Second Mexican War Naval Campaign Part I
Union Navy
Despite the success of the US Navy in blockading the Confederate coast, events on land conspired to rob the service of it’s glory. Following the armistice of November 1862, Royal Navy warships (with a token French presence, that country being preoccupied with its Mexican designs) arrived to ensure that the blockade was lifted, and the small Union fleet grudgingly returned to port.
Under the Lincoln administration the US continued to maintain a modestly strong navy by European standards. Naval production shut down drastically with the Democratic congress sat in December of 1863. However fear of the British and French fleets now operating in Southern waters kept a moderate naval production. The US developed several new double turreted ironclad designs and even found funds to convert existing ships to iron. By the end of the Lincoln administration the Union Navy stood at twenty five monitor type coastal Ironclads and forty eight active men of war or frigates and forty in reserve.
Despite the Republican’s best efforts, successive doughface Democrat Administrations gutted the navy. Throughout the 1870s dozens of warships were sold off to balance the budget and relieve War of Secession debts. By the 1870s the Union Navy had slipped from being on par with great naval powers like France and Russia, to being a twelfth rate power behind Chile, Brazil or even China. By 1872 nearly all ironclads had been placed in drydock.
The one ray of hope for the Navy was the nomination of Joel Parker who served as Secretary of the Navy in 1873 to 1877. Parker had been a war democrat and governor of New Jersey. Despite no naval background, Parker was shocked by the decrepit state of the navy. He pushed the Woodward administration and Congress to allocate funds for more warships, but was denied. Parker responded by scrapping older warships to modernize the best man of war. Including four iron plated Alert Class Gunboats. Parker’s greatest achievement was the securing funds for the renovation of five new ironclads. Parker scrapped five older ironclads and ordered four new ones with exact same names. Construction was slowed down significantly after the financial panic of 1875. Parker tried his best, unfortunately President Cox who replaced the deceased President Woodward, took an even softer line than his predecessors.
The election of President Tilden in 1876 did not improve the Navy’s prospects. Tilden initially took as little interest in foreign affairs as his predecessors. However when he was heavily criticized for the presiding over the sale of Cuba and then removing the Confederate stars from the flags, he began to take interest. When the Tilden administration wanted to intervene in the Chile-Peru-Bolivian war to safeguard US citizens. He was informed by Secretary of the Navy James A. Weston and Chief of the Navigation Bureau (equivalent to the later Chief of operations ) Rear Admiral Rodgers that the Chilean Navy outgunned the US Navy’s Pacific Fleet. With this Tilden began a belated naval building program, restarting production of four modern ironclad warships. Only one ironclad the USS Puritan would be ready for service at the outbreak of the war.
All of this changed with the election of James G. Blaine. Blaine as the Congressman representing the Kittery Naval yards had been a forceful advocate of a strong Navy. Blaine campaigned on the US maintaining a fleet on par with the European Powers and capable of protecting the U.S. coasts and projecting power across the seas. On assuming office, one of President Blaine’s first official acts was to order Secretary of the Navy William H. Hunt to commission a panel of Naval Officers to address the U.S.’s lack of Naval preparedness. The panel recommended 21 armored vessels, 70 unarmored, together with rams, and most significant of all it declared that the material of construction should be steel.
Unfortunately this could not be accomplished anytime soon. In 1881 there was only one plant in the United States capable of making forgings for guns of more than six-inch calibre and one able to make armor plate or torpedoes. This was the Roach & Sons Shipyard in Chester, PA. If the US was to rebuild its Naval pre-eminence, it would have to drastically increase its arms industry. Furthermore any increase in Naval spending would only occur when the 47th Congress actually sat in December of 1881.
U.S. Navy Ironclad Naval vessels
Passaic Class Coastal Ironclad (in reserve at the time of the conflict)
USS Camanche (CA)
USS Catskill (CT)
USS Lehigh (RI)
USS Montauk (ME)
USS Nahant (NY)
USS Nantucket (NY)
USS Passaic (MA)
USS Patapsco (MA)
USS Sangamon (NY)
USS Weehawken (CT)
Kalamazoo Class Ocean Going Ironclad (operational at the time of the conflict)
USS Dictator (1865) (PA)
USS Onondaga (1864) (DE)
USS Kalamazoo (1864) (CA)
USS Colossus (1865) (NY)
USS Housatonic (1865) (NY)
USS Passaconaway (1866) (ME)
USS Mystic (1866) (DE)
Amphrite Class Ocean Going Ironclad (1 operational four under construction).
USS Puritan (1880) (Pa)
U.S.S. Amphitrite (1881)
U.S.S.Monadnock (1881)
U.S.S.Terror (1882)
U.S.S.Miantonomoh (1882)
Alert Class Gunboats (operational at the time of the conflict)
USS Alert (1875)(CA)
USS Huron (1875)(CA)
USS Ranger (1876) (ME)
USS Nantucket (1876) (PA)
Ironclad cruisers
USS John Paul Jones (1881)
USS Bon Homme Richard (1881)
USS Vengeance (1881)
USS Alliance (1881)
Iron Rams
USS intrepid (1874) (operational at the time of the conflict)
USS Elizabeth (1881)
USS Linden (1881)
USS Tottenville (1882)
USS Vindicator (1881)
USS League Island (1881)
Rebel Navy
At the outbreak of the War of Secession many of the Union’s best seaman were born in the south. However unlike the Army most of these talented officers chose to remain loyal to the Union. The War of Secession did not last long enough for the infant Confederate Navy to cover itself in glory. Despite its lack of heavy industries the Confederate Navy did surprise the world with its naval innovation, especially the construction of the Ironclad C.S.S. Virginia. Once the French and British Navy arrived in Confederate waters in October of 1862, the Naval campaigns of the War of Secession came to an end. Still the War at sea provided many important lessons for the fledgling Confederate Navy. The Confederacy had loss of its largest port New Orleans, its first ironclad was defeated, it lacked of shipyards and was forced to rely on the purchase of warships abroad. These defeats demonstrated that the Confederacy needed to expand its domestic ship building capacity and its heavy industries.
In the interwar period Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory set out the framework for the Confederate Naval growth over the next twenty years. Because of the strength of US industries and its alliance with the world’s foremost naval powers of Britain and France, the Confederacy decided it did not require a true blue water navy. Instead C.S. Naval spending was focused on shore defense to prevent another loss like New Orleans and ironclad gunboats to bolster defense. New shore defenses were constructed at the Confederacy’s largest ports like Norfolk, Wilmington, Savannah, Charleston, Mobile, New Orleans Habana and Galveston. Next was the construction of a new fleet of Ironclads warships. However the expense of the fortifications meant that construction of the fleet could not begin until the late 1860s early 1870s.
The development of this fleet was heartily supported by the growing Whiggish element and Southern Imperialists. Who wished to extend Confederate influence into the Caribbean. It was this alliance of interests and the low interest loans provided by the British that helped complete the new fleet. However successive doughface Yankee administrations meant there was little competition to build a strong Atlantic fleet. As a result the Confederate Navy like its U.S. counterpart was primarily a “brown water” navy. The new Confederate Navy operated primarily in the Caribbean supporting Franco- Confederate interventions in the region. Like the Confederate acquisition of Cuba, the Confederate blockade of Mexico in support of the French puppet Maximilian and interventions in Nicaragua and Santo Domingo. When construction of six new ironclads were approved in 1876 to replace the older War of Secession era vessels, firepower and durability were emphasized over sea worthiness. With the addition of the new Ironclads the Confederate Navy was theoretically as strong as the U.S. Fleet.
Virginia Class Coastal Ironclad (in reserve at the time of the conflict)
CSS Arkansa (1864)
CSS Louisiana (1863)
CSS Mobile ( 1863)
CSS Virginia II (1865)
Mobile Class double turreted Coastal Ironclad
CSS Chattahoochie (1870)
CSS Mississippi (1871)
CSS Muscogee (1871)
CSS Manassas (1872)
Ironclad cruisers
CSS North Carolina I (1865)
CSS Semmes (1866)
CSS Stonewall (1867)
CSS Albert Sidney Johnston (1868)
Richmond Class Ocean Going Ironclad
CSS Richmond (1878)
CSS Savannah (1878)
CSS Charleston (1879)
CSS New Orleans (1879)
CSS Galveston (1880)
CSS Habana (1881)
British Royal Navy
The Napoleonic Wars left Great Britain the most powerful naval country in the world, with no meaningful rivals. The country's economic and strategic strength was buttressed by the fleet; localized military action was a staple of the not-entirely-peaceful "Pax Britannica". In addition, the threat of naval force was a significant factor in diplomacy. The navy was not idle however; the 19th century witnessed a series of transformations that turned the old wooden sailing navy into one of steam and steel. After 1827 there were no major battles until 1881. The navy was used against shore installations, such as those in the Baltic and Black Sea in 1854 and 1855, to fight pirates; to hunt down slave ships; and to assist the army when sailors and marines were landed as naval brigades, as on many occasions between the siege of Sebastopol. In 1858 France built the first seagoing ironclad, Gloire, and Britain responded with Warrior of 1860, the first of the 1860s Naval Arms Race—an intensive programme of construction that eclipsed French efforts by 1870. She was called a "Black Snake" by Napoleon III, but was soon superseded. By 1880 Britain had a fleet larger than any two rivals combined. The British nation could take security for granted, but at all times the national leaders and public opinion supported a powerful navy, and service was of high prestige.
French Navy or ”La Royale”
In the 19th century, the navy recovered and became arguably the second finest in the world after the Royal Navy, albeit very much smaller. The French Navy, eager to challenge British naval supremacy, took a leadership role in many areas of warship development, with the introduction of new technologies. France led the development of shell guns for the navy, with its invention Paixhans gun by Henri-Joseph Paixhans. They were first fired in anger, to great effect, at the Battle of Veracruz in 1838. In 1850, Napoléon became the first steam-powered battleship in history. Gloire became the first seagoing ironclad in history when she was launched in 1859. The French Navy's Redoutable, laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876, was a central battery and barbette warship which became the first battleship in the world to use steel as the principal building material.
Phase One: Outbreak and Initial Engagements
On April 11th, 1881 President Blaine informed his Secretary of the Navy William Henry Hunt that if the CS Army occupied Sonora and Chihuahua he would issue an ultimatum to withdraw under the threat of war.
[1] When asked how the Navy department could assist in compelling the Confederate’s withdrawal. He was informed that the U.S. Navy had 12 iron armored and 30 wooden warships ready for service, none of which could compare to modern British or French Battleship. A further ten ironclads and 40 wooden hulled steam warships were in reserve. Except the USS Puritan and the four Alert class ironclad gunboats, all the turreted ironclads warships were only capable of coastal defense. It was therefore the opinion of Secretary Hunt and Chief of the Navigation Bureau Vice Admiral Rogers that Blaine not declare war, without giving the Navy twelve months to prepare. In his advice, Vice Admiral Rogers was more honest than his Army counterpart General Rosencrans.
Believing the war would be primarily a land conflict, alone Blaine rejected Vice Admiral Roger’s advice. Instead he ordered all warships fit for service to be ready to put to sea. , If the Confederates failed to abide by his ultimatum and hostilities broke out. The Navy should be prepared to blockade of the Confederate eastern coast. Rear Admiral Rogers informed him that was not possible. At most the U.S. Navy could hope to use its ironclads to defend its coast and send out its wooden warships to hunt down Confederate convoys Blaine authorized emergency funds to ensure all ironclads now on reserve readied for war and to complete the Amphrite class ironclads.
As war clouds loomed, President Blaine called for a special session of Congress to ask Congress and the Senate for the authorization to use what force was necessary to prevent the Confederate acquisition of Chihuahua and Sonora. He also requested funds to prepare the military to enforce his demands. In what has been called the infamous “blank check” session the Republican dominated Congress granted President Blaine all of his requests. This included funds to for a dramatically expanded Navy. All older Ironclads were fitted for service and funding was authorized to complete the four Amphitrite Ironclads whose constructions was halted in the 1870s. Without any possibility of blockading the confederate coast, congress authorized the purchase of four fast iron hulled mail couriers to be converted into commerce raiders. These vessel were previously owned by the John Roach & Sons Shipbuilding company running mail service to the Brazilian Empire and capable of out running or out fighting the C.S. Navy’s Caribbean fleet. For the Next month U.S. shipyards on both the Atlantic and Pacific work frantically to catch up with sixteen years of neglect.
On June 14th Blaine issued his ultimatum, the CS Army must vacate the Mexican provinces of Sonora and Chihuahua in ten days. On By June 24th, 1881 the ultimatum expired and the U.S. Congress voted to declare war. The first shots of the war were quickly fired on the Kansas and Indian territory frontier. Ships on station across the world were order to make ready for war.
Luckily for the U.S. the Confederate Navy had also not modernized to European power standards. Unlike President Blaine however, President Longstreet had ordered his Navy to begin preparing for war with the election of a Republican President in 1880. Under the leadership of Secretary of the Navy Hilary A. Herbert and Vice Admiral John Taylor Wood. The Confederacy began out fitting cruisers and patrolling the Atlantic sea lanes for U.S. Commerce raiders. Where the Confederacy excelled at commerce raiding in the War of Secession it was bound diplomatically to refrain from issuing private letters of mark, by a recent treaty with Great Britain. President Longstreet still courting his European allies, ensure the Navy scrupulously upheld this agreement.
On June 25th the U.S. sent a squadron of six wooden hulled steamers to patrol the Confederacy’s Atlantic coast, capturing eight Confederate merchant men in five days. However by July these were turned away by the iron hulled cruiser C.S.S. Stonewall and ocean going ironclad C.S.S. Charleston. The U.S. Navy sent its only ocean going Ironclad U.S.S. Puritan in response, but neither side wanted to risk their best warships in a confrontation.
From left to right U.S.S. Puritan an Amphrite class Ironclad monitor; C.S.S. Savannah a Richmond class Ironclad; U.S.S. John Paul Jones Ironclad cruiser; U.S.S. Huron an Alert Class Ironclad Gunboat.
Vice Admiral Rogers did not want to risk damaging his most powerful ironclad if there was a possibility France and Britain could enter the war. Both Great Britain and France were technically still allied to the C.S.A. and had warned the U.S. not to get involved with the C.S.A.’s transaction with Mexico. (Largely because they were the primary beneficiary as Mexico’s biggest creditor). From the outset of the crises Blaine had gambled that Britain and France would not come to the aid of a Slave power. Despite the reports that Britain was reinforcing its garrisons in Canada, had sent a squadron to reinforce its North American Fleet stationed at Halifax and France had sent a fleet to its treaty port at Acapulco. Naval intelligence indicated that Britain had reinforced its North American Squadron with six centerline ironclad battleships and more than a two dozen gunboats and wooden hulled steamers. Despite warnings from Secretary of State Hannibal Hamlin, President Blaine President declared all diplomatic personnel of Britain and France persona non grata in the US.
In preparation for future conflict the Navy Department's Vice Admiral Rogers focused instead on hunting down Confederate merchantmen. All across the Atlantic, Mediterranean, Pacific and even as far away as Indian Ocean, U.S. steamers seized Confederate merchantmen and towed them as prizes to neutral and friendly harbors. The one place they could not operate was the Caribbean. At the outbreak of the Navy Department sent two squadrons of six wooden cruisers to attack Confederate shipping. Within two weeks of their arrival all twelve were destroyed or chased out of the Caribbean. On July 3rd the U.S. Navy’s new iron hulled commerce raiders were ready for war. Completed at the John Roach & Sons shipyard in Chester, Pennsylvania the new vessels christened the John Paul Jones, Bon Homme Richard, Vengeance and Alliance. For the next two months the U.S.’s new iron cruisers preyed on confederate shipping throughout the Caribbean. Though confederate ironclads would chased the squadron across the Caribbean they would always fail to catch or corner them.
The C.S. Navy's only recourse was to arm its merchant men and use its fleet to capture U.S. merchant men. The Confederate fleet routinely violated the sovereignty of its Caribbean neighbors by sailing into their harbors and seizing U.S. merchant men. A particularly nasty incident occurred when a Confederate ironclad fired on a Haitian customs house for attempting to interfere with an inspection of the harbor. It was actions like this that would drive Haiti into a closer alliance with the U.S. a decade later. It was incidents like these and clashes between commerce raiders in neutral south american and pacific ports that had French and British politicians calling on their governments to intervene to keeps the seas peaceful from their violent and warlike american cousins.
By mid july six of the ten War of Secession era Passaic class ironclads were ready for service. Secretary Hunt was projecting that the Amphitrite class Ironclads would be ready in the fall. A further four Ironclads were ordered to begin construction at shipyards in Kittery, Boston and New York. With growing strength, Secretary Hunt and Chief of Navigation Rogers began planning for naval attacks as part of a renewed advances in the eastern theater. These were put on hold after the Confederacy turned back the Union advance on Winchester and their successful defense of Louisville. These plans were canceled indefinitely with declaration of war on the U.S. by Britain and France.
Part II the British and French Navies enter the war.
[1] Secretary of the Navy William Henry Hunt was born in
Charleston, South Carolina in 1823. Hunt studied law at Yale. He finished his professional training in his brothers' office in
New Orleans, Louisiana, where he was admitted to the bar in 1844. Hunt opposed secession and favored the Union cause. He was nevertheless drafted into the
Confederate Army and commissioned lieutenant colonel. However, he managed to avoid involvement in military operations until Admiral
David Farragut captured New Orleans. Hunt was one of the few business men to host admiral farragut and even helped to organize a local government for occupied New Orleans. As a result he was largely branded a traitor throughout the south. As a result when Benjamin Butler and Admiral Farragut were forced to evacuate the city, Hunt and fellow collaborators were evacuate with the fleet. When Hunt returned to the North he settled into Washington and became a staunch Republican. When Blaine was elected he made Hunt Secretary of the Navy due to his expreince as a solicitor of naval contracts and as gesture to the influential loyalist southern diaspora.
