Chapter XLVIII, A Turning Point
The Presidency of Milford Howard, which started out well, was turning into a disaster. At the start of 1928, the unemployment rate was in double digits and rising. But Howard was determined to try his best and maybe he could pull off a victory. He continued to work with Congress to come up with solutions to the economic depression. Whatever one could accuse the Howard Administration of, doing nothing was not one of them. Despite his honest efforts, nothing he was doing was working. He would even face a challenge at the Democratic Convention. Disgraced ex-President William Randolph Hearst funded his running mate from his 1912 Populist campaign, Frank Steunenberg in his quest for the Democratic nomination. Howards would still be nominated, but now was the worst time for the Democratic Party to be divided.
-Excerpt from The Guide to the Executive Mansion, an in Depth Look at America's Presidents by Benjamin Buckley, Harvard Press, 1999.
Republicans were full of confidence. There was no shortage of people who thought they could become the next president. Representative Ole Hanson of Washington ran on a platform of fighting Communism and supporting the Kingdom of Spain. James W. Wadsworth Jr. of New York ran on a platform of fiscal conservatism. He was controversial due to his lack of support for civil rights. Former baseball player Brian Loman of Pennsylvania ran as an opponent of the Alliance of Nations as well as prohibition. Senator Herbert Hoover ran as a pragmatic moderate reformer. Various favorite sons were also candidates at the convention. But the real competition was between the conservative Warren Harding and the formerly progressive but now moderate Frank Hanly.
Harding was the favorite. He energized conservatives like no one had done before. He wanted to cut taxes and regulations and abolish the Rural Relief Bureau. He even said that he was willing to look into reinstating the Gold Standard. He supported an anti-Communist foreign policy, with recognition of the Kingdom of Spain. Hanly, on the other hand, supported the pro-Democracy Spanish government in exile. He also wanted to keep the RRB. The party was moving in Harding’s direction, but many Republicans were still progressives or moderates. Then Harding died of a heart attack right before the convention. Hanly won. He chose Senator Thomas du Pont of Delaware, in order to ensure his support from business. The 1928 Republican platform called for limited government, American membership in the Alliance of Nations, and support for prohibition.
(Left: Frank Hanly, Right: Thomas C. du Pont)
The Socialist Labor Party would nominate Bill Haywood once more. The party had alternated between Debs and Haywood, but Debs had died since the last election. His running mate would be Devere Allen of Rhode Island. The SLP was almost three times as rich as it had been in 1924. While individual donations had certainly increased, many suspected that foreign money was making its way into the party’s treasury. The Socialists would have a much more organized campaign than they ever had in their existence. Haywood travelled throughout the Southwest, talking to voters. He spoke against the authoritarian policies of the federal government in the California and Arizona. This attracted a lot of support, as Hanly seemed to mostly agree with Howard’s positions on law and order. He also condemned the Alliance of Nations as a tool of war profiteers. But the main appeal of the SLP and Haywood was the disastrous economic situation. In a speech in San Francisco, Haywood summarized the thoughts of millions of Americans when he said, “The Democrats wrecked America, but we’ve seen Republicans do the same thing. The only solution is the end of capitalism and the rise of a new order.”
Despite the growing appeal of Socialism, most Americans still supported the capitalist system. Republicans offered a message of hope to the struggling masses. The cause of the depression was excessive government interference. The market was not free enough, there was not enough capitalism. The solution was to get the government out of the economy, or at least decrease its involvement. Hanly accused Howard of doubling down on the wrong policies. He also promised a new protective tariff. Higher tariffs would help alleviate the economic pain by ensuring that American companies, and therefore American jobs, were protected. Tariffs were also popular because increased federal revenue from tariffs would decrease the tax revenue needed, allowing for a tax cut. The tariff argument made sense to a lot of people. After all, since Bryan and the Democrats slashed the tariffs in 1918, foreign companies had outperformed many American ones (this was especially true of the auto industry). This was mostly theory, but the theory that protectionism would save the American worker sounded good.
Of course, millions of Americans remained loyal to the Democratic Party and President Milford Howard. But his campaign struggled to think of ways to win. Who was still planning on casting their ballot for the Democratic ticket? There were white Southerners, who could always be relied upon. There were also western farmers and northern immigrants, the so-called “Bryan Coalition.” But even in 1924 that coalition was unraveling. Howard went on the offensive. Friendly media outlets painted a picture of a dystopian future under Republican rule. Minimum wage laws were repealed and big business was allowed to act with impunity. People were starving in the streets and America was reduced to a nation of serfs while a few wealthy oligarchs bathed in in their own money. Howard travelled to Michigan and Wisconsin to give speeches. He hoped to appeal to progressive Republicans who felt alienated by their party’s recent move to the right. Most people were not convinced and they continued to see Howard as responsible for their plight.
In the end, it wasn’t even close. Howard won only three states outside of the South. The Congressional results were also bad news for Democrats. The Senate would include 53 Republicans, 41 Democrats, and 4 Socialists. The House of Representatives would include 278 Republicans, 198 Democrats, and 35 Socialists. Republicans celebrated their first presidential election victory since 1912. Republican leaders also celebrated, as would be expected. But they were also nervous. Now it was their turn to try and fix the mess America was in. Socialists were exuberant. Even though they came nowhere close to victory, they had won a majority of votes in several states. They also elected their first Southern Representative, William Z. Foster of Florida. The SLP had been slowly growing in popularity since 1900. Now, they were a force to be reckoned with.
Frank Hanly (R-IN)/Thomas C. du Pont (R-DE), 17,243,000 votes (44.11%), 404 Electoral Votes
Milford W. Howard (D-AL)/George White (D-AK), 12,298,000 votes (31.46%), 155 Electoral Votes
Bill Haywood (S-UT)/Devere Allen (S-RI), 8,560,909 votes (21.90%), 39 Electoral Votes
Others[1], 957,727 votes (2.45%), 1 Electoral Vote
The Presidential election was not the only national vote in 1928. There was also Question 2, whether or not to join the Alliance of Nations. Both Hanly and Howard supported a “yes” vote, while Bill Haywood urged his supporters to vote “no.” Both the Republican and Democratic Parties were divided, with large percentages of their membership opposing the AON. Support was stronger in the East than the West. Wealthier Americans were also more likely to vote yes. Support for the AON came from an unlikely alliance between WASPs and German immigrants. Opposition came from pacifists, the far-left, and Irish immigrants. With the economic depression, people largely stopped caring about the AON either way and Question 2 narrowly passed. Over one million people who cast ballots for President or Congress left Question 2 blank. Since it failed to receive two thirds majority, it was non-binding.
Shall the United States of America join the Alliance of Nations?
Yes: 19,396,973 votes (50.95%)
No: 18,673,632 votes (49.05%)
1: Mostly Prohibition Party and write-ins. William Randolph Hearst received a large number of write-ins and a faithless elector from Montana.
-Excerpt from The Guide to the Executive Mansion, an in Depth Look at America's Presidents by Benjamin Buckley, Harvard Press, 1999.
Republicans were full of confidence. There was no shortage of people who thought they could become the next president. Representative Ole Hanson of Washington ran on a platform of fighting Communism and supporting the Kingdom of Spain. James W. Wadsworth Jr. of New York ran on a platform of fiscal conservatism. He was controversial due to his lack of support for civil rights. Former baseball player Brian Loman of Pennsylvania ran as an opponent of the Alliance of Nations as well as prohibition. Senator Herbert Hoover ran as a pragmatic moderate reformer. Various favorite sons were also candidates at the convention. But the real competition was between the conservative Warren Harding and the formerly progressive but now moderate Frank Hanly.
Harding was the favorite. He energized conservatives like no one had done before. He wanted to cut taxes and regulations and abolish the Rural Relief Bureau. He even said that he was willing to look into reinstating the Gold Standard. He supported an anti-Communist foreign policy, with recognition of the Kingdom of Spain. Hanly, on the other hand, supported the pro-Democracy Spanish government in exile. He also wanted to keep the RRB. The party was moving in Harding’s direction, but many Republicans were still progressives or moderates. Then Harding died of a heart attack right before the convention. Hanly won. He chose Senator Thomas du Pont of Delaware, in order to ensure his support from business. The 1928 Republican platform called for limited government, American membership in the Alliance of Nations, and support for prohibition.
(Left: Frank Hanly, Right: Thomas C. du Pont)
The Socialist Labor Party would nominate Bill Haywood once more. The party had alternated between Debs and Haywood, but Debs had died since the last election. His running mate would be Devere Allen of Rhode Island. The SLP was almost three times as rich as it had been in 1924. While individual donations had certainly increased, many suspected that foreign money was making its way into the party’s treasury. The Socialists would have a much more organized campaign than they ever had in their existence. Haywood travelled throughout the Southwest, talking to voters. He spoke against the authoritarian policies of the federal government in the California and Arizona. This attracted a lot of support, as Hanly seemed to mostly agree with Howard’s positions on law and order. He also condemned the Alliance of Nations as a tool of war profiteers. But the main appeal of the SLP and Haywood was the disastrous economic situation. In a speech in San Francisco, Haywood summarized the thoughts of millions of Americans when he said, “The Democrats wrecked America, but we’ve seen Republicans do the same thing. The only solution is the end of capitalism and the rise of a new order.”
Despite the growing appeal of Socialism, most Americans still supported the capitalist system. Republicans offered a message of hope to the struggling masses. The cause of the depression was excessive government interference. The market was not free enough, there was not enough capitalism. The solution was to get the government out of the economy, or at least decrease its involvement. Hanly accused Howard of doubling down on the wrong policies. He also promised a new protective tariff. Higher tariffs would help alleviate the economic pain by ensuring that American companies, and therefore American jobs, were protected. Tariffs were also popular because increased federal revenue from tariffs would decrease the tax revenue needed, allowing for a tax cut. The tariff argument made sense to a lot of people. After all, since Bryan and the Democrats slashed the tariffs in 1918, foreign companies had outperformed many American ones (this was especially true of the auto industry). This was mostly theory, but the theory that protectionism would save the American worker sounded good.
Of course, millions of Americans remained loyal to the Democratic Party and President Milford Howard. But his campaign struggled to think of ways to win. Who was still planning on casting their ballot for the Democratic ticket? There were white Southerners, who could always be relied upon. There were also western farmers and northern immigrants, the so-called “Bryan Coalition.” But even in 1924 that coalition was unraveling. Howard went on the offensive. Friendly media outlets painted a picture of a dystopian future under Republican rule. Minimum wage laws were repealed and big business was allowed to act with impunity. People were starving in the streets and America was reduced to a nation of serfs while a few wealthy oligarchs bathed in in their own money. Howard travelled to Michigan and Wisconsin to give speeches. He hoped to appeal to progressive Republicans who felt alienated by their party’s recent move to the right. Most people were not convinced and they continued to see Howard as responsible for their plight.
In the end, it wasn’t even close. Howard won only three states outside of the South. The Congressional results were also bad news for Democrats. The Senate would include 53 Republicans, 41 Democrats, and 4 Socialists. The House of Representatives would include 278 Republicans, 198 Democrats, and 35 Socialists. Republicans celebrated their first presidential election victory since 1912. Republican leaders also celebrated, as would be expected. But they were also nervous. Now it was their turn to try and fix the mess America was in. Socialists were exuberant. Even though they came nowhere close to victory, they had won a majority of votes in several states. They also elected their first Southern Representative, William Z. Foster of Florida. The SLP had been slowly growing in popularity since 1900. Now, they were a force to be reckoned with.
Frank Hanly (R-IN)/Thomas C. du Pont (R-DE), 17,243,000 votes (44.11%), 404 Electoral Votes
Milford W. Howard (D-AL)/George White (D-AK), 12,298,000 votes (31.46%), 155 Electoral Votes
Bill Haywood (S-UT)/Devere Allen (S-RI), 8,560,909 votes (21.90%), 39 Electoral Votes
Others[1], 957,727 votes (2.45%), 1 Electoral Vote
The Presidential election was not the only national vote in 1928. There was also Question 2, whether or not to join the Alliance of Nations. Both Hanly and Howard supported a “yes” vote, while Bill Haywood urged his supporters to vote “no.” Both the Republican and Democratic Parties were divided, with large percentages of their membership opposing the AON. Support was stronger in the East than the West. Wealthier Americans were also more likely to vote yes. Support for the AON came from an unlikely alliance between WASPs and German immigrants. Opposition came from pacifists, the far-left, and Irish immigrants. With the economic depression, people largely stopped caring about the AON either way and Question 2 narrowly passed. Over one million people who cast ballots for President or Congress left Question 2 blank. Since it failed to receive two thirds majority, it was non-binding.
Shall the United States of America join the Alliance of Nations?
Yes: 19,396,973 votes (50.95%)
No: 18,673,632 votes (49.05%)
1: Mostly Prohibition Party and write-ins. William Randolph Hearst received a large number of write-ins and a faithless elector from Montana.
).