Yeah alright, I'll do a mini chapter on Japanese Hawaii and Alaska. I was planning to have an update on them much later, but you're right that it's been a while since annexation.
共存共栄 - Kyōzonkyōei - Common Peace, Common Wealth
- Thread starter PolishMagnet
- Start date
8 - Mohammed and Marx
Chapter 9 - Mohammed and Marx
Hürriyet, Müsavat, Adalet - Liberty, Equality, Justice
For many decades, the Ottoman Empire had been considered to be on the decline. For a short time in 1876, the state had a fairly liberal constitution, though Sultan Abdul Hamid II reversed this only two years later in 1878. The reversal triggered severe contempt against the state, and led to the formation of the Young Turk movement. Wishing to restore the 1876 constitution and remove Abdul Hamid II from power, the Young Turks also wanted military reform as a revolt in Macedonia showed the Ottoman military to be lacking.Out of fear of a coup d’etat, the Sultan had forbidden war games or exercises, something which deprived Ottoman officers of any leadership experience. This was eventually reversed in 1908, when the Young Turks rose up and overthrew the government. Led by Ahmed Rıza, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) took control. Wanting an Ottoman Empire dominated by Turks, they rejected the “Ottomanisation”, the idea that all ethnicities should come together into a new Ottoman identity. Though the new government restructured the state, economy, and military for the better, they also inflamed ethnic tensions among non-Turks.
Ahmed Rıza in 1911
The reforms did not come in time, however, and the disastrous defeats against the Italians in North Africa gravely humiliated the Ottomans. From this defeat, the Balkan states took the chance to attack as well, leading to the equally-disastrous Balkan War, resulting in the Ottomans losing both North Africa and most of their European territories. With the government seemingly unable to defend its people, discontent exploded into the 1912 and 1913 coup d’etats. In 1912, the CUP was deposed by a group of military officers from the Freedom and Accord Party. In 1913, the Freedom and Accord Party was ousted by another coup d’etat bringing back the CUP to power.
With revolts and coups challenging them from left and right, the CUP became increasingly radicalised and nationalistic. Staying neutral in the First Great War did not help either, as although the French tried to sway them to join the war, the Russians posed too large a threat for the Caucasus border. As discontent grew against the CUP, they began to suspect either the Russians or British were provoking the minorities of the Empire against them. The Arabs, Kurds, Armenians, and so on, began to lose influence within the government, which only inflamed tensions further.
Distribution of Armenians in the eastern Ottoman Empire
الثورة العربية - al-Thawra al-‘Arabiyya - The Arab Revolt
Ethnic and political tensions finally exploded in 1914 when Faisal, third son of the Grand Sharif of Mecca, aided Arab nationalist secret societies of Damascus in instigating a protest. The local garrison, mostly composed of Arabs, switched sides and joined the protest. With the Vilayet (province) of Damascus in revolt, the CUP government dispatched an army, headed by Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who had gained notoriety during the recent Italo-Turkish war in Cyrenaica.Fighting was sporadic and messy, and the Ottoman forces under Kemal Pasha chose to set up defensive positions around the city, rather than fight house to house. As a result, the revolt gained more support. Instead of being quashed in a matter of weeks, it was surviving defiantly. Other garrisons to the south and west began to flip sides as well, leading to the Arab Council being founded in Amman. The entire region between Damascus and Medina was now in open revolt. The railway network from Damascus to Mecca, originally built to facilitate the Hajj (Islamic Pilgrimage) was now being used to quickly redeploy rebel forces.
The Hejaz Railway
Now bordering the British protectorate of Egypt, Arab rebel forces made contact and began to receive aid from the British. Largely due to the Ottoman Sultan’s position as the Caliph of Islam, the successor of the prophet Mohammed, revolts in the northern British Raj (India) often had close ties to the Turks. The British did not appreciate what they saw as Turkish interference in the Empire, and wanted to see it cut apart.
Faisal, preemptively crowned King of the Levant, began negotiating with the British on potential post-war borders. The King’s father, the Grand Sharif of Mecca, declared his support for the revolt and also allied himself with the British. The plan was for Faisal to rule the Levant from Palestine to Mesopotamia, while Grand Sharif Hussein became King of Arabia, ruling the Arabian Peninsula south of Faisal.
The spread of anti-Ottoman nationalism soon put Mustafa Kemal Pasha in a dangerous position - his siege of Damascus was unsustainable as support for the movement had spread beyond the city, and his escape route back north was cut off by other revolts. Nevertheless, he attempted to break free and regroup at Antakya, which was still under Ottoman control. The city soon fell into its own civil war, with Turkish nationalist militias fighting against Arab defectors. On the way to the city, however, Mustafa Kemal was captured and hung by incensed Arab deserters.
Beirut Conference borders (1917)*
The death of Mustafa Kemal, a minor yet respected Turkish army man, led to a flow of resentment from the Ottoman side. Resentment also shifted onto the Ottoman state itself, however, and some generals leading militias began to grow in prominence. Ethem Psheu, also known by his nickname “Çerkes Ethem” (Ethem the Circassian), fought for the Ottoman side at first but soon defected. He promoted his own brand of radical Islam, which merged the modern ideas of Socialism and the egalitarian humanism of Islam.
Meanwhile, the British occupied the Gulf coast up to Kuwait and allied themselves with the Saud family ruling over Riyadh. The Saud family was encouraged, with British intelligence and munitions, to push north up to the former Ottoman border. With the Turks no longer present to sow dissent and animosity between the tribes, the area was quickly unified under one flag. The Hejaz-Levant united front against the Ottomans soon began to collapse, however, as King Hussein of Hejaz began to see further war as pointless. He had secured all of Hejaz, Syria and Palestine, and also received promises of protection from Britain. Thus, he disengaged himself from the Arab Uprising.
King Faisal, left on his own, continued to fight and also asked the Balkan states for support. Greece, which was wrapped up in a non-intervention agreement regarding Anatolia, agreed to participate by invading and capturing the various Aegean islands and Cyprus. Bulgaria refused to join due to their own non-intervention agreement, and Britain continued to refuse direct participation.
Ethem Psheu during the war**
The rapidly deteriorating situation caused a complete disintegration of the government in Istanbul. The Ottoman government, which held true control over only the area around the capital, was ignored by most of the army. Instead, warlordism and military factions formed the true government. Psheu, who fought alongside Kemal Pasha and dreamed of a modern and reformed Ottoman state, garnered the most support and began fighting for his own cause. His new government, the Transnational Unity Government (Ulusötesi Birlik Hükümeti), was based in Ankara and promoted his personal blend of Marxism and Islam.
Adopting the name “Zakat” (Charity, Almsgiving) for his army, from one of the five pillars of Islam, to remind people of the importance of distributing and sharing wealth, Psheu fought a ravenous campaign across the Levant. Eventually causing a split between the Syrian and Mesopotamian factions, the Zakat Army was able to divide and conquer the nascent Arab kingdom.
From the past (top, “Zakat”) Caliphate, to the present (red star, Marxism), to the future (bottom, “Zakat”) Caliphate
The flag of the Zakat Army*
Now, like King Hussein of Hejaz, the British began to grow weary of the war. King Faisal had almost completely lost, and Parliament was satisfied with what it had already achieved. Not wanting to prolong the conflict, and potentially trap Britain in an endless conflict, support for the Kingdom of the Levant was cut. Not understanding the ideology of Psheu, Britain assumed the Ottomans were moving towards fundamentalist Islam and away from modernisation. Such a move was good for British foreign policy, since it would keep the region weak and dependent on British aid.
Yaşa, Halkın Hilafeti - Long Live the People’s Caliphate
With Mustafa Kemal Pasha dead, Psheu was able to hide their ideological differences and turn the man into a martyr. Adopting the title of Great Hākim from the old Arabic title al-Amir al-Hākim (الأمير الحكيم), referring to a governor or judge in Islamic tradition, Psheu created a legal structure for all clergy within the new state. The People’s Caliphate (Turkish: Halkın Hilafeti, Arabic: الخلافة الشعبية) was a radical dictatorial state, and planned to use Imams as an ideological vanguard. Adopting a new flag showing “Zakat” and a one-fingered salute to represent the Tawhid (oneness of Allah), it clearly showed its Islamic roots.
The Tawhid flag - the top corner “Zakat” emphasises charity and alms, while the finger represents the oneness of Allah*
Claiming the mantles of both Socialism and Islam, the new state made fast enemies with both its Balkan neighbours, who were steadfast Christian conservatives, and the British-Arab partnership, which did not recognise the claim to the Caliphate. As a result, the Halkin-Saudi-Hejazi border remained non-demarcated.
Its only friends, the new left-leaning Union of Sovereign States (USG) and the socialist Fourth French Republic, were sceptical as well. Unsure of whether an amalgamation of religion and socialism was paradoxical, ideology was put on the sidelines. The geopolitical facts were more important at the moment, and pushed the three states into a nascent alliance. The Third International, though it was an ideological organisation on its face, was more of a military alliance and diplomatic structure than anything else.
In reaction to the new alliance, the German Empire formed her own structure. Creating the European Council for her many small puppet kingdoms, Germany planned to prevent any further encroachment of socialism in Europe. The main hurdle for this, however, was the lack of substantial military power in the bloc outside of Germany. All attempts to bring Britain into the Council were swiftly rejected, as the chaos in Europe and the failed BEF expedition to Normandy had given the British government a bitter taste.
Flag of the Council of Europe - with 9 stars representing Germany, Bohemia, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria, Galicia-Lodomeria (later Poland), and Russia (Tsarist government)*
The Council of Europe went through many rapid changes, however. The Russian Civil War being concluded with a socialist victory led to Russia being silently dropped in favour of the Baltic Duchy, which was established in former Russian territory. When Romania left the pact in favour of an alliance with Unas Russia, Lithuania was added, while Galicia-Lodomeria’s place was taken by Poland since the two had been conjoined.
Italy also refused to join, as neutrality had netted them good relations with Britain and France, while Montenegro had fallen squarely under their influence. Serbia, later renamed Serbo-Croatia, also began to drift further towards Italy, though it maintained its alliance within the Council.
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Minor announcements:
- Thanks to everyone who's given this a read and given feedback! It means a lot to me, as I am very much a nerd who loves to talk alternate history.
- Apologies for my Ottoman Empire chapter... I'm by no means an expert and I have no idea if I wrote something even remotely plausible. I wanted something interesting to happen there so it was sort of a case of working backwards from my desired outcome and then adjusting what was obviously clashing.
- I am usually working 1-2 chapters ahead of what is released, so if I change something or add something in from a recommendation, it'll probably be in a week or so. From a recommendation, I'm writing up an extra chapter about Hawaii and Alaska ITTL but it'll take a bit of time.
- Since I just recently realized CANADIAN ENGLISH has finally been added to Google Chrome and Google Docs (my main writing platform, as I own several devices), I will gradually be trying to switch to Canadian spelling. For a long time I worked with British English, as I have a soft spot for -ise endings and can't stand to leave out the "u" in colour or honour. Go Canada!
Extra - State Anthem of the Northeast Republic
Extra - State Anthem of the Northeast Republic
State emblem of the Northeast Republic
List of symbols: Gold Manchurian Striped Maple leaf representing wealth of nature, two Chinese Sturgeons, representing wealth in food, red star representing the revolution, black band represents the Shanhai Pass
Text reads "Three Principles of the People" which is Sun Yat-sen thought
Instrumental
With lyrics
| Chinese | Pinyin | English translation |
| 1: 遠在山海關之外、 我的國家在等愛。 民族、民權、民生。三主義。 我們勇敢地前進！ 2: 走之前、在一首歌！ 關於美麗的山河、 遍布我們偉大的國家。 這就是人間天堂。 | 1: Yuǎnzài shānhǎiguān zhīwài, Wǒde Guójiā zài děng wǒ. Mínzú, mínquán, mínshēng. Sānzhǔyì. Wǒmenyǒnggǎndeqián jìn! 2: Zǒu zhīqián, zài yī shǒu gē! Guānyú měilìde shānhé, Biànbù wǒmen wěidà de guójiā. Zhè jiùshì rénjiān tiāntáng. | 1: Far beyond the Shanhai Pass[1], My nation[2] is waiting for love. Nationhood, rule of law, welfare. The Three Principles (of the People).[3] Bravely, we march on! 2: Before we go, one more song! About the beautiful mountains and rivers, Throughout our great country. This (place) is heaven on earth. |
[1] The Shanhai Pass is a strategic mountain pass which connects Manchuria to the rest of China. The line is intentionally vague whether it is beyond the pass from the Manchurian or the Chinese side.
[2] Again, the lyrics are unclear. “My Nation” could refer to China or Manchuria. At the time, there was no justification, or desire, for an independent Han state in Manchuria.
[3] The Three Principles of the People are the ideas of Sun Yat-sen. These are also enshrined by the Northeast Republic’s constitution.
A bit of a teaser for the next chapter, since I finished this piece today.
EDIT: Re-uploaded the track because the first second was cut off by Souncloud.
EDIT EDIT: Added second verse and lyrical version
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Extra - Nihonka - Japanization or Japanese Family
日本化・日本家 - Nihonka - Japanization / Japanese Family
Unlike Korea, Japan’s other territorial gains were treated much more like colonies which would be directly integrated into Japan. The Kōminka Movement (皇民化運動, “Movement to make become subjects of the Emperor”) became official policy, seeking to integrate the people with three main methods: language, names, and civil service. The word "Nihonka" ( 日本化 or 日本家, both pronounced Nihonka) began to be used by both sides to refer to assimilation policies. Nihonka (日本化) was used by opponents, meaning "to become Japanese" while Nihonka (日本家) became popular later and means "Japanese family". The latter term is still used to the present day to refer to Japanese-settled areas which are not part of the Home Islands.In Taiwan, the Kōminka movement took the form of enforcing Japanese language and culture. Schools were required to teach in Japanese only, Hokkien newspapers were banned, and locals were pushed into changing their names to Japanese equivalents. Government officials were required to pass Japanese-language exams, and all administration of the island was done in Japanese.
These tactics were surprisingly successful. Due largely to massive infrastructure projects, intended to transform the island into a stepping-stone for any future action in China, the people of Taiwan developed a positive view of Japan as a modernizer. Opposition to the Japanese largely came from disagreement with enforced language policies, which were eventually reversed once Korean language gained equal status in the Council Territory.
Colonial Taiwan
In Hawaii, a similar situation unfolded. While the islands maintained some independence as a vassal kingdom due to the terms of the 1879 Oath, internal policy was largely driven by Japanese businessmen and landowners. The Hawaiian school system, which had been established back in 1841, was co-opted by the Japanese and transformed into a tool for assimilation. Japanese language became a mandatory subject, and soon Japanese-language trade schools opened up.
Just as land in Korea had been bought up and dominated by the Japanese, the same happened in Hawaii. This time, however, there was no sympathetic power to prevent it. Cultural eradication did not occur, but the businessmen and farmers who arrived from Japan did not have the same sympathy for non-Japanese that the Pan-Asian politicians back in Tokyo had.
Byōdō Temple (平等院) in Naikō (Oahu), Hawaii
Lastly, there was Japan’s faraway territory of Hyōshodō. Too far away and too sparsely-populated to require assimilation policies, the territorial government focused on settlement. The very first group arrived in Sitka on November 1, 1869 and raised the Rising Sun flag. The fort town kept its old name, though it was rendered into Japanese as Shikka (執家).
For the following two decades, the territory remained extremely poorly-connected, requiring further delegation of responsibilities than any other part of the Japanese Empire. The top prefectural government held very little real power, but directly received development funds from Tokyo. The settler population began to rapidly grow, however, as gold was discovered.
Yukiyama Shrine (雪山神社) in Kishikane (not real)
Small discoveries of gold near Shikka lead to the founding of Yakuda, Hirakawa, and Kishikane in the 1890s, leading right up to the start of the Klondike Gold Rush in 1897. The massive discovery of gold right across the border with Canada caused a substantial population increase, but also revived the old border dispute between Russian America and Canada.
As a show of good faith, as Japan didn’t want war with Britain, Japan offered a compromise border which included joint control of the Haines-Skagway area. That area was primarily settled by Canadians and Americans who had come to the area for the Gold Rush, so Japan was slightly more willing to negotiate it. As the joint control area would include the Lynn Canal, an important waterway for regional trade, Britain accepted.
Overview of the border and claims
Breakdown of OTL vs TTL names
| OTL | TTL | Japanese |
| Yakutat | Yakuda | 益大, “Great benefit” |
| Sitka | Shikka | 執家, “Tenacious house” |
| Juneau | Hirakawa | 平川, “Calm river” |
| Ketchikan | Kishikane | 崖金, “Rich cliffs” |
Edit: this chapter was originally meant to come AFTER the next chapter, so anything to do with Korea will be explained then
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Extra Extra - God, Save Poland!
Extra - God, Save Poland!
State flag of the Kingdom of Poland (1922-)
Written for the Russian Tsars in 1816, "God, Save Poland" was given updated lyrics in 1921 when Galicia-Lodomeria became the Kingdom of Poland. Lyrics which promoted the king’s position were left, while other lyrics were changed to match the more popular nationalist lyrics which had come about during Russian rule.
The line “Lord, bless our free Fatherland” (“Ojczyznę wolną pobłogosław panie”) was left out in order to keep the line explicitly mentioning the King, who was now a separate figure from the Russian Tsar. As there was now a clear split of the old Russo-German-Japanese alliance between the Council of Europe and the Keijo Accord, Poland had no reason to recognize the Tsarina’s claim to the crown of Poland.
Really nice version of the song with lyrics (slightly different obviously):
Yes, the song is unchanged. Yes, I did this just for fun and practise with Musescore.In any case, chapter will be out on Wednesday this week.
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Chapter 10 - Old and New
Chapter 10 - Old and New
大御神 - Ōmikami - The Great Goddess
For much of Japan’s history, folk religion and Buddhism had mixed together and even largely blurred into one unorganised conception of religion. Shrines (Shinto) and Temples (Buddhist) were built on the same plots of land, sometimes occupying the same buildings, and were indistinguishable to much of the local population. In the late Edo period, the idea of Kokugaku (國學, “National Studies”) emerged as an attempt to make sense of Japanese identity and identify what was Japanese, and what was not.Attempting to tie nationalism, veneration of the Emperor, and Shintoism together, several scholars and government bureaus pushed to eliminate the influence of Buddhism at the start of the Meiji era. Veneration of the Emperor was a new phenomenon, however, and this movement largely failed. In its place, standardisation of Shinto began. Establishing the Jingikan (神祇官, “Department of Divinity”) in 1867 to manage standardisation and state control of Shinto, the Japanese government divided sects and shrines into two camps: True Shinto and Sect Shinto.
Those who were considered True Shinto would receive financial support, but also undergo standardisation and commit to a unified education for all priests. True Shinto shrines were moved away from Buddhist Kami (spirits/deities) and asked to emphasise Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess ancestor of the Emperor. This followed from earlier attempts to remove Buddhist influence and support veneration of the Emperor. Sect Shinto included “new religions”, or off-shoots of Shinto, which were based on various local Japanese spiritual leaders’ writings.
Japanese Sun Goddess, Amaterasu, emerging from her cave
This pressure on Buddhism remained unpopular, however, and the Jingikan was demoted to a bureau, assigned to the Ministry of Education in 1870. Imperial worship remained unpopular, possibly due to the weak influence of the Imperial household and Emperor Meiji’s young age, and instead focus drifted towards veneration of Amaterasu and past emperors. Various leaders from True Shinto began promoting Shinto as a means to preserve the old traditions of the Japanese state and society, moving the religion into more of a ceremonial and cultural than spiritual role.
In 1873, the Bureau of Shinto Affairs (successor to the Jingikan) again attempted the standardisation of priestly training, but caused significant conflict. Two factions, one led by the Ise sect (of Ise Shrine) and the other by the Izumo sect (of Izumo Shrine). The Ise sect supported further standardisation and focusing veneration on Amaterasu, while the Izumo sect wished to keep Ōkuninushi enshrined as an equal to Amaterasu.
Japanese God of State and Agriculture, Ōkuninushi
The debate was passed off to the Ministry of the Interior in 1875, as the Ministry of Education transferred the Bureau of Shinto Affairs to them. Seeing a deity of state competing with the deity of the Imperial house, the civilian government pushed for equality rather than supremacy of one over the other. The Ministry of the Interior officially ended the debate by making a distinction between the “root” and “branches” of Shinto. The divinity and position of Amaterasu was an inviolable “root” for all sects of Shinto, but their “branches” could recognise and venerate other deities. It is around this time that the association between the Imperial household and Amaterasu weakened.
The new distinction led to the replacement of the True vs Sect Shinto distinction with a further three-tiered distinction: Root, Branch, and Leaf Shinto. Root Shinto was reserved for any sect which venerates Amaterasu as the most high, Branch constituted any sect which followed the “root” teachings of the state, while “Leaf” Shinto was any other religion with a basis in Shinto. State funding was maintained for Root Shinto, while it was reduced for Branch Shinto and withheld from Leaf Shinto.
Meanwhile, the association of Amaterasu with the nation of Japan remained strong. With Root Shinto pushing for veneration of the Sun Goddess as a mother of Japan, the popular rural Agriculture Goddess Inari Ōkami (稲荷大神) began to be conflated with her. This resulted in a feedback loop, as Inari shrines needed to venerate Amaterasu, locals who usually prayed to Inari Ōkami would misidentify Amaterasu at other shrines as Inari Ōkami, and vice versa. The end result was positive, however, since worshippers now saw Amaterasu as a friendly, motherly figure and not an unreachable Imperial deity.
Ise Shrine, the most influential in Root Shinto
日朝一家 - Nitchō Ikka - Japan and Korea are One Family
While religion in Japan was generally peaceful, shrines were occasionally built for war dead. In 1879, Yasukuni Shrine was built for that exact purpose, and received a visit from the Emperor. Japanese nationalists believed Shinto should demonstrate patriotism for the rest of the country, and pressured other shrines to follow the example of Yasukuni. The issue for the state was the overlap between aggressive patriotism and the army, which had been equally hostile to both pacifist Shinto sects and the civilian government. To end the debate and find support for the government from Shintoism, a law was passed permitting war dead to only be enshrined at designated shrines.The combination of limiting nationalism and accepting of a wide range of positions in Shinto allowed for a unique phenomenon to occur in Korea. Religion in Korea had been split for a long time between Confucianism and Buddhism. Much as Buddhism and Shinto had merged in Japan, religion had also mixed together in Korea. Though there were traces of traditional Korean beliefs in contemporary beliefs and rituals, Koreans did not typically see themselves as practising strictly one thing or another, but as carrying out required religious rituals.
A Korean Shaman
Shortly after the de facto annexation of Korea, several Shinto scholars made their way over. There, they saw what Japan was before religious reforms, and they wanted to institute the same changes. Initial reception to these ideas was poor, however, as all services and administration were conducted in Japanese. In 1897, the Meeting of Busan changed this. Involving the leaders of several local Root Shinto sects, an agreement was made to switch to using Korean language. The move was condemned by many nationalists, but ultimately proved successful.
With Pan-Asian ideology more popular than ever, the Busan Shinto sects adapted and took in more Korean traditions and rituals. While they were demoted to Branch Shinto by the Japanese government, their success was undeniable. They met Korean traditions halfway and helped to foster cooperation between Japanese and Koreans. The success of cross-strait religious accommodations also likely contributed to political concessions later on.
Genzan Shrine in Genzan (Wonsan), built in 1882 and later elevated to Root Shinto status
From 1899 on, Japanese settlement in Korea grew massively. The cause, however, was landlordism and land confiscations. Much of the arable land in Korea had been owned without deeds, using tradition to know who owned which lands. When the Japanese attempted to properly survey the lands and record ownership, they rejected any claims made without deeds and sold the land to buyers, who were usually rich Japanese businessmen. This was noticed by Governor-General Terauchi Masatake, who later became Prime Minister.
Terauchi was a firm believer in assimilation of Koreans into Japanese society, but wanted to do this through cultural means. Responsible for the 1901 Korea Annexation treaty, he supported cultural projects and built schools across the country. This meant nothing for resentful Koreans, however, who had been pushed off their land for Japanese developers. To remedy the situation, Terauchi passed laws to protect Koreans from eviction. Absenteeism became a restricted practice, and some Koreans were given back their land upon verbal testimony from other citizens.
A school in Korea teaching Japanese**
With Korean language accepted among Shinto sects, the views of settlers and the government soon began to soften. In 1911, new Governor-General signed the Chōsen Act, and the 13 circuits (道, dō) of Korea were reorganised into 13 prefectures (県, ken), to match Japan. In addition, the 13 prefectures were bound together in the “Council of Chōsen Affairs” (朝鮮問題評議会, Chōsen mondai hyōgi-kai), an independent body composed of the 13 prefectural governors. The name of Korea would be officially changed to Chōsen, though it would often be referred to as the “Council Territory” (評議会領土, Hyōgi-kai ryōdo) due to its unique pseudo-government.
Furthermore, the 1912 Chōsen Education Act reformed education in the Council Territory to add Korean as an additional subject. The main issue with this decision became how to teach Korean writing. Some proposed Eonmun (諺文, jp: Genbun, “vernacular script”), as that script helped to drive a wedge between Koreans and China, while others proposed using Katakana or Hiragana (Japanese phonetic characters) to bring them closer to Japan.
Initially, a Katakana-based orthography named “New Script” (新文, jp: Shimbun, ko: Sinmun), was devised and enforced. However, the shortcomings of Sinmun became apparent once it entered the school system. Korean students were frequently caught writing notes in Eonmun and later changing them to Sinmun to avoid punishment. After much debate and uproar from both Korean and Japanese writers, Eonmun was accepted as the standard for Korean-language curriculum.
| English | All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. |
| Japanese | スベテノ人間ハ、生マレナガラニシテ自由デアリ、カツ、尊厳ト権利トニツイテ平等デアル。 |
| Sinmun | ムーヅン 人間ン テアナㇽ`デブータ 自由ロウミャ グ 尊厳グィ 権利エ イ`スア 同等ハーダー。 |
| Eonmun | 모든 人間은 태어날 때부터 自由로우며 그 尊厳과 権利에 있어 同等하다。 |
Slowly but surely, Japanese perception of Koreans changed from a domineering fatherly position to that of a sibling. Instead of trying to force Japanese culture on Koreans, it became more popular to search for parallels between the two cultures. Korean religion began to standardise separately from Shinto, but also adopted many customs and structures from it. Eventually, Korean and Japanese language began to share near-equal status. While cities skewed towards using Japanese due to bilateral trade, the countryside began to adopt standardised Korean and writing with Eonmun.
皇姑屯事件 - The Huanggutun Incident
Meanwhile, Manchuria had developed on its own, independent of the Home Islands’ move towards stronger democracy. Having fallen under Japanese influence with the collapse of Russia, the Chinese Eastern Railway was consolidated along with all regional rail under the new Manchuria Railway Company (満州鉄道株式会社, Manshū Tetsudō Kabushikigaisha), also called “Mantetsu” for short.The Qing Dynasty was also long gone, and in its place in Manchuria, the warlord Zhang Zuolin had consolidated a military state known as the Fengtian Clique. Though formally part of the new Republic of China, Zhang Zuolin wished to see himself on top and thus kept his distance from Beijing (the old capital) and Nanjing (the new capital) until he had enough strength to push his claim. He continually struggled with reforming his private army and eradicating banditry in the countryside, and thus turned to Japan for help.
The Fengtian Clique was supported by Japan, the Guomindang (Chinese Nationalists) were supported by the new SSG and France, while the Zhili Clique was supported by Britain and the United States. After several rounds of fighting between the various warlords, peace finally came in 1922 with the First United Front. Ending warlordism, it instead instituted a kind of legal limbo which recognised that China was united, while at the same time not agreeing who was in charge.
Generalissimo Zhang Zuolin**
In exchange for a free hand in the economy and development of Japanese-owned industrial towns, the Imperial Japanese Army created the Kwantung Army (関東軍, Kantō-gun) as a special security force to protect the railways. While the Japanese government was supportive of this, as it gave them more influence in Manchuria, they soon grew sceptical and suspicious of the Army’s intentions.
The Kwantung Army and Mantetsu began growing closer and closer, and many of the expansionist-minded military officers and thinkers began transferring to Manchuria. A division between peace-minded and expansionist officers began to emerge, as the Kwantung Army was now exclusively expansionist. The navy, which had been a staunch ally of the civilian government since the Sea First doctrine (海主陸従, Kaishu Rikujū) became officially sanctioned, repeatedly tried to thwart the army’s plans to no avail.
In 1919, in an effort to curtail the Kwantung Army’s power, the government split them into a two-level power structure with a civilian administration above the military one. This did not solve the problem, however, as the army held too much power in the region and was able to force their own candidates into the civilian government. This only strengthened the nascent Kōdōha (皇道派, Kōdōha, “Imperial Way Faction”) movement, which wanted to see a “Taishō Restoration”. They saw the civilian government as a mistake, which had only gotten worse since Emperor Meiji’s death in 1912. As such, it needed to be abolished and replaced by a cooperative power structure between the Emperor and the Army.
Emperor Taishō**
With members of the Army sitting directly in civilian government, Kōdōha grew stronger and more vocal. This all came to a head in 1923, when the Great Kantō Earthquake devastated central Japan and caused massive economic difficulty. Leading to frustration among the Kwantung leadership, plans for direct intervention in the Fengtian leadership were moved forward when the Northern Expedition succeeded. Jiang Jieshi, leader of the National Revolutionary Army, had defeated the warlords of the Zhili Clique and retaken Beijing (later renamed Beiping).
Kwantung plans were finally revealed in 1925, when an attempt on the life of Zhang Zuolin was made. Departing from Huanggutun Railway Station, Zhang’s train was derailed when an explosion occured near the back. Luckily, the warlord had gone between the first and second carriage to have a smoke with one of his aides, and when the explosion happened he was able to dive from the train and roll. Breaking a few bones but surviving, Zhang was rescued by Fengtian soldiers, who proceeded to fight off the small Kwantung group which had gone to inspect the wreckage.
Fearing a Guomindang or Soyuz takeover of Manchuria, Kwantung intended to assassination Zhang and install a puppet, thus turning the region into a protectorate like Hawaii. Unfortunately, Zhang had survived. To make matters worse, the Japanese government denounced the actions of the Kwantung Army and stripped its leaders of their ranks. Wishing to repair relations and save face, Japan reached out to Zhang and offered to intervene militarily. This worked in some ways, but failed in others.
Leaders of the Kwantung Insurrection
Zhang was more than happy to accept Japanese help, but the Guomindang in Nanjing were less than thrilled. To Chinese President Duan Qirui, this was a violation of Chinese sovereignty. Encouraged by their recent victory in the Northern Expedition, Duan wanted to make a show of force which would elevate China on the international stage, and hopefully attract more foreign investment. Once again dispatching the National Revolutionary Army under Jiang Jieshi, he ordered the complete expulsion of Japanese forces (of any kind) from Manchuria.
This put Zhang in a difficult position: he wanted to remain in the United Front and later assert himself from within, but he did not want to be subjugated completely by the Guomindang. Ultimately, he sided with the Japanese government, and a three-way war began. The Kwantung administration was based in Ryojun (旅順, Lǚshùn, also: Port Arthur), and was immediately challenged by naval attacks from the Imperial Japanese Navy. Land forces marching north from Korea managed to take Changchun and Harbin were met with tough resistance, but the recent adoption of aircraft proved invaluable, as the new technology had been restricted to only the Navy. Meanwhile, Imperial Russian forces marched west across the border towards Aigun, intending to link up with Fengtian forces.
Emperor Shōwa in 1926**
Any hopes Kwantung had of winning were dashed in 1926 with the death of Emperor Taishō and ascension of Hirohito to the throne. Emperor Shōwa stayed true to his father’s wishes and denounced them as traitors to the Imperial House and to the nation. In a last-ditch effort to right their shame, many of the leaders of the insurrection committed seppuku: preferring to disembowel themselves to show repentance rather than face trial and execution. With Kwantung defeated, Japan and Fengtian began preparing to push back Jiang’s forces.
The Chinese had nearly reached Zhang’s de facto capital of Fengtian, since most strength had been diverted towards fighting Kwantung , and since Zhang had hoped to peacefully resolve the conflict. Hastily moving the capital to Changchun, he offered further concessions to Japan in exchange for aid in pushing out the Guomindang: a full transfer of the Korean-claimed Gando/Jiandao region, continued Japanese ownership of the Fengtian Clique’s railways, and additional economic concessions related to mining rights. Though they were strictly promises, Japan was quick to take Zhang up on his offer. Dispatching the Navy to bombard Tianjin and other ports along the Yellow Sea, Japan was able to land marines behind Jiang’s forces and flank the NRA.
With his supply lines cut and his troops tired from continued harassment from bandits and naval aircraft, Jiang decided to pull back. His defeat was not absolute or indisputable, but China had lost its chance to prove itself. The relationship between Guomindang China, the United Front, the Fengtian Clique, and Japan would need to be re-examined and negotiated.
Japanese soldiers during the Manchurian Crisis
The Manchurian Crisis, as it came to be known, was finally resolved with the Treaty of Tanggu in 1928. In it, China recognised the “Northeast Republic” (東北共和國, ch: Dōngběi gònghéguó, jp: Tōhoku kyōwakoku) under Zhang Zuolin’s government, and both agreed to a non-aggression pact lasting at least 10 years. The Chinese-NER border was officially demarcated with West Xing’an and Rehe provinces as part of the Republic of China, while South Xing’an and Jinzhou would be part of the NER. The new Northeast Republic, informally referred to as Manchuria (満國, ch: Mǎnguó, jp: Mankoku), was ambiguous as to whether it should be part of a united China or not. In any case, it did not remain within the Chinese United Front due to recent hostilities.
Manchuria also agreed to give the concessions it previously promised to Japan; The Jiandao province, as well as the area around Mt Baekdu, were to be handed over due to Korean claims on the area. As well, Japan would receive continued control of Manchurian railways and receive exclusive mining rights across the country. No other foreign country could prospect for, or extract, Manchurian minerals.
Administrative divisions of Manchuria, showing lost territory
(West Xing’an and Rehe were claimed, but not totally controlled)
Though he didn’t wish to be a Japanese vassal, Zhang came very close to becoming one. His original plan of building strength and eventually taking the rest of China for himself also no longer seemed possible. Instead, the Generalissimo focused on cementing his position within the new state. The new state faced an identity crisis, as most of the Han population still wanted a unified Chinese state, but was resentful towards the ROC for their recent actions. The NER could also not exactly adopt a Manchu identity, as the near-extinction of the Manchu language and culture prevented that. Instead, they opted for a middle road of promoting separation from the ROC but also the desire for Chinese unification. Manchuria would join the Keijo Accord shortly after peace, in 1931.
Meanwhile, Japan’s relationship with China remained rocky. While many of the Guomindang’s main thinkers had studied in Japan due to Qing oppression, their opinion of Japan had soured from the Manchurian Crisis. It was true that Japan had not taken much land or established a puppet state, and it was also true that Japan had only intervened to protect their Chinese ally, but it was also true that Japan had opposed the Guomindang and challenged the authority of the United Front. The party, which had previously only been split between Left and Right, was now also split into Anti and Pro-Japanese factions.
The new flag of the Northeast Republic: White represents the north and freedom, Gold represents wealth and the land itself, while black represents the Shanhai Pass which connects Manchuria to China.
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They are a bit weaker than OTL, as there was no Russo-Japanese War ITTL, but still very strong. We will cover their situation when Japanese-American relations come up later.
Interesting border work around with the Canadians. I noticed you took some of what happened with American style schooling and yet made it have a Japanese flavor, very interesting for Hawaii..
With the Gold rush stuff, will more freelance prospector types [or with the government/industry] show up in the NE territory to look for more minerals? Will that play into the relations update that you have planned for later on?
With the Gold rush stuff, will more freelance prospector types [or with the government/industry] show up in the NE territory to look for more minerals? Will that play into the relations update that you have planned for later on?
Thanks!
Gold rush will not play much into Japan-US relations, and the UK / Canada are happy enough with their port on the Lynn Canal. The influx of Anglo prospectors will factor into the multi-cultural identity of Hyoshodo, and will help the area develop along the lines of OTL. The relations update I mentioned will be more about conflicting ideologies and geopolitical interests of Japan and the US. But that's a spoiler
Have you thought of anything to prevent the Anglo-American settlers from throwing away a Texas?
I am referring, of course, to preventing them from attempting an armed insurrection in 1930 shouting "Long live the Republic of Alaska, future State of the United States of America!" to then have the United States deploy the Pacific Fleet as soon as Japan tries to retake Hyoshido.
I am referring, of course, to preventing them from attempting an armed insurrection in 1930 shouting "Long live the Republic of Alaska, future State of the United States of America!" to then have the United States deploy the Pacific Fleet as soon as Japan tries to retake Hyoshido.
I have not thought about it, but I could see that happening. I'd say the US is focused elsewhere as they are fighting in Africa against African nationalists and communists, as well as securing their recent gains in former French territories (French Polynesia, Caribbean, and Guiana.
There is not enough of a Japanese military presence, so I could see an attempt at Texifying Hyoshodo, but on the other hand the immigration to the region is mostly Asian. Anglo settlers mostly came to the area which is between Lynn Canal and the Canadian border, which is why that area is shared. American presence is otherwise isolated to Shikka, which is also the only substantial military base so I don't see a revolt happening there.
Extra - Now with vocals!
Now with vocals!
I've added synthesized vocals to two anthems from this timeline.
God Save the Tsaritsa - with vocals
Beyond the Shanhai Pass - with vocals
Not sure if people are interested, but I have fun making them.
I've added synthesized vocals to two anthems from this timeline.
God Save the Tsaritsa - with vocals
Beyond the Shanhai Pass - with vocals
Not sure if people are interested, but I have fun making them.
Extra - More vocalized anthems
More vocalized anthems!
Any songs posted in the future should include a sung version, so this is the last time I'll make a separate update for something like this.
Boże, coś Polskę with vocals
J'irai pas with vocals
Our Reward (anthem of the SSG) with vocals
Pronunciation is approximated, since there are no synth voices available in Polish or French or Russian.
New chapter will be out tomorrow!
Any songs posted in the future should include a sung version, so this is the last time I'll make a separate update for something like this.
Boże, coś Polskę with vocals
J'irai pas with vocals
Our Reward (anthem of the SSG) with vocals
Pronunciation is approximated, since there are no synth voices available in Polish or French or Russian.
New chapter will be out tomorrow!
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Chapter 11 - Reaction
Chapter 11 - Reaction
Fin de siècle - The End of a Century
Beginning with the 1880s and the “Fin de siècle” (end of the century), ideas and assumptions which had become popular were suddenly faced with strong opposition. Positivism and rationalism, taking shape as democracy and liberal society, were attacked by the new ideas of irrationalism and subjectivism. Traditionalist views became more popular as writers such as Fyodor Dostoyevsky pushed for nationalism, monarchism, and stronger religiosity.The influence of socialism and communism, which emerged as a stronger force in the 1900s and 1910s, encouraged more radical positions within the nationalist right. The French writer Georges Sorel pushed for the ideas of revolutionary syndicalism and militant Catholicism, popularizing the idea that politics required the use of force, which influenced another writer, Charles Maurras. Coming to the same conclusions regarding political violence and religion, Maurras expanded Sorel’s syndicalism with a call for national unity. He believed the ideal state to be a unified national body, composed of racially-similar people, united under a strong monarch who could ensure the nation’s survival.
Charles Maurras, who fled to Germany in 1917
The new ideology, termed National Integralism, became the trademark of the French Action party. Through the events of the Great War and the French Civil War, the movement died out in its home country and escaped into exile in Germany, Italy, and Spain. In Spain, National Integralism morphed into Falangism and the ideas of blending Catholic identity and Hispanidad, the unification of the former Spanish Empire. In Germany and the rest of Europe, it became known as Actionism (de: Aktionismus, pl: Akcjonizm) after the French Action movement.
The religious divide in Germany, with the Protestant north and Catholic south, did not allow National Integralism to remain unchanged. Actionism in Germany thus focused on nationalism, monarchism, and absolute order. Becoming the ideology of the German Actionist Fatherland Party (Deutsche Aktionistische Vaterlandspartei) in 1919, the German flavour began to be known as “Akva” or “Akvatism”. The paramilitary wing, created by former members of the 9th Army, continued to use the name for their organization. The roman numeral IX (9) was used to create the paramilitary, and later party, emblem - the Ikskreuz.
The flag of the 9th Army, featuring interlocking lozenges and the paramilitary Ikskreuz badge*
Akvatism and the ideology further developed by Akva party leader Friedrich Adler was very much built on ideas of the older Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband). Vocally supportive of German imperialism, anti-semitism, deportation of Poles and Jews, and pushing for the creation of a Pan-German state, members of the old League were more than willing to adopt the ideas of Actionism. Akva pushed for curtailing the German Reichstag in favour of a stronger Emperor and Chancellor, as well as strengthening the military to deal with “troublemakers”.
As the Great War concluded with a decisive German victory, the ideas of Adler became increasingly popular and Akva, once a fringe party, began to command a majority of the ruling conservative coalition from 1923 onwards. They immediately worked to entrench themselves in society, passing massive spending programs to stabilize the economy, as well as creating numerous racial laws and deporting Poles. Democratic institutions were isolated and stripped bare, and the position of Chancellor abolished. The Kaiser remained as head of state, while a new position was created as a more powerful head of government: the Aufseher.
Akva party flag with the Ikskreuz outlined to resemble the Iron Cross*
Il nemico del mio nemico è mio amico - The enemy of my enemy is my friend
In Italy, the situation was a bit different from Germany. While the country had been victorious in a war, it had not seen the glory of an absolute victory over other great powers. The world looked at the Italo-Turkish War as an opportunistic move of a modern army over an obsolete one, regardless of what views had been before the war was a foregone conclusion. Even worse, Italy was prevented from taking Aegean islands or more of Albania due to British pressure. All this frustration contributed to the rise of Actionism in Italy.The Italian Actionists called themselves Fascists (Partito Nazionale Fascista), and had formed from the National Syndicalist wing of the old Italian Socialist Party (PSI, Partito Socialista Italiano) over disagreements about the war. The Fascists had wanted war with Austria, to take the Italian territories of Trent and Trieste, and force the Italian government to adopt a corporatist economic model. Eventually, the war passed and the largely-ignored Fascists settled into a new position of mocking the government for cowardice and switched tactics. Looking to gain support for a potential revolution, they made every effort to ingratiate themselves with monarchists.
Victor Emmanuel III in 1901
The potential of a right-wing alliance scared moderates and liberals towards the growing PSI and newer PAI (Partito Abelista Italiano). The monarchy, under king Victor Emmanuel III, grew concerned about the growing opposition bloc and hesitated to form an alliance with the fascists. While it seemed like their warnings of a “leftist conspiracy” to overthrow the monarchy were coming true, the leftist coalition also seemed to be a reaction to the fascists. In the interest of preserving the monarchy, the King of Italy met secretly with the leader of the PSI, Filippo Turati, who held the most influence in the coalition.
Though they did not agree on most issues, they two men could see they each held power in their own spheres. In the interest of self-preservation, they would need to work together. Emerging from the talks with a tentative agreement for monarchist support for a socialist-led coalition government, and monarchist denouncement of the fascists, Turati was able to gain the support of other wings of his party. Potential splits which might have harmed the party were avoided, and the other socialist parties agreed to unite again with the PSI into the United Socialists of Italy (SUdI, Socialisti Uniti d'Italia). The alliance with the monarchy prompted the more radical members to break off into the new Communist Party (PCdI, Partito Comunista d’Italia), however.
Filippo Turati, leader of the United Socialists**
On the day of the 1921 elections, Fascist paramilitaries attempted to seize control of voting booths but were stopped by rival Socialist militias. The crown then denounced the PNF and their leader, Benito Mussolini, as terrorists and traitors to the kingdom. Barred from elections and denounced by the crown, right wing conservatives hesitated to support Mussolini and his “Blackshirts” (the PNF paramilitary group). After some low-intensity fighting and numerous bombings and assassination attempts, the elections finally finished. Socialist messaging about defence of the kingdom and their efforts in protecting voting rights led to an absolute landslide victory by the United Socialists.
The Socialists’ messaging had been supportive of neutrality in the Great War, and in the recent elections they had stayed true to it. Staying committed to neutrality in large conflicts and wary of war with Britain, Italy settled into peaceful development and growth. The denouncement and destruction of the Fascists also helped to prevent any growth of Actionism or Akvatism like in Germany and the Council of Europe nations, and also discouraged Italy from joining the alliance.
1921 elections*
Pax Britannica
Meanwhile, political developments following the Great War had massive implications for Britain. First, she was deprived of her European allies thanks to revolution, and the only remaining powers in Europe were not so friendly. Italy, whose expansion had been blocked by the careful Liberal government of Lord Asquith, was happy to be friendly with London, but not whole-hearted allies. Germany was happy to be allies and friends, but that would open Europe to full German domination. Such a situation was wholly undesirable to the British, who still obsessed over “balance of power”.Once it was certain that Britain would keep out of the Great War, public attention focused once again on the issue of Irish Home Rule. A deeply-divisive issue which had split the old Liberal Party, with many Unionists leaving to join the Conservatives in the 1910 election, it had been struck down repeatedly by either the House of Commons or the House of Lords. In 1911 this situation was remedied by the removal of the House of Lords’ veto power.
Political cartoon depicting Ulster and British opposition to Irish Home Rule, regardless of the law
Finally, the Liberal government successfully pushed through the Third Home Rule Bill in 1912. The passing of an act which granted Home Rule to the island as a whole, however, was opposed by local Unionists. Forming a majority in parts of the north, several attempts were made to amend the Home Rule act to split Ireland into two parts, a Protestant North and a Catholic South. To Irish nationalists, this was unacceptable.To the Liberals, attempts to partition the island were another of the many schemes to delay implementation of Home Rule, and thus they opposed any such motions.
On Easter Sunday of 1913, the streets of Londonderry were lit up with explosions. Killing a total of 16 civilians, 3 British and 13 Irish, it was notable for being the start of a terror campaign by Irish Unionists. The Ulster Volunteer Force, a right-wing Unionist militia, claimed responsibility for the attack and denounced the Liberal government for supporting a partition of the United Kingdom. In response, Irish nationalist militias began to prepare for retaliation.
UVF militias presenting in Londonderry (modern Derry)
In the chaos, the British national government attempted to restore calm. Prime Minister Asquith denounced the Ulster Volunteer Force and asked all citizens of Ireland to follow the law. His requests were ignored, but they did serve to embolden the Irish nationalists, as they now felt supported by the British government. Gun running on both sides of the “Irish Crisis” was fought hard, but arguably more so against Irish nationalists. Conflicts of interest came to a head on 20 March, in what became known as the “Curragh Mutiny”.
As Irish Home Rule drew closer, Irish Protestant police in Curragh, County Kildare, refused to take action against the UVF. They saw the Unionist militias as pro-British, and claimed it was against their own interests to stop the Ulsterites. This was a direct challenge to the British government, and after much deliberation, PM Asquith made the decision to send in the army. Policemen who refused to stop Ulster militias were ordered to be punished, but this had the opposite effect. Some areas simply didn’t comply and stayed silent, while others vocally resigned and joined the militias. The battle lines were being drawn, and Britain was opposite to Ulster.
British soldiers in Ireland, June 1915
Over the course of the next 10 years, Ulster militias fought a low-intensity rebellion against the British government, but in the meantime Irish Home Rule had been secured and promised. As a result, Ireland remained a stronghold of the Liberal party and ensured their victory in subsequent elections.
Ebb and Flow
While victory was assured for the Liberals for quite a while, they faced their first major loss of favour with the British intervention against French Communism. The deployment of troops and the massive failure of the BEF in Normandy kickstarted opposition against the Liberals and caused a surge in popularity for the Labour Party. Holding on with a minority, they stayed in government until the Market Crash of 1926. Originating in the United States in December and spreading across the globe, it wiped out about half of Britain’s world trade and caused industrial output to fall by a third. Employment levels fell drastically, as did wages and the construction of new homes, leading to a homelessness spike. In particular, regions with large industrial bases or export-geared economies suffered the most: places like Northern England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales.The strong foundation of the British economy had always been the gold standard, heavy industry (like coal and steel) geared towards trade, and these were things that made Britain more susceptible to market fluctuations. The Liberal government had implemented social welfare programs back in 1911, and these allowed most unemployed workers some basic support, known as the dole (as money was “doled out”). The Liberals, however, failed to deliver any meaningful changes which would solve the economic hardship, and thus were voted out in favour of a majority Labour government.
Men lining up for the dole (1927)
The new government, led by Ramsay MacDonald, did its best to save the economy by cutting services to create a balanced budget. However, this ran contrary to what many of their supporters wanted. Though the government could argue it was helping the country by saving money, large portions of the population were now deprived of their sole source of income - the dole. This caused support for Labour to plummet, and splinter parties to emerge. The New Party, led by Sir Oswald Mosley, presented itself as the solution.
Neatly packaging his ideas in the “Mosley Memorandum”, he lambasted the government for what he saw as inept handling of the unemployment crisis. To Mosley, the solution was clear: put the people to work on building up the nation. Government money would thus be spent on productive work, not welfare, and the returns on that work would generate income. The United Kingdom should abandon its focus on exports and instead build a self-sufficient autarky around the far-flung sections of the British Empire. The firebrand MP’s words were more palatable as well due to his excellent oratory skills, and soon the New Party had a massive following.
Sir Oswald Mosley (1925)
To the distaste of many of his followers, Mosley began to drift ideologically. Having seen the political shift happening in Germany, he began to grow more authoritarian. These new views caused his protege John Strachey and his friend Henry Williamson to abandon him. Mosley continued on his path towards the extreme right, envisioning a strong corporatist state and full autarky, in his British Action Party. Strachey and Williamson refused to follow Mosley, and instead formed the British Green Party.
Williamson became a dedicated pacifist from his experience fighting the French in Normandy, and his love of nature made him wish for an England more connected to its land. These two things helped him capture the heart of the British people, helping him to win the election of 1928. Forming a minority government in coalition with Labour, Williamson pushed for massive spending on public works and restoring or protecting the countryside of the British Isles. He restored the various social programs which had been cut, and focused the country’s foreign policy on bringing the Empire closer together.
Sir Henry Williamson on a nature retreat (1928)
Since Britain no longer counted on France as an ally, the Green government moved even closer to the United States and Italy. The Atlantic Treaty Alliance (ATA), formed by the United Kingdom and the United States in 1933, formed the new basis of Britain’s foreign policy, and focused on maintaining the defence of oceanic trade and their overseas empire. Italy, which did not wish to join a full-scale war but also wanted protection from a confident Germany and a growing Socialist bloc, became an ATA observer in 1936.
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