanese gathered together pro-Imperial forces in Manchuria and Mongolia. Mongols, Uighurs, Tibetans, and others supported Zhao Zheng as the emperor opposed Han nationalism and supported their autonomy within China. These people formed the 黑龙军 [1] (Black Dragon Army). The Black Dragon Army would be assisted by the Imperial Japanese Army as they sought to retake Beijing. Sa Zhenbing then surprised everyone when he had Zhao Zheng’s younger brother, Mergen, crowned emperor in July. Mergen was much more popular than his brother, however, and most of China accepted him. In August, pro-Zhao Zheng forces crossed into Hebei and threatened Beijing. On September 2 they placed the capital under siege.
(Fighting in Beijing)
Sa Zhenbing wanted the government to relocate to Shanghai, but Mergen refused. The 20 year old new emperor rallied the people of Beijing to defend the city to the end if necessary. Japanese artillery bombarded the surrounded city. But then, on November 9, Chinese soldiers from the South broke through the encirclement. The besieging forces would be pushed back over the next few months. Japan began aerial bombardment of Chinese cities, using both airplanes and zeppelins. Japan also landed troops near Shanghai. In February 1933, Russia declared war on Japan, determining to gain back the lands it lost in the Great War. The Japanese attack on Shanghai failed. The Black Dragon Army was pushed back into Manchuria.
Chinese forces went on the offensive against Zhu De in Sichuan and Guangxi. The Qing Imperial Army won a victory at Nanning on October 1. The Southern front was beginning to stabilize. Russia was winning against Japan. On the 10th Russian troops captured Vladivostok. Russia largely ignored the fighting in China but there were clashed between the Black Dragon Army and the Imperial Russian Army in Mongolia. The war was turning out poorly for Japan. A ceasefire was agreed to in December 1933 and the two sides met in San Francisco in April 1934 to discuss the terms of peace. Japan would give back all the land it took from Russia in the Great War back with the exception of the Sakhalin Islands. Zhao Zheng would rule over Manchuria while Mergen would rule over the rest of China.
But China was not really at peace. Zhu De’s armies would continue to be a problem. Right after the Treaty of San Francisco was signed, the Guizhou Pacification Campaign began. Over 100,000 Qing soldiers would die during the next 6 months but Zhu De lost just as many troops. It was all downhill for the warlord after that. In 1935 the government reestablished control of Chongqing. Chengdu fell in 1936. All of Sichuan was under Mergen’s control by the end of that year. In 1937 Zhu De took a plane and fled to Xinjiang, which had gained its independence the previous year. Mongolia had revolted and became independent in 1935. For the rest of the ‘30s, Mergen would attempt to bring Mongolia and Xinjiang back under his rule, all of which failed. By 1940 he finally accepted that they were lost.
1: Heilongjun
-Excerpt from Guangxu, Jiang Jieshi, Beijing Books, 1933.
Zhao Zheng had served in the Chinese Army as a general, a position he obtained solely by being the son of the emperor. His record in the war was mediocre. People like Song Jiaoren, leader of the People’s Party since the death of Sun Yat-sen in 1929, saw opportunity in the midst of tragedy. He, and many others, hoped that the power of the monarchy would be weakened with the arrival of a less popular emperor. But Zhao Zheng was extremely resistant to any attempts to reduce his power. He clashed with congress many times when he tried to appoint unqualified friends and family to important positions within the government and military. This, combined with a famine that hit parts of China in 1930, greatly hurt his popularity.
(Song Jiaoren)
Peasant revolts broke out in multiple provinces, but these were more of nuisances than legitimate threats to the Qing Dynasty. There was, however, concern about Communist infiltration of peasant rebels (though this is unsubstantiated). A much larger threat would come from a rebellious Qing general. In December 1930 Zhu De led a rebellion against the central government in Sichuan and attracted the support of some of the rebellious peasants. Zhu De’s forces began to gain ground. Emperor Zhao Zheng and Prime Minister Song Jiaoren requested Japanese aid in putting down the rebellion. Japan sent over 50,000 soldiers to China. Many in China didn’t want Japanese troops in their country, however.
(Zhu De)
There were still many Japanese troops stationed in Dai Nam. Some of these soldiers, on their way to Sichuan, encountered a Zhu-affiliated peasant army in Guangxi. The peasants were easily routed. After the battle, the Japanese soldiers killed hundreds of civilians suspected of opposing the government. This led to an outpouring of anti-Japanese sentiment. There were riots in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangdong. Some Japanese businessmen were killed in Shanghai in March 1931. Zhao Zheng immediately condemned the murders and the anti-Japanese sentiment in general. But it seemed like the emperor was alone. The Gold Party and the Reform Party were solidly anti-Japan. The Qing Party was mostly anti-Japan. Anti-Japanese People’s Party members like Yip Man and Mao Zedong were gaining support. Even Song Jiaoren began to distance himself from his earlier pro-Japanese positions.
Meanwhile, the Qing Army was losing ground to rebel forces. In 1932, over a year after the riots, Zhao Zheng requested additional Japanese troops. Song Jiaoren announced that he would resist the emperor on this. Then, on April 7, protests erupted in Beijing. People called Zhao Zheng a Japanese puppet and demanded his abdication. The protests became increasingly violent and the emperor escaped with his family on the 10th. They fled from the capital to Tianjin where they were under Japanese protection. Song Jiaoren acted as the head of state in the emperor’s absence and China became an empire without an emperor. Some tried to take advantage of this by getting Congress to officially abolish the monarchy. But it was rejected. Elections were held in June, and Prime Minister Song Jiaoren’s People’s Party was defeated by Admiral Sa Zhenbing. Sa was hated by the Japanese, who were plotting to restore Zhao Zheng to the throne.
The Japanese gathered together pro-Imperial forces in Manchuria and Mongolia. Mongols, Uighurs, Tibetans, and others supported Zhao Zheng as the emperor opposed Han nationalism and supported their autonomy within China. These people formed the 黑龙军 [1] (Black Dragon Army). The Black Dragon Army would be assisted by the Imperial Japanese Army as they sought to retake Beijing. Sa Zhenbing then surprised everyone when he had Zhao Zheng’s younger brother, Mergen, crowned emperor in July. Mergen was much more popular than his brother, however, and most of China accepted him. In August, pro-Zhao Zheng forces crossed into Hebei and threatened Beijing. On September 2 they placed the capital under siege.
(Fighting in Beijing)
Sa Zhenbing wanted the government to relocate to Shanghai, but Mergen refused. The 20 year old new emperor rallied the people of Beijing to defend the city to the end if necessary. Japanese artillery bombarded the surrounded city. But then, on November 9, Chinese soldiers from the South broke through the encirclement. The besieging forces would be pushed back over the next few months. Japan began aerial bombardment of Chinese cities, using both airplanes and zeppelins. Japan also landed troops near Shanghai. In February 1933, Russia declared war on Japan, determining to gain back the lands it lost in the Great War. The Japanese attack on Shanghai failed. The Black Dragon Army was pushed back into Manchuria.
Chinese forces went on the offensive against Zhu De in Sichuan and Guangxi. The Qing Imperial Army won a victory at Nanning on October 1. The Southern front was beginning to stabilize. Russia was winning against Japan. On the 10th Russian troops captured Vladivostok. Russia largely ignored the fighting in China but there were clashed between the Black Dragon Army and the Imperial Russian Army in Mongolia. The war was turning out poorly for Japan. A ceasefire was agreed to in December 1933 and the two sides met in San Francisco in April 1934 to discuss the terms of peace. Japan would give back all the land it took from Russia in the Great War back with the exception of the Sakhalin Islands. Zhao Zheng would rule over Manchuria while Mergen would rule over the rest of China.
But China was not really at peace. Zhu De’s armies would continue to be a problem. Right after the Treaty of San Francisco was signed, the Guizhou Pacification Campaign began. Over 100,000 Qing soldiers would die during the next 6 months but Zhu De lost just as many troops. It was all downhill for the warlord after that. In 1935 the government reestablished control of Chongqing. Chengdu fell in 1936. All of Sichuan was under Mergen’s control by the end of that year. In 1937 Zhu De took a plane and fled to Xinjiang, which had gained its independence the previous year. Mongolia had revolted and became independent in 1935. For the rest of the ‘30s, Mergen would attempt to bring Mongolia and Xinjiang back under his rule, all of which failed. By 1940 he finally accepted that they were lost.
1: Heilongjun
Given how Russia curb-stomped Japan, they are likely gonna invest heavily in their ground forces for their revenge
They might.
@CELTICEMPIRE, I love your Asia updates!
Thanks, they are some of my favorite ones to write!
Constitutional Monarchy. I'll write about Russia's situation sometime.
Chapter LVIII, Younger Brother
Charles Wayland Bryan was inaugurated on March 4, 1933. He was elected in what some called a wave of nostalgia. People felt that things were better during his brother’s presidency, the economy certainly was. Bryan’s goals were to stand up for the interests of rural America, pursue a non-interventionist foreign policy, and bring an end to the hard economic times. This was easier said than done. Though Democrats technically controlled both houses of Congress, they had a majority in neither. It was going to be a struggle to get his agenda passed. The biggest challenge facing the Bryan Administration, by far, was the Great Depression, which had already taken the presidencies of both Milford Howard and Frank Hanly as victims.
-Excerpt from The Guide to the Executive Mansion, an in Depth Look at America's Presidents by Benjamin Buckley, Harvard Press, 1999.
(Charles Wayland Bryan)
Most of William Jennings Bryan’s old cabinet was either dead or not on very good terms with the new President (like Milford Howard). His Secretary of State would be Senator Cordell Hull of Tennessee. Edwin T. Meredith was one of the members of William’s second cabinet and got his old job of Secretary of the Treasury back. John Pershing was brought back once again for Secretary of War. His Attorney General would be former House Speaker Oscar Underwood of Alabama. For Postmaster General, Carter Harrison of Illinois from William’s second cabinet was brought back. His Secretary of the Navy would be Claire Chennault of Louisiana. Former Ohio Governor James Cox was selected for Secretary of the Interior. His Secretary of Agriculture was Harry Truman of Missouri. His Secretary of Public Welfare was Representative Henry Steagall of Alabama.
The 73rd Congress was had a Democratic plurality in both chambers. The Senate had 43 Democrats, 40 Republicans, and 15 Socialists. The House of Representatives had 231 Democrats, 80 Socialists, and 180 Republicans. Congress would be very busy in 1933. Several amendments were being proposed. The first was abolition of the Electoral College. Popularized by the late Senator Robert La Follette, abolition of the Electoral College had been slowly gaining steam since his failed presidential run in 1904. Support rapidly increased after 1928 and many states were passing laws requiring their electors to vote for the winner of the popular vote. The second was another thing popularized by La Follette, runoff elections. The third was an amendment to reduce the length of lame duck administrations by moving the presidential inauguration from March to January. The fourth was an amendment to ban poll taxes.
Abolition of the Electoral College would have to wait until the results of a referendum scheduled for 1934 to gauge public support. The same was true for the presidential runoff. Congress decided to pass the lame duck amendment without bothering with a referendum. And abolition of poll taxes was blocked by Southern Senators. Voters in the midterm election would also get to vote on a referendum on whether or not to repeal the 1929 tariffs signed by Hanly. Western Democrats filibustered and blocked an attempt to put a referendum on reestablishing the Gold Standard on the ballot. Supporters of the Gold Standard were convinced that public opinion was on their side. Republicans and Eastern Democrats were now determined to kill the filibuster at the next opportunity.
-Excerpt from America's Silver Age, Edward S. Scott, Patriot Publishers, 2017.
In September 1933 Congress did two things to severely weaken prohibition. First, beer was legalized. Second, funding for prohibition enforcement was cut by over 50%. It would be almost entirely up to the states to enforce prohibition now. Another policy issue was civil rights. The Democrats controlled Congress and thus any civil rights legislation would be hard to pass. But some were hopeful that the new President would be different, considering his brother’s support in the passage of the Lodge-Wheeler Bill. Though some Democrats were still angry over that bill, the mainstream Democratic position was that it was a good thing. And because of the Lodge-Wheeler Bill, no further civil rights legislation was needed. That was the position espoused in the 1924, 1928, and 1932 Democratic platforms.
In 1934 Bryan helped make peace in Asia by mediating between the warring parties in San Francisco. Both Zhao Zheng and Mergen respected Charles W. Bryan because their father was friends with William. Charles told the warring brothers that their father would be deeply disappointed in them for fighting each other. Their sister, who was between them in age, was also present and begged them to end the war. The peace deals were a success and the two brothers remained at peace until Zhao Zheng’s death in 1977. Qing Emperor Mergen and Russian Prime Minister Alexander Protopopov joined Bryan later that year to declare their support for decolonization of Asia.
(Alexander Protopopov)
Decolonization was becoming a very fashionable cause in the United States. The American Decolonization Society was formed in 1930. Its members wanted the US government to support the independence of the colonies of the various imperial powers. For domestic policy, the group called for independence or statehood for Hawaii. The group was supported by many in the (at the time quite small) black middle class. The organization supported Charles W. Bryan’s declaration of support for Asian decolonization in 1934 and African decolonization in 1935. America would support the peaceful and gradual decolonization of Africa and Asia and the establishment of governments that respect freedom of their citizens. Britain, France, and Germany were all unhappy, but not overly so as there was little America could do at the time.
Democrats lost seats in both Houses in 1934. The Socialist Party lost seats in the West but gained seats in the East. The House and Senate now had Republican pluralities. The Senate would be led by Frederick Hale of Maine and had 42 Republicans, 41 Democrats, and 13 Socialists. The House would be led by Speaker Charles Dawes and had 211 Republicans, 202 Democrats, and 87 Socialists. Question 4, abolition of the Electoral College, won in a landslide, gaining over 60% support required for it to be binding. Question 5 (presidential runoff elections) and Question 6 (repeal of the 1930 tariffs) passed but were not binding.
Shall the Constitution be amended as to abolish the Electoral College?
Yes: 20,018,175 votes (62.36%)
No: 12,082,811 (37.64%)
The new Republican Senate killed the filibuster. Senate Majority Leader Frederick Hale announced that the filibuster was temporarily dead. Their motivation was to allow a vote on the Gold Standard to go through. A referendum was set for 1936. Another referendum was to be held that year, repeal of prohibition. Many felt that after a decade of failure, it was time to repeal the 21st Amendment. It was expected to easily gain a majority, but it the vote was below 60% supporters of prohibition could fight a repeal amendment in the state legislatures. The Gold Standard referendum would make sure that Republican turnout was high for the presidential election.
-Excerpt from The Guide to the Executive Mansion, an in Depth Look at America's Presidents by Benjamin Buckley, Harvard Press, 1999.
(Charles Wayland Bryan)
Most of William Jennings Bryan’s old cabinet was either dead or not on very good terms with the new President (like Milford Howard). His Secretary of State would be Senator Cordell Hull of Tennessee. Edwin T. Meredith was one of the members of William’s second cabinet and got his old job of Secretary of the Treasury back. John Pershing was brought back once again for Secretary of War. His Attorney General would be former House Speaker Oscar Underwood of Alabama. For Postmaster General, Carter Harrison of Illinois from William’s second cabinet was brought back. His Secretary of the Navy would be Claire Chennault of Louisiana. Former Ohio Governor James Cox was selected for Secretary of the Interior. His Secretary of Agriculture was Harry Truman of Missouri. His Secretary of Public Welfare was Representative Henry Steagall of Alabama.
The 73rd Congress was had a Democratic plurality in both chambers. The Senate had 43 Democrats, 40 Republicans, and 15 Socialists. The House of Representatives had 231 Democrats, 80 Socialists, and 180 Republicans. Congress would be very busy in 1933. Several amendments were being proposed. The first was abolition of the Electoral College. Popularized by the late Senator Robert La Follette, abolition of the Electoral College had been slowly gaining steam since his failed presidential run in 1904. Support rapidly increased after 1928 and many states were passing laws requiring their electors to vote for the winner of the popular vote. The second was another thing popularized by La Follette, runoff elections. The third was an amendment to reduce the length of lame duck administrations by moving the presidential inauguration from March to January. The fourth was an amendment to ban poll taxes.
Abolition of the Electoral College would have to wait until the results of a referendum scheduled for 1934 to gauge public support. The same was true for the presidential runoff. Congress decided to pass the lame duck amendment without bothering with a referendum. And abolition of poll taxes was blocked by Southern Senators. Voters in the midterm election would also get to vote on a referendum on whether or not to repeal the 1929 tariffs signed by Hanly. Western Democrats filibustered and blocked an attempt to put a referendum on reestablishing the Gold Standard on the ballot. Supporters of the Gold Standard were convinced that public opinion was on their side. Republicans and Eastern Democrats were now determined to kill the filibuster at the next opportunity.
-Excerpt from America's Silver Age, Edward S. Scott, Patriot Publishers, 2017.
In September 1933 Congress did two things to severely weaken prohibition. First, beer was legalized. Second, funding for prohibition enforcement was cut by over 50%. It would be almost entirely up to the states to enforce prohibition now. Another policy issue was civil rights. The Democrats controlled Congress and thus any civil rights legislation would be hard to pass. But some were hopeful that the new President would be different, considering his brother’s support in the passage of the Lodge-Wheeler Bill. Though some Democrats were still angry over that bill, the mainstream Democratic position was that it was a good thing. And because of the Lodge-Wheeler Bill, no further civil rights legislation was needed. That was the position espoused in the 1924, 1928, and 1932 Democratic platforms.
In 1934 Bryan helped make peace in Asia by mediating between the warring parties in San Francisco. Both Zhao Zheng and Mergen respected Charles W. Bryan because their father was friends with William. Charles told the warring brothers that their father would be deeply disappointed in them for fighting each other. Their sister, who was between them in age, was also present and begged them to end the war. The peace deals were a success and the two brothers remained at peace until Zhao Zheng’s death in 1977. Qing Emperor Mergen and Russian Prime Minister Alexander Protopopov joined Bryan later that year to declare their support for decolonization of Asia.
(Alexander Protopopov)
Decolonization was becoming a very fashionable cause in the United States. The American Decolonization Society was formed in 1930. Its members wanted the US government to support the independence of the colonies of the various imperial powers. For domestic policy, the group called for independence or statehood for Hawaii. The group was supported by many in the (at the time quite small) black middle class. The organization supported Charles W. Bryan’s declaration of support for Asian decolonization in 1934 and African decolonization in 1935. America would support the peaceful and gradual decolonization of Africa and Asia and the establishment of governments that respect freedom of their citizens. Britain, France, and Germany were all unhappy, but not overly so as there was little America could do at the time.
Democrats lost seats in both Houses in 1934. The Socialist Party lost seats in the West but gained seats in the East. The House and Senate now had Republican pluralities. The Senate would be led by Frederick Hale of Maine and had 42 Republicans, 41 Democrats, and 13 Socialists. The House would be led by Speaker Charles Dawes and had 211 Republicans, 202 Democrats, and 87 Socialists. Question 4, abolition of the Electoral College, won in a landslide, gaining over 60% support required for it to be binding. Question 5 (presidential runoff elections) and Question 6 (repeal of the 1930 tariffs) passed but were not binding.
Shall the Constitution be amended as to abolish the Electoral College?
Yes: 20,018,175 votes (62.36%)
No: 12,082,811 (37.64%)
The new Republican Senate killed the filibuster. Senate Majority Leader Frederick Hale announced that the filibuster was temporarily dead. Their motivation was to allow a vote on the Gold Standard to go through. A referendum was set for 1936. Another referendum was to be held that year, repeal of prohibition. Many felt that after a decade of failure, it was time to repeal the 21st Amendment. It was expected to easily gain a majority, but it the vote was below 60% supporters of prohibition could fight a repeal amendment in the state legislatures. The Gold Standard referendum would make sure that Republican turnout was high for the presidential election.