Touched by the Morning Calm: An Account of the 20th Century World

[Yi Sun Sin]

Born as Yi Yung-Jun, he was the only son of King Cheoljeong and Queen Cheorin. When he was 6 years old, his father died and he ascended to the throne. His mother became regent and Kim Byeong-Pil became chief state councilor. However, the power of the Andong Kim clan, which his mother belonged to, became too much to bear for the nation and the nation was about to enter anarchy due to numerous peasant rebellions.

Affairs came to a head when the French expedition of 1866 managed to penetrate past present-day Inchon. It exposed weaknesses in the Korean military, economy, showed that the nation was very much vulnerable to foreign encroachment. Someone from the Cheongpung Kim clan orchestrated a coup when French troops arrived at the gates of the capital, overthrowing Kim Byeong-Pil and putting the Dowager Queen under house arrest while taking control of Wonjong.

At the Hanseong Conference of 1867, the leader of the Cheongpung Kim clan opened up Korea to French trade, the first of many unequal treaties. The Andong Kim clan launched a countercoup, leading to the Cheongpung Kim clan going into hiding. However, they proved even more incapable at governing the country and when the Americans showed up in force in 1871, they were overthrown by military officers and driven to near extinction. In the chaos, the leader of the Cheongju Yang clan emerged as a new force and took power. At the Ganghwa Conference, Joseon was opened up to US trade.

Under his direction, Councilor Yang sent delegations abroad to learn and to develop Joseon along Western lines. He looked across the East Sea and took cues from the ongoing changes under the Meiji Restoration. He sent a group of officers to Germany to learn the latest Prussian tactics and organization and another group to France to learn naval tactics and strategy, among other reforms. He invited US and European businessmen and engineers to advise and oversee various projects like railroads, ports, and telegraph lines.

At the same time, Councilor Yang was wary of growing Japanese influence in the east. Knowing that eventually the Japanese would attempt to force their will on Korea, Yang devoted resources and energy to building up Joseon’s military. Both Japan and Korea were influenced by Prussian doctrine. However, Joseon did not have the resources to acquire battleships and so planned to employ the French Jeune École doctrine, which favored small, fast warships, especially cruisers and torpedo boats, with the offensive capability to destroy larger craft. To this end, he employed French naval officers and French influence was especially strong in the modern Joseon Navy, as a majority of their senior commanders were under tutelage. Moreover, French naval doctrine was most compatible with Joseon's strategic position, as Joseon had no aspirations for regional dominance yet.

It was against this backdrop that the king matured. After assuming personal rule, Yung-Jun continued the modernization schemes. The 1880s saw major change for the country. Mining, agriculture, shipping, and industry were all expanded and strengthened, while the Korean army was expanded to 75,000 troops. By the end of the decade, the Korean navy had four cruisers, ten torpedo boats, and numerous merchant vessels that could be converted for wartime use, most of them assembled in French shipyards.

Yung-Jun, as one of his first actions as king, was to inaugurate Korea’s entry as a modern power. He did so by having a part of the fleet sail around the world, a total of one cruiser and other ships, and they made port calls in places like Shanghai, Manila, San Francisco, Norfolk, Plymouth, Cherbourg, Bombay, and Sydney. He also didn’t want war with Japan, so he opened negotiations with the government and came to an understanding with the Emperor Meiji. He balanced relations with France and Qing China, but while he was inclined to support the former during their invasion of Formosa, he couldn't realistically take on the Qing yet and Joseon was still a tributary state. Nevertheless, he watched events closely and the invasion of Formosa showed two things: the French navy performed well but overall French military successes were limited by resources, and the Qing were still very disorganized despite military reforms.

Yung-Jun invited Ito Hirobumi to the Joseon royal palace, one of the most powerful men in Japan. Ito sympathized with Yung-Jun's growing dissatisfaction with being subservient to China, and he sought to turn Joseon into a Japanese partner. In his mind, an independent Joseon posed no strategic problem to Japan's national security, but if the country remained subordinate to China, it would consequently be inviting prey for foreign domination in the future. In a secret agreement, Joseon would remain neutral in a conflict between Japan and China, but would fight with China should Qing be the aggressor.

Qing agents in the Joseon court caught wind of the agreement, and the Empress Cixi through the Guangxu Emperor demanded that Yung-Jun himself come to the Forbidden City and explain himself. However, Li Hongzhang, apprehensive of growing conflict with Japan as he also knew that China was not yet ready, controlled the hawkish mandarins in the Qing court and instead traveled himself to Joseon. Getting an audience with Yung-Jun, Li gave assurances that the Guangxu Emperor for additional protection in return for repudiating the agreement. Yung-Jun, in good conscience, couldn't do that but he also came to an understanding with Li, not wanting to antagonize the Qing prematurely.

Ito had his own agents in the Joseon court, and he was very concerned that Yung-Jun might actually come to an accord with the Qing. In his mind, Joseon had to be made independent of China at all costs, or Japanese security would be at risk. However, he also sought to increase Japanese influence in the peninsula, knowing full well that he couldn't trust Yung-Jun to be a reliable Japanese partner if his interests conflicted with Japan's. Therefore, he had to side with the hawkish elements from especially the Army. He also made a connection with the Yeoheung Min clan, rivals to Councilor Yang, as well as remnants to the Andong Kim clan. They all sought to regain influence in the court, and Ito sought to weaponize their desires for power.

Yung-Jun realized what Ito was doing, confirming his belief that he couldn't fully trust him and Japan. However, Joseon was in a dangerous position, being sandwiched between two more powerful empires, and he couldn't know for sure if Joseon would be able to withstand them both at the same time. He had to choose between two devils: the one he knew or another he couldn't fully expect.

 

[guywpotato]

nice story 👍

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

Among the many reforms that Councilor Yang and later Yung-Jun undertook, one that had unintended consequences was land reform. In order to obtain the necessary investment for the many projects such as the railroads and telegraphs, the Joseon court had to open land up for bidding to American, French, and Dutch businessmen. This reinforced the power and hold of the yangban class, as they obtained a lot of money for the rights to use their land, which they used to increase their landholdings and squeeze their tenants for more rents. Unlike some like Councilor Yang's rivals in the Joseon court, the yangban acquiesced to the reforms since they were able to line their pockets. Councilor Yang counted on that, as he knew that those like the yangban were mostly motivated by selfishness and had to use the yangban to carry out the reforms. However, like during the time of the Andong Kim clan's hold over power, the tenants started to show open hostility to the court officials. It certainly didn't help matters when some of the yangban tore down their homes to make way for the very infrastructure that Councilor Yang sought to build, which displaced them and caused the countryside to be swarming with bands of vagabonds and villains.

The nobi (slaves) and cheonmin (i.e. butchers and ferrymen) were also very affected by the reforms. The nobi provided free labor for the railroads and other projects, and the cheonmin were coopted to work in the ever-increasing industrial landscape of Joseon for no pay and dangerous working conditions. Many of the cheonmin were also pressed into service in the fledgling army and navy, with the yangban officers promising regular pay in return for twelve years of service, but more often than not, they were coerced under pain of torture. The reforms, while turning Joseon into a more powerful nation, started to show the incompatibility between the social rigidity of the country and the need to strengthen the nation. Combining that with how fast the reforms were supposed to take effect, it didn't take long for unrest to reach critical mass.

The catalyst came when a nobi was beaten to death for openly defying his lord's attempt to tear down his home for a railroad laying. By this point, the yangban's household had enough, and they killed him in his sleep. The local insurrection, which took place in Gyeonggi Province and therefore close to the capital, was quickly put down by Joseon troops, but the survivors regrouped and broke into an armory, where they stole dozens of rifles and thousands of rounds of ammunition. Though not adequately trained on the weapons, they attacked a local gendarmerie post (the Joseon gendarmerie was modeled after the French gendarmerie) and the gendarmerie commander requested help. The court responded by sending a thousand men into Gyeonggi Province, but the soldiers, mostly conscripted cheonmin, sympathized with the rebels and instead mutinied after one instance of abuse too many from their officers. Word of the mutiny spread like wildfire, and it didn't take long for several regiments throughout the southern half of Joseon to also take up arms against the government.

Yung-Jun was very alarmed at the string of events. He acknowledged the necessity of Councilor Yang's actions, but even he couldn't expect a large-scale rebellion taking place. Members of the Yeoheung Min clan, led by Min Seung-Ho, saw their chance and sought to remove the Cheongju Yang clan from court. Yung-Jun stood by his councilor and instead ordered their arrest, but Min fled to Gyeonggi Province with his band of followers and declared open rebellion against the court. Styling his actions as a "war against evil officials," he was able to obtain the support of ten well-trained and well-equipped regiments, with the intent of marching on the capital.

In this setting, both the Cheongpung and Jeonju Kim clans gave critical support, as they were the only ones who could have provided the counter-support from the south. Councilor Yang and Yung-Jun also had to rely on the Munhwa Yu clan for help, the only family in the northern half that wanted to support him. Eventually, the northern regiments supported the government and were able to decimate the rebellion, with the leaders forced to flee to Jeju Island. This presented a problem, as the Joseon military was not experienced in amphibious operations. Moreover, Jeju's geography meant that a rebellion could last for several years. However, Yung-Jun and Councilor Yang pushed forward, with eight thousand troops and two cruisers participating in the quelling of the rebellion. The leaders managed to escape to Japan, but Jeju was subjected to widespread violence, as several civilians were caught in the crossfire. Moreover, the regiments that rebelled were cracked down, with their officers executed and the rank-and-file sold into slavery.

Ito watched the rebellion with interest. After granting the leaders asylum, he protested to Yung-Jun about the cruelty brought upon his people, while plotting with Imperial Japanese Army officers like Yamagata Aritomo on how to force their way into the peninsula now that the country had been weakened. The Qing also saw an opportunity, as the southern half of Joseon was the agricultural center and it was devastated by the rebellion. The Beiyang Fleet sailed in force to the waters off what is now Incheon, with Li Hongzhang demanding an audience to see Yung-Jun. The Japanese responded by sending a fleet to meet them, resulting in a naval standoff. Yung-Jun gave orders for his naval commanders to open fire on whoever decided to become aggressive against Joseon first.

The French, who had by now developed strong interests in Joseon, responded by sending their Far East Squadron as well. Yung-Jun was a Francophile, having become fluent in French and liking French customs, but he was still apprehensive after they didn't perform as well as expected in their last war with the Qing. Yung-Jun asked the French to be a mediator between the parties, but this was unacceptable to the Qing and even to Japan, the latter of whom saw French interference as an obstacle. Ito sent a telegraph to Yung-Jun, reminding him of the agreement that they established, which only put more pressure on him since he couldn't risk damaging his credibility during a critical period for Joseon.

The leader of the Japanese army faction, Yamagata Aritomo, who had now grown impatient with Ito's cautiousness, took matters into his own hands and arranged for a group of ronin to invade Gyeongbuk Palace. Among their targets was Councilor Yang, who they killed and mutilated him and replaced him with Min, who they returned to Joseon. Li didn't anticipate this, but he used Yamagata's actions as a pretext to have the Beiyang Fleet open fire on the Japanese Navy. The resulting battle of Yeongjong Island resulted in a stalemate, but the Beiyang Fleet took more casualties and had to withdraw, but not before landing six thousand soldiers to march on Seoul.

Yung-Jun, angered at Councilor Yang's murder, arranged for the leader of the Cheongpung Kim clan to retake the palace. With the support of French marines, they killed Min and hunted down the ronin. Yamagata responded by having the army attempt to land at Busan, but the Navy transports were fired upon by the Joseon cruiser "Eok-gi," named after the one killed at Chilcheollyang, and Joseon torpedo boats sunk at least five ships. Now left with no choice, Yung-Jun tore up the agreement he made with Ito and mobilized the army and navy for war against Japan.

Ito was put under house arrest by Yamagata, who took control of the government. Instead of trying again at Busan, he landed troops at Ulsan, north of Busan. The Joseon Navy failed to detect the movements, but they responded by sending the cruiser headquartered at Busan along with four torpedo boats to meet the fleet. What they saw instead was a good portion of the Japanese Combined Fleet, with six cruisers, two ironclads, one gunboat, and twelve transport ships. The Joseon vessels retreated, but the Combined Fleet chased them back to Busan, where they opened fire on the harbors as well as the ships. They attempted to land Japanese marines into Busan, but they were beaten back by the garrison, well-armed with especially artillery.

With two stalemates and one minor defeat already, Japan had no choice but to continue pushing into Korea. The stage had been set for the second Imjin War.

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

The Japanese landed at Ulsan and quickly established a beachhead. Withing a few days, they landed two divisions, all under the command of General Oyama Iwao. Their plan was to cut wheel southwards and cut off Busan, as Ulsan was insufficient to land the troops necessary to advance northwards. An advance of the capital was not recommended, as the approach would be heavily defended against Japanese advances. Any attempt to try to land on the western coasts was out of the question, as the Japanese Navy was not sure if they would be able to fight both the Joseon Navy and the Beiyang Fleet. Meanwhile, two more divisions landed at Wonsan, under the command of General Katsuro Taro. Taro was under orders to head towards Hamhung, to secure another port for Japanese troops. The overall Japanese strategy was to land all over the eastern coasts of Joseon, to spread the defenses thin and destroy both the Joseon and Qing armies piecemeal. By the time the war started, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia: well-trained, well-equipped, and with good morale. However, it was basically an infantry force deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries. Artillery pieces, which were purchased from America and a variety of European nations, presented two problems: they were scarce, and the relatively small number that were available were of several different calibers, causing problems with ammunition supply.

The Joseon Army started off well from the 1880s, but the rebellion that ended at Jeju Island cut down their overall strength to nearly 50,000 men, meaning that they were outnumbered by the Japanese more than two to one. However, unlike the Japanese Army, they had a well-developed cavalry force, making the transition from outdated tactics to mounted infantry, and Joseon Army appreciated the power of artillery for a long time. Artillerymen gained experience during the last rebellion and proved their worth in repelling the Japanese amphibious assault at Busan. The Joseon Army first purchased a batch of guns from Prussia, and then made indigenous copies, with the Joseon Army wishing to simplify logistics due to a restriction on funds. Its officers were trained in Europe, and like the Japanese Army was based on the Prussian model.

General Oyama started the wheel southwards to surround Busan, as the garrison had about six thousand men and a good portion of the Joseon Eastern Fleet. Joseon cavalrymen shadowed their movements and skirmished with advance elements of the army, while "righteous armies" harassed their movements. Nevertheless, Oyama pushed through and reached the outskirts of Pyeonghae, where about a thousand men from the Busan garrison dug in. Oyama opened fire with an artillery barrage, killing a hundred men in the opening stages, before sending in the vanguard. However, when they got close enough, the Joseon troops, equipped with Maxim machine guns, returned fire, cutting down five hundred men within a few minutes. The only reason why the Japanese were able to break through was because they withdrew for the artillery to open up again. They were forced to withdraw, but Oyama lost a thousand men in total.

After a few weeks of more harassing, the Japanese were able to arrive at Busan, but Pyeonghae made Oyama apprehensive about assaulting the city. Deeming his field artillery inadequate, he needed part of the Combined Fleet to battle the garrison and sink the ships headquartered there to complete the encirclement. At the start of hostilities, the Imperial Japanese Navy was composed of a fleet of 12 modern warships, eight corvettes, one ironclad warship, 26 torpedo boats, and numerous auxiliary/armed merchant cruisers and converted liners. They outnumbered the Joseon fleet, which had by now six cruisers, four corvettes, fourteen torpedo boats, and other combat capable vessels. The Joseon Navy couldn't concentrate all its fleet strength yet since they were not confident in countering the Combined Fleet all at once, and the Beiyang Fleet would not venture close enough to Busan, which limited their options.

Oyama first set up artillery positions overlooking Busan and moved to cut off the city from land, but this proved difficult since his scouts were intercepted by Joseon cavalrymen and "righteous armies." The Joseon commander, General Hong, sought to buy time until reinforcements arrived, but he was also aware that the Japanese Navy would attempt to storm Busan from the sea, so he needed ships to help counter them. The most that the navy could send was four torpedo boats and two corvettes, and they couldn't spare a cruiser. General Hong knew that in the open seas, the ships he would be able to rely on would not be able to fight the Japanese Navy, so he cooperated with his counterpart, Admiral Jeon, in formulating a battle plan.

The commander of the Japanese vessels sent to Busan, Admiral Tsuboi Kozo, moved quickly to encircle Busan and strike at the ships. The cruiser Eokgi moved to intercept, attempting to "cross the T," but the Japanese vessels moved faster and Eokgi withdrew to Okryu Island. What the Japanese didn't know was that during the summer, heavy precipitation fell upon the area, which interfered with ordnance handling. The Japanese sailors slipped on the decks and ladderwells, and some powders got drenched while gunnery slowed down due to the rain. Admiral Jeon was well-prepared on the other hand, as he intended to strike with torpedoes. The torpedoes were still in their infancy and had to be fired from up close, but the geography favored the torpedo boats and they were able to sink six Japanese torpedo boats and severely damaged one of the cruisers. Admiral Jeon then ordered a salvo on the other cruiser, hitting the upper works and severely wounding Admiral Tsuboi in the process. Another torpedo boat fired on the cruiser, blowing her bow off. The battle of Okryu Island was the first major victory for Joseon, with the Japanese fleet forced to withdraw after suffering heavy losses.

Meanwhile, General Katsura moved from Wonsan and sought to move his troops to Pyongyang, so as to cut off the Qing armies that were coming. Confident that the Qing armies would be disorganized, he moved his divisions as quickly as he could. However, unlike in the south, the northern Joseon regiments were in good shape, and unlike at Busan, they decided to stand and fight. At the town of Kosang in Pyongan Province, eight thousand Joseon troops fought against thirteen thousand Japanese soldiers. General Taro sought to outflank their positions, but the Joseon cavalry intercepted them. However, Japanese infantrymen showed discipline and repelled them. General Katsura pushed forward and sought to overwhelm them following an artillery barrage, but the Joseon army utilized Maxim machine guns and moved down hundreds in a few moments. Joseon artillery also caused heavy casualties.

The battle lasted into the evening, with the Japanese utilizing infantry charge after infantry charge. However, even though they were repelling the enemy, the Joseon army ran out of ammunition and they had to withdraw. However, by the next morning, the Japanese counted four thousand dead, severely blunting their advance. With no other choice, General Katsura was forced to withdraw back to Wonsan, to regroup and get resupply from the sea.

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

Admiral Sukeyuki Ito, the overall commander of the Combined Fleet, reconstituted the ships after Okryu. Realizing that he had underestimated the Joseon Navy's capabilities and that Joseon's geography favored the defenders on both sea and land, he had to draw them out into the open seas since they would have a chance against them. He decided that he would have to bypass Busan and sail all the way around to Jeju Island, knowing that either the Joseon Western Fleet or the Beiyang Fleet would have to meet him. Both did, and Admiral Ito was heavily outnumbered. However, what he didn't know was that the overall commander was Admiral Liu Buchan, and that the Beiyang Fleet sought to use their numbers to overwhelm them. They charged full steam ahead, and Admiral Ito responded by bringing his ships into one battle column, so as to bring the full broadside of his guns to bear on his enemy. Moreover, his ships were of superior quality to the Beiyang Fleet's, while their ships were of mixed assortments. Ito's column inflicted severe damage on the Beiyang Fleet, especially their two battleships. The Joseon Western Fleet, with its two cruisers and five torpedo boats and under the command of Admiral Choi, were put in the rearguard and watched as the Beiyang Fleet took critical casualties and withdrew. Taking the initiative, Admiral Choi sent his torpedo boats first to release a torpedo salvo. Admiral Ito expected this and had his ships turn sharply away from their vessels. However, the broadside advantage that Admiral Ito enjoyed against the Beiyang Fleet was gone, with his own rearguard exposed to Admiral Choi's guns. The last two vessels were severely damaged and had to withdraw from the battle, and Admiral Ito saw the danger he was in. Turning back to fight, he split his column into two sections, running parallel to each other in an attempt to outflank their opponents. Admiral Choi maintained his own column, but responded by forming a semi-circle, allowing his vessels to maintain their broadside. Admiral Ito maintained his advance, intending to sail around them and envelop them. The Joseon torpedo boats released a second salvo of torpedoes, and this time, they sunk three Japanese torpedo boats. Admiral Ito intended to push forward and his cruisers were able to get in range. Admiral Choi's flagship, the cruiser Hansando, took two direct hits, and another cruiser, the Sacheon, was also damaged. However, in return, the cruisers let loose their own torpedoes, which struck Admiral Ito's flagship. Although not sunk, it took a list to the port and Ito had to order counterflooding. But by this point, the pendulum was swinging against the Japanese the longer the battle took, so Admiral Ito had to cut his losses and withdraw.

(a French torpedo cruiser, which I envision as the lead class for the Joseon Navy at the time)

The Battle off Jeju Island was an effective stalemate, as the Beiyang Fleet took damage and limiting their operational scope, but the Joseon Navy once again showed their effectiveness and the last decade of reforms had paid off. Without approaching the western coasts of Joseon, the Japanese Army would be severely limited in logistics. Moreover, the Japanese Army was stalled on the peninsula, with the righteous armies now hampering their advances. However, Yamagata was not ready to give up, so he ordered a general mobilization by assembling the reserves. He requisitioned more transport vessels to ferry more troops, and he directed Generals Oyama and Katsura to consolidate their positions at Ulsan and Wonsan. Needing a third base of operations, Yamagata had troops land at Chongjin, in the northern part of Joseon and close to Manchuria. The new strategy was to aim at Qing movements in Manchuria and eventually seize control over the Yalu River, therefore cutting off the flow of Qing troops and supplies into Joseon. Having underestimated the Joseon military, the Japanese decided to focus solely on the Qing, encouraged by the success against the Beiyang Fleet. They also sought to utilize the divisions inherent in the Qing structure, knowing that the Beiyang Fleet was not representative of the entire Qing.

Utilizing gunboats along the Yalu River and other associated rivers, Japanese soldiers found spectacular success against the Qing and they were advancing faster than expected. The rivers along the border with Qing facilitated their operations, as the Japanese were able to avoid the mountains and the dangers that came with them. Their ultimate goal was to reach the mouth of the Yalu River, while also landing troops towards the Liaodong Peninsula.

Joseon cavalrymen shadowed their movements, but the Japanese gunboats along with their supply boats were moving too fast for the Joseon regular regiments to counter them. The Qing had established pontoon bridges along the river, which the gunboats cut and hindering their movements. They made good speed along the river, and they were able to land enough men onto the Liaodong Peninsula, with the goal being Lushunkou. On land , the Japanese were able to overwhelm the Qing, who were disorganized and not equipped adequately. They made their way to Lushunkou, and the overall commander, General Nozu Michitsura, decided to commit an assault. This naval station had taken the Qing government sixteen years to build, and was considered superior to Hong Kong in its facilities. Defended by its hilly terrain and strengthened with fortifications and powerful artillery, it was widely considered to be an impregnable stronghold. Lüshunkou was also the only facility with dry docks and modern equipment capable of repairing the warships of the Beiyang Fleet, and its loss would mean that China would no longer have the capability to repair any ship damaged in combat. The location of Lüshunkou, at the entrance to the Gulf of Bohai also meant that it controlled the sea approaches to Peking.

The assault, intended to save time since the Japanese could not afford to conduct a siege, succeeded and Lushunkou was taken by Japan. However, the Japanese could not advance further, as the remainder of the Beiyang Fleet and the Joseon Western Fleet would be able to cut off supply lines across the sea, the only logical way for them to continue a quick advance further inland and elsewhere. And if they ventured too far from the rivers or from the eastern shores, there was no way to know if they would be able to continue enjoy success. However, General Nozu was ordered by Yamagata to continue the advance, so he left behind a trusty garrison at Lushunkou. Yamagata sent reinforcements, and they moved north towards Mukden. There, they met a sizable force from the Beiyang Army of 10,000 troops, and in the ensuing battle, they defeated them. Funding for the Beiyang Army was usually irregular and training by no means systematic, while Japan's German-styled conscript army, led by academy trained professional officers, made quick work of them. With Mukden taken, the entirety of the Liaodong Peninsula was secured.

The Joseon forces realized that they had to cut the supply lines over the northern rivers if they wanted to keep the Qing in the war. They placed artillery pieces throughout the mountains and fired upon the supply ships, which delayed supply columns to the Liaodong Peninsula. However, as long as the Japanese held control over Ulsan, Wonsan, and Chongjin, they could continue to conduct the war on land. On the other hand, an all-out assault would be difficult since they needed to control the East Sea, and the geography favored the Combined Fleet since the Joseon Navy couldn't venture past Busan and battle the Japanese Navy with confidence.

General Kim, a nephew of the head of the Cheongpung Kim clan and one of the senior commanders, recommended that they seize both Mounts Changdok and Napal, located to the west of the city. If they were able to control those mountains and place artillery pieces, they would be able to bombard the Japanese increase their chances of success in assaulting Wonsan. If Wonsan was retaken, they could split the Japanese-controlled areas in two. General Kim was given 10,000 men and they met the enemy at Mount Changdok. The Joseon army met stiff resistance, as the Japanese also recognized the value of controlling the mountain, but they pressed on with artillery and machine gun fire. Eventually, the fighting whittled down to static lines, as the Joseon armies were unable to dislodge the Japanese off the mountain but they were able to repel counteroffensives from the reinforcements at Wonsan.

Eventually, the Japanese Army were able to secure control over the southern regions of Manchuria and Yamagata ordered them to advance onto Chinchow, which would be on the way to Peking. General Nozu was privately apprehensive of moving that far westward, as it would overextend his supply lines, but he followed orders and advanced on the city. There, what remained of the Beiyang Army met him and again, the Japanese prevailed. Li Hongzhang, knowing that the court would want to sue for peace soon, had the remnants of the Beiyang Fleet sail with the Joseon Navy and he recommended an attack on Ulsan. Admiral Jeon of the Eastern Fleet was cautious as ever, but he too wanted to push on Ulsan and realized that sooner or later, there needed to be a decisive clash to end the war.

The combined Joseon-Qing fleet sailed onto Ulsan, where the Combined Fleet met them in battle. The Japanese initially maintained a ring around Ulsan, defending the approach to the harbor, but Admiral Ito, aware of the danger posed by Joseon torpedo tactics, decided to break the ring and initiate a broadside salvo. The Joseon-Ming Fleet responded with their own battle column, causing opposing lines that ran parallel to each other. But at a certain moment and during the gunfire exchange, the center and rearguard of Joseon-Qing fleet changed course and charged straight into the Japanese battle column, quickly closing the distance and cutting into them. The vanguard of the Joseon-Qing fleet, mostly torpedo boats, also changed course, and unleashed a torpedo salvo that sank two Japanese cruisers and six torpedo boats.

The Battle of Ulsan was a stunning victory, allowing the Qing to bargain from a less disadvantaged position when the court finally decided to sue for peace. The Japanese Army performed well against Qing forces, but they met their match in Joseon Army despite the rebellion that took place prior to the war. The same applied for the Japanese Navy, as they had more success against the Beiyang Fleet while the Joseon Navy acquitted themselves well in battle. On the other hand, the war took a toll on Qing finances and its military prestige was damaged despite many stages of reform, and Joseon was also inclined for peace as well. They finally asked the French to mediate, and in the ensuing Treaty of Hanoi, the Japanese would withdraw from Ulsan, Wonsan, and Chongjin. In return for a large payment in silver from the Qing court, the Japanese would also withdraw from the Liaodong Peninsula.

International observers from nations like Germany, France, and the UK watched the war unfold with interest. The war proved among other things the viability of the Jeune Ecole doctrine, that torpedoes could be a deciding factor in a naval war, while it brought into question the overreliance on infantry, which caused much Japanese casualties. Joseon commanders like Admiral Jeon and General Kim were hailed as war heroes, and the war vindicated the many years of reforms that Joseon undertook.

For Japan, like with the Qing, the war's conclusion was met with dissatisfaction among Japanese leaders. Having thoroughly underestimated Joseon's capability to conduct war, they had to become more cautious. Ito forced Yamagata out of power and took the reins of government into his own hands. While Japan didn't get the results it wanted from the war, Japan still had the silver payment from the Qing, meaning that they could rebuild, regroup, and even expand. The Japanese would have to lick their wounds before trying again, this time in another direction.

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

(who I think Yi Yung-Jun, later Wonjeong, would look like)

In 1884, at the age of 26, Yung-Jun married the niece of Councilor Yang, Lady Yang, and she became his Queen Consort under the name Hyoui. He also married Lady Kim, the daughter of Lord Kim from the Cheongpung Kim clan, who became his Noble Consort under the name Hae. Queen Hyoui was the more educated of the two, having received a Western education from her father starting from when the French invaded in 1866. She knew how to play various instruments such as the piano and violin, was familiar with various areas of knowledge like mathematics and philosophy, got into hunting, and was fluent in French, German, Italian, and English. Noble Consort Hae was the more traditional of the two, content with being a maternal figure and was not interested in politics. However, Yung-Jun relied on them both for advice and support.

With Queen Hyoui, he had:

• Yi San
• Princess Sookhye
• Yi Deol
• Princess Seonhye
• Princess Hwasan

With Noble Consort Hae, he had:

• Princess Sunghyu
• Yi Jeon
• Princess Deoksoon
• Princess Hwayu
• Yi Heon
• Yi Wu

(who I think as Noble Consort Hae would look like)

(who I think as Queen Hyoui would look like)

However, what nobody expected was the Noble Consort Hae's conversion to Christianity. During the war, her cousin, General Kim, almost died during the siege of Wonsan. More than that, her son, Yi Jeon, caught pneumonia and she had to turn to an American doctor for help. That doctor was Horace Newton Allen and during the treatment, Dr. Allen talked to her on topics like the Bible and other portions of Christianity. Before the Treaty of Hanoi was signed, she asked to be baptized. Her entire family was against it, as nobody forgot the persecution of the Catholics earlier in the century and nobody was inclined to seeing a member of the royal family praying to the deity of the Christians. Queen Hyoui sympathized with her decision, having been exposed to Catholicism through her French tutor, and supported her. Despite being a Francophile, Yung-Jun was skeptical of her decision, but he consented on the condition that she wouldn't spread Christianity among the household and the palace. Dr. Allen baptized her in the Han River, making her the first Joseon consort to openly follow Christianity. This naturally gave hope to many others who sought to practice Christianity in Joseon, especially in the northern half of Joseon. That region was highly receptive to Catholic and Protestant missionaries in the late nineteenth century, who brought Western knowledge, and established hospitals and Western-style medical care, schools, and a window to the wider world. The middle-class elites sent their sons to the Catholic or Protestant schools, which were established starting from the late 1870s. Therefore, Noble Consort Hae became quite popular in that region.

As for the king's sister, Princess Yeonghye, Yung-Jun was well-aware that he had to consider her husband carefully. Eventually, as a reward for his services during the war, the son and heir of Lord Yu, leader of the Munhwa Yu clan in the north, was selected by Yung-Jun for marriage. What he didn't know was that Lord Yu had converted to Christianity as well, which was indicative of the North becoming a stronghold for the Christians, and so, Yeonghye inevitably was baptized into her husband's religion. Slowly, Yung-Jun started to become more open to Christianity, but knowing that the yangban and other sections of the country were not receptive to the Christians, he couldn't give his seal of approval.

Nevertheless, the main line of the Jeonju Yi royal family was strengthened because of Yung-Jun, which was on the brink earlier in the century.

 

[Onedotman]

Shouldn't this thread be moved to the pre-1900 forum?

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

Shouldn't this thread be moved to the pre-1900 forum?

It won't take long before it moves to the 20th century. This is just a buildup (anything 1890s or around that period is a bit tricky to decided upon)

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

In the aftermath of the Second Imjin War, the Japanese established several committees to examine why the war didn't turn out the way they thought it would. The Japanese Army's overreliance on infantry led to severe casualties on the land campaigns, causing them to focus on developing the other branches of the army like the artillery and the cavalry. The Japanese Navy invested in torpedoes, but understood that it needed bigger vessels if it wanted to become more respectable on the world stage. With a portion of the silver obtained from the Qing, they set about acquiring more armaments from abroad and purchasing more vessels to be built in foreign shipyards.

Hope for the Japanese came from an unexpected source. In 1896, the Spanish found themselves running at a loss with a portion of its colonial empire, and they needed a cash infusion in order to make itself on a more stable financial position. However, 1896 was also the year of the Philippines Revolution, meaning that Spain had to devote precious troops and money to put down the uprising. The Japanese gave sanctuary to Filipino rebels fighting against Spanish rule, including Jose Ramos, who had a Japanese wife, and Jose Rizal. The start of the uprising coincided with a visit of the Japanese cruiser Kongo to Manila, and members of the Katipunan approached the captain of the ship in an attempt to negotiate an arms deal with Japan. Naturally, the captain of the Kongo hesitated and awaited orders from Tokyo.

Ito Hirobumi might have been in control of the government after ousting Yamagata, but he had to do something before Yamagata or one of his subordinates tried to move him against him. The revolution provided an opening for Ito, as he could both appease the hawks in the Army and government and strengthen his own position. He thus authorized the Kongo's captain to discretely offload a few crates of Japanese rifles and explosives and provide them to the rebels, which they sent by boat in the dead of night. Ito also approached Jose Ramos and agreed to an arms sale to the rebels. The Spanish discovered Ito's actions and protested, with Ito denying his actions, but Spain responded by blocking all Japanese trade to the Philippines and Spain's European proper. Ito had Admiral Ito Sukeyuki call up the fleet and ordered him to escort Japanese merchant ships with a cruiser and two corvettes. Admiral Ito was apprehensive, as the ships they needed like battleships were still being constructed abroad, but he obeyed. The Spanish Pacific Squadron responded by sending their ships in force, ordering the Japanese ships to turn around. Upon their refusal, the Spanish closed the distance, until one of their gunboats came too close and collided with one of the Japanese corvettes. This resulted in three Japanese sailors falling overboard and drowning.

This was precisely what Ito Hirobumi wanted. Knowing that the Japanese public would not support another war so soon unless they had just cause, the Spanish acted as he had expected. The Spanish ambassador promised financial compensation to the families of the Japanese sailors, but taking a cue from Otto von Bismarck, Ito edited the transcript of the meeting so that both Japan and Spain would feel insulted. The resulting "Yokohama Telegraph" caused outrage in Spain, causing them to declare war on Japan.

Unlike in the Imjin War, Japan had to devote considerable resources to naval operations given the distances involved. They had experience from the Formosa intervention decades earlier, but they were now going against a European power. However, unlike Japan, Spain would have to operate at a greater distance, and their navy had long fallen from grace. From the start, the war would be decided from the seas, as control of the sea meant ultimate control over the archipelago.

Admiral Ito, from his flagship Matsushima, sailed south at the head of the Combined Fleet, and he also was ferrying 30,000 Japanese soldiers as part of an amphibious force. The Combined Fleet outnumbered the Spanish Pacific Squadron, so they had to remain in Manila Bay and unable to effectively repel the Japanese landing on Luzon. Also accompanying the Japanese invasion force was Jose Rizal, who was given five million dollars in Japanese funds. Facing them was around 40,000 Spanish troops, including approximately 16,000 Filipinos, with about 15,000 situated in Manila along with nine artillery guns. However, with the chaos of the revolution, the Filipino soldiers in Spanish service were hesitant at best to fight and openly mutinous at worst.

(similar advances by the Japanese, but against Spain and not the US and not including Formosa and Palau)

(Jose Rizal, the leader of the revolution)

The Japanese Army advanced rapidly on Luzon, marching on Manila with the Combined Fleet moving in parallel to them. The Spanish Council of Commanders, with the exception of the Commander of Subic, felt that no defense of Subic Bay was possible with the state of things, and that the squadron should remain in Manila, positioning in shallow water so that the ships could be run aground to save the lives of the crews as a final resort. The Spanish commander was informed that Admiral Ito's ships had been seen in Subic Ba. As Manila Bay was considered unnavigable at night by foreigners, the Spanish expected an attack the following morning. However, Admiral Ito had been provided with detailed information on the state of the Spanish defenses and the lack of preparedness of the Spanish fleet from Filipino spies. Remembering the lessons learned from against the Joseon Navy, he baited the Spanish fleet into sailing out of Manila Bay with one of his cruisers and a portion of this torpedo boats and corvettes. He specifically ordered those ships to not return fire and had them withdraw in a disorderly fashion. Once the Spanish gave chase and charged forward, Admiral Ito formed an offensive semicircle, bringing the full broadside of his guns from multiple angles against the Spanish ships. The Spanish suffered heavy casualties and three of their cruisers were sunk. Admiral Ito then had his torpedo boats release a salvo, also taking a page from how the Joseon Navy operated, and they sunk more of the Spanish fleet. When the morning rays broke through, only one Spanish transport was still afloat and had received heavy damage, while over a thousand Spanish sailors were dead.

The Battle of Manila Bay effectively gave control of the seas to the Japanese Navy, allowing them unrestricted latitude on how they operated. Admiral Ito wasted no time in sailing into Manila Bay and started bombarding the Spanish garrison. The Japanese Army displayed superior training and had fresh combat experience, both of which allowed them to take San Fernando on Luzon. There, Jose Rizal proclaimed the establishment of Republic of the Philippines, with Japanese soldiers flanking him. The overall Japanese commander on land, General Kuroki Tamemoto, was under orders from Ito Hirobumi to support Rizal but only up to a point. Ito would only support Rizal as long as he supported Japanese interests, but the moment he would act contrary to his expectations, Ito had other plans in place.

Reinforced with 20,000 Filipino rebels, General Kuroki attacked Manila. Also applying a lesson from against the Joseon, he made liberal use of artillery, bombarding the Spanish garrison and had the infantry advance under their cover. Within two days, the Japanese flag flew over Manila, with the Republic's banner flying beneath it. No one knew the larger implication behind this, but a majority of the garrison was taken prisoner, with only the Japanese inclined to treat Spanish soldiers with respect. General Kuroki dined with the Spanish commanders, assuring that they would be treated well and would return home after the war was over.

The Spanish were not ready to give up, so they ordered the Spanish Cuba Squadron to sail around the Cape Horn. Redesignated as the Second Pacific Squadron, they made a stop in the Dutch East Indies to resupply on coal and food. However, Admiral Ito was well-prepared for them. In the battle of the Subic Sea, the Combined Fleet easily sunk the six ships that came from Cuba, effectively ending Spanish naval power forever. With this, the Spanish had no choice but to sue for peace.

The Japanese and Spanish accepted the British as mediators and at the Treaty of Edinburgh in 1897, the Spanish agreed to grant full independence to the Philippines and would pay a war indemnity to Japan while assuming full responsibility for the war. The war indemnity resulted in a net profit for Japan, but the emotional consequences were far more significant, as the uncertain feelings that came from the Imjin War were replaced with the victory over the Spanish. For the first time, the Japanese were able to obtain an overwhelming victory, and against a European power at that. This would send shockwaves across the globe, especially since they believed that Japan was thoroughly humbled against the Joseon.

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

The Japanese wasted no time in increasing control over the Philippines, but they had to do it carefully since they were dealing with a territory just as large as Japan itself, with over 170 different languages and over 180 different ethnic groups spread out over thousands of islands. Ito Hirobumi wanted Admiral Ito as the first Resident-General of the Philippines, as Jose Rizal agreed to a period of Japanese "residency" in which Japan would help with the transition to the Republic and would agree to host a Japanese garrison in the Philippines and give leases on the former Spanish Navy bases to the Japanese Navy, both of which the Japanese would pay to the Republic. Moreover, a Japanese naval officer was preferable for this post, as only the Japanese Navy would be able to maintain effective security over the archipelago.

Admiral Ito declined the post, citing that he had duties to the fleet, so the next candidate was Admiral Kabayama Sukenori. Although not interested in politics, he spoke out harshly against representative democracy and civilian influence on the government. Moreover, he had experience in the Japanese Army as a major general before he changed to the Navy, so he would be able to leverage both Army and Navy assets in eventually keeping control over the Philippines. The plan was to cement Japanese influence over the archipelago over time, turning the Philippines into a base to move further southwards. To do that, the Japanese had to tie the different cultures of the archipelago together, create a common identity, and develop the economy. The Philippines had a developed sector in sugar and had large deposits of gold, copper, silver, and coal, all of which could be used to fuel Japan's economy. In order to do that, there had to be large-scale reforms to reverse the economic decline that the Spanish experienced. Therefore, Admiral Kabayama and his team of advisors, working behind the scenes, cemented Rizal's hold over power as President of the Republic. They had to rebuild and expand the bureaucracy from the ground up, and they had to devote much energy to building up a viable infrastructure. To pull all that off, they needed to direct investment into areas deemed as priorities, so the zaibatsu like Mitsubishi and Yasuda were allowed unrestricted access to the country while following directions from the Resident-General. Such control over the entrepreneurs would not be possible in mainland Japan, but the Philippines was in desperate need for development, and it was outside Japanese proper.

The hardest part was land reforms, as the Japanese had to replace the traditional Spanish-dominated landholders with their own while also making all other reforms possible. Naturally, the Japanese sought to empower the Japanese immigrants already in the archipelago, descendants of Catholics who fled Japan, citing their common language and heritage. However, there was simply not enough of them. To this end, they had to coopt the Chinese immigrant groups, the only ones with enough experience to handle economic affairs and could be made beholden to Japan. Previously, Spanish authorities restricted the activities of the Chinese immigrants and confined them to the Parían near Intramuros. With low chances of employment and prohibited from owning land, most of them engaged in small businesses or acted as skilled artisans to the Spanish colonial authorities. Also, the Spanish authorities differentiated the Chinese immigrants into two groups: Parían (unconverted) and Binondo (converted). Many immigrants converted to Catholicism and due to the lack of Chinese women, intermarried with indigenous women and adopted Hispanized names and customs. The children of unions between indigenous Filipinos and Chinese were called Mestizos de Sangley or Chinese mestizos, while those between Spaniards and Chinese were called Tornatrás. The Chinese population originally occupied the Binondo area although eventually they spread all over the islands, and became traders, moneylenders and landowners.

To win their support, the Japanese through the Rizal government eliminated all restrictions on the Chinese, allowing them to expand their political and economic clout throughout the country. Through subtle measures, the Japanese also established a hierarchy, where the Japanese immigrant communities (both already in the Philippines and those arriving from Japan itself) would be favored while the Chinese would be empowered but underneath them. The Japanese also had to promise freedom of religion, as they could not afford to alienate the mostly Catholic archipelago. However, to firmly establish a Japanese-influenced elite, Admiral Kabayama persuaded Tokyo to establish a special school in Japan proper, where those willing to work with the Japanese would be educated in Japanese customs, language, and history and also be allowed to attend Japanese universities.

Admiral Kabayama, despite his army background, resisted the Army's attempts to expand the number of garrisons in the Philippines, citing that it would cost too much money and cause misunderstandings with the local populations that they could not afford to have. Instead, he compromised by persuaded Rizal to establish the Republic Constabulary, a police force to be held responsible for the Republic Police Affairs Bureau, which also had quasi-judicial functions, including the power to issue ordinances and to regulate business licenses, construction permits, industrial safety and public-health issues, in addition to its criminal-investigation and public-order functions. The centralized police system steadily acquired extra functions, with the intention of controlling almost all aspects of daily life, including fire prevention and the mediation of labor disputes. It was modeled after the Japanese system, and Japanese veterans were allowed to shed their uniforms and take positions in the Police Bureau the next day. The constabulary would be mostly staffed by native Filipinos, who would be trained in Japanese Army officers. The more talented ones would be allowed to train in Japan and occupy lower-management positions, but all supervisor and upper management positions would be occupied by Japanese and Chinese immigrants.

Rizal also agreed to have a new currency established, which would be circulated by the mostly Japanese-staffed Central Bank of Manila. While it wiped away more of the Spanish influence, it allowed the Japanese greater control over the economy.

By the time Admiral Kabayama's tenure as Resident-General of the Philippines ended in 1900, the Philippines was a dramatically different place. Railroads, ports, and telegraph lines were being constructed, and a new social structure took place.

(Members of the Republic Constabulary during the establishment years)

(Admiral Kabayama Sukenori, first Resident-General of the Philippines, 1897-1900)

Despite the international community acquiescing to Japan getting influence in the Philippines, they viewed their actions after the Treaty of Edinburgh with suspicion. One nation that felt the most threatened by Japan was the Netherlands, as the Philippines was too close to the Dutch East Indies. In the high age of imperialism, an Asian power having suddenly obtained a new and large territory so close to a European one was seen as a threat. The Dutch didn't want the Japanese to inspire local resistance, not while they were close to completing the subjugation over Bali, the last portion of their archipelago.

Sharing their concerns was France. Having grown to distrust the Japanese after the Second Imjin War, the French saw the expansion of Japanese military power through the Philippines as a threat against Indochina. Their Far East Squadron was inferior to the Japanese Navy, but there were larger currents underway. Ever since their defeat at the hands of the Germans in 1871, the French Third Republic had sought vengeance against Germany. While their alliance with Russia gave them a very useful partner against the Germans, France sought to restore her national pride and looked outwards. They expanded from their holdings in French Indochina, incorporating Annam and Tonkin into their empire.

Only one year after the Japanese victory over Spain, Ito Hirobumi approached the Russians. The Russians were concerned about Japanese designs on the Asian mainland, with their defeat of Spain as proof of their capabilities. So, they came to an understanding with the Japanese, and this was only possible due to the assassination of Alexander III, along with his chief advisor Konstantin Pobedonostsev, by the revolutionary group People's Will. Nicholas II lacked the clout his father had and had more pressing matters to attend to at home. That left only the French, who sought expand to Taiwan. This was unacceptable to Japan, as it would bring France too close to Japanese territory, and this caused anti-French antipathies to spread.

The French established a fortified base and port in Hanoi, the capitol of Tonkin. They also moved more of their navy to the Far East, reinforcing their presence from Indochina. This was interpreted by the Japanese as a move against them, causing the Japanese Combined Fleet to move closer. Eventually, the French started to establish patrols around Taiwan, their intent made clear, and the Japanese had to respond. Ito Hirobumi was very much cautious, as he was not confident that Japan would be able to fight France, so he and the French ambassador agreed upon a certain boundary in the East China Sea where the French Navy couldn't cross. But with France seeking expansion, they tested the Japanese resolve, inching closer to the boundary.

Meanwhile, the Japanese military prepared for a conflict with either France or the Netherlands, but it was not confident with either because France was the number two colonial power and the Dutch East Indies would stretch their capabilities to absolute limit. Thus, they had to bide their time before their new ships would be included and the armies would be expanded and readied.

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

Under the two-term presidency of James Blaine, the United States adopted a more active foreign policy, particularly towards Latin America. This led to more investment in the armed forces as a result, with the Navy getting special attention and "War Plan Red," formed for a potential conflict with Britain, being treated as a serious exercise. However, Blaine's policies to benefit the black population earned him many enemies in the South, and he also received backlash from farmers for his focus on free trade with Latin America, seen as benefiting big business. As a result, the Republicans lost the 1892 elections and James B. Weaver, an Iowa Congressman from the populist faction of the Democrats, entered the White House.

Weaver advocated for reforms like the institution of bimetallism and the nationalization of railroads. He also instituted policies that would benefit yeoman farmers, a class he came from. Southern Democrats were pleased that he was not for the further empowerment of the blacks, but Blaine's actions left them with more political and economic leverage since they were encouraged to be communal farmers and leading to more wealth acquisition. On top of that, Blaine filling the Supreme Court with liberal judges was crucial since the Court ruled against "separate but equal" in Plessy vs Ferguson. As a consequence, Weaver oriented himself to foreign policy after getting dissatisfied with his domestic ambitions not getting far enough.

When the Venezuela Crisis started, Weaver adopted a strict interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine and deployed the USS Indiana and USS Raleigh to support the Venezuelans. The British government was alarmed and deployed two battleships and two cruisers in response. During the tense standoff, USS Raleigh mistook the intentions of British torpedo boat HMS Jason as hostile, firing on it and sinking it. The British responded by attacking the Raleigh, crippling it and forcing the captain to surrender.

Negotiations over the crisis broke down once word of the naval clash reached both the US and the British governments. Weaver couldn't afford to look weak, so he ordered more ships to Venezuela and authorized commerce raiders to plunder British shipping. The Royal Navy responded by sending more of their vessels to the Atlantic, where they were able to fend off the smaller American navy. Nonetheless, the Americans proved adept at commerce raiding, seizing a total of one hundred million pounds sterling in cargo.

Eventually, the US and British governments settled on the Venezuelan issue, allowing for a neutral nation to arbitrate between them. Lord Salisbury was dissatisfied with how it all turned out, as it showed the British Empire was unable to fully overtake the Americans. But in America, this showed that the country was very much vulnerable and antipathy towards the UK reached new highs. Weaver now had to commit to a further expansion of the military and adopt a more proactive foreign policy.

Meanwhile, the Germans silently watched. Once peace was concluded, advisors around Kaiser Wilhelm saw an opportunity to persuade the Americans to enter closer relations with Germany, given that the Americans were a useful counterbalance against the British and they needed another partner with the Franco-Russian alliance in full swing. The Kaiser was pleased, and the Germans sent out feelers to the US. Weaver, needing to shore up his position, accepted the offer for closer relations with the Germans.

---

The Franco-Russian Alliance placed Germany in a quandary. Now with two powerful nations on both sides, the Germans were faced with the probability of a two-front war. On top of that, relations with the British were tense, particularly with the ascension of Kaiser Wilhelm’s Uncle Bertie as King Edward VII onto the throne.

The Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy was not sufficient to offset the growing threat of the French, Russians, and the British. This caused the Germans to observe the brief naval exchange between the British and the Americans closely. The Germans were initially dismissive of the Americans, but with their vast resources, large population, and growing industrial output, their performance against the Royal Navy changed opinion at the German court. Wilhelm II wanted to expand Germany’s presence in the world and undertake an ambitious naval scheme, and he became convinced that America was the answer to Germany’s economic and political constraints.

Through the American ambassador in Berlin, President Weaver answered Wilhelm’s request for a diplomatic summit between their nations. The German ambassador in the US signed an exclusive trade agreement with America, making Germany have “most favored nation” status. American bankers also gave German industrial firms large lines of credit, allowing them to be more ambitious in their businesses. The Germans and the Americans also reached an agreement over Samoa, with the Germans agreeing to sell Samoa to the US in exchange for regular port visits for their navy. The Americans received military and technical assistance from the Germans, from their shipbuilding to industrial output, and this would prove decisive for America’s armament schemes.

To highlight the importance that Germany was placing on closer bonds with America, Kaiser Wilhelm sent his cousin Alfred to the continent. Alfred was the only son of his Uncle Affie, or Prince Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia. As it was expected he would one day inherit the ducal throne of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Alfred was raised primarily in Germany. Separated from his family, he reeved a strict German education and alter serves as an officer in the Prussian 1st Foot Guards in Potsdam. But unlike many of his relatives, he did not enjoy military life. Shortly after his father became the new duke, he was married to Duchess Elsa of Wurttemberg and he would have five children with her: Alfred, Victoria, Leopold (after his uncle Leopold), Adelaide, and Elisabeth.

(Beatrice of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Alfred of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and his wife, Duchess Elsa of Württemberg)

There were other reasons why Wilhelm chose his cousin to represent Germany in America. Alfred got into a lot of trouble while in the army, as his chief hobbies were gambling, drinking, and womanizing. However, he caused a major scandal after he was caught having an affair with Louise Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg. As both were already engaged, with Louise’s fiancée being Prince Eduard of Anhalt, this caused even Alfred’s regularly absent father to intervene. His mother and father did damage control with the Duke of Anhalt and their future in-laws in Wurttemberg, and Alfred was punished by being sent to the fortress of Mainz, a backwater post in the German army. In a rare moment of consideration, Affie traveled to his son in Mainz. No one knows what they discussed over the next three days as found in the visiting records of the fortress, but after his father departed, Alfred became a disciplined man, finally taking his duties seriously and showing incredible zeal in Mainz’s expansion while he worked to have a happy marriage with Elsa.

Pleased with his cousin’s improved character, Wilhelm decided that the trip to America would be a good way to inaugurate his true entry to the world and also showcase the benefits of a German-influenced society. Alfred arrived in New York Harbor, finding large crowds waiting to meet him and Elsa, who was now pregnant. Basking in their adulation, he dined and socialized with many of New York’s elite, and he developed a rapport with those like William Kissam Vanderbilt (father-in-law to the Duke of Marlborough) and Leonard Jerome (grandfather to Winston Churchill). He traveled down to Washington, DC, where he dined with President Weaver in the White House. Invited as a guest to travel on the intercontinental railroad, he became the first German royal to travel to San Francisco, continuing his dining and socializing. The vastness of America deeply impressed Alfred, and passing through cities like Chicago allowed him to appreciate the country’s potential. From San Francisco, he boarded a German vessel waiting for him, after which he sailed across the Pacific and visited Japan, being received by the Meiji Emperor. He then travelled to the Philippines, British India, Ceylon, Egypt, and Italy before making his way back to Germany. The trip being a great success, Alfred was welcomed back with much fanfare. He then transferred his commission to the burgeoning Imperial German Navy, where he would eventually become an admiral like his father before him.

The British, on the other hand, observed Alfred’s trip with considerable alarm. Now faced with the possibility of a strong America influenced by Germany, they acknowledged that should a full scale war break out between them, Canada would not be able to withstand any advance from the south. King Edward hoped that the election of President Weaver's successor, Republican William Allison, would allow an opening for strong ties with America. Allison’s pro-business leanings did make him more sympathetic to the British, but as someone who made his career being a moderate, he was elected to offset the populist schemes pursued by Weaver. Regarding foreign policy, the business landscape in America changed to become friendlier to Germany than to Britain, so Allison was no more inclined to fix relations with the British. Consequently, the British had to face the possibility of potentially fighting a major war across several continents, where even their navy would be hard pressed.

 

[Anarch King of Dipsodes]

However, Blaine's policies to benefit the black population earned him many enemies in the South, and he also received backlash from farmers for his focus on free trade with Latin America, seen as benefiting big business.

In this period, US business interests generally favored high protective to benefit manufacturers. The great issue dividing the parties was the money supply, with Republicans favoring the deflationary gold standard, and Democrats and Populists favoring monetary expansion by increased coinage of silver.

As a result, the Republicans lost the 1892 elections and Marion Butler, a North Carolina Democrat from the populist wing of the party, entered the White House.

Butler was born in 1863. He would be much too young to serve as President (the minimum age is 35).

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

In this period, US business interests generally favored high protective to benefit manufacturers. The great issue dividing the parties was the money supply, with Republicans favoring the deflationary gold standard, and Democrats and Populists favoring monetary expansion by increased coinage of silver.

Butler was born in 1863. He would be much too young to serve as President (the minimum age is 35).

In the context of President Blaine, who would be more open to free trade within reason of protectionism, that's what I went for, especially when they're getting more interventionist in Latin America than OTL.

Granted on the age. I edited to James B. Weaver, the Congressman from Iowa.

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

Ito Hirobumi was raised to the rank of prince, the highest in the Japanese kazoku peerage, for helping arrange the victory over Spain. However, if he wanted to permanently ensure that his faction would remain in control and further delay Army officers led by those like Yamagata from making a comeback, he had to secure a larger major victory over another European power, and France offered that chance. Starting from late 1905, eight years after the Treaty of Edinburgh, he was less apprehensive about a prospect of a conflict with France, confident in Japan's chances once the Japanese Navy obtained the battleships that they ordered and incorporated them into the fleet.

However, it would not be France that Japan would fight next, but rather the Netherlands. Realizing that they were in a strategically vulnerable position in relation to the Philippines, the Dutch started to invest heavily in their navy. They spared no expense when it came to acquiring vessels like destroyers, cruisers, and especially battleships. Given their expertise in international finance, the Dutch were able to put together the resources necessary to build up their fleet strength, which had declined and was in serious need for modernization. They even had to order new vessels to be constructed in British and French shipyards as well as their own, so that they would be able to obtain a large fleet in a short amount of time. A series of naval measures passed by the Dutch legislature aimed to increase the Navy's strength to at least eight battleships, twelve cruisers, and twenty destroyers by 1912. While the Dutch started naval modernization schemes from the early 1890s, the growing threat from Japan forced them to accelerate and expand the scope of such. The Dutch cited the growing domestic tensions among the Dutch East Indies as a justification for such a dramatic increase.

The Dutch also had to increase their army, not just to effectively respond to any crisis on the European continent, but to adequately defend their colonial empire, especially against Japan. The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army only had about 20,000 men stationed there, with only a minority coming from Europe. If the Dutch hoped to fight off a Japanese invasion, they needed at least 30,000 troops coming straight from the Netherlands and many more recruited from native populations in the East Indies. It was against the law to send Dutch conscripts from the Netherlands to the East Indies, so the kingdom had to send much of their regular units from Europe to the East Indies while relying more on conscripts formed into new units in the Netherlands itself. This was only a stopgap, to provide adequate training and garrisoning for the East Indies until the East Indies Army was sufficiently manned. The scheme would not be rendered fully complete until 1913.

The Japanese kept watch on the Dutch military developments and consequently, Japanese military attaches throughout Europe were now focused on collecting as much intelligence as possible from Amsterdam. Unlike the Spanish, the Dutch had a legitimate naval tradition, and the Japanese were apprehensive because they expected the Dutch to simply take out loans or do whatever was necessary to keep them financially capable in conducting a war. The Japanese Navy would naturally have to take the lead in any conflict with the Dutch, but they also had to cooperate with the Army since they would do the hard work of actually fighting throughout the islands after landing. As such, the Japanese strategy for such a conflict would be to first sink the small Dutch squadron operating from Java and seize as much territory in the Dutch East Indies as possible before the main Dutch battle fleet arrived from Europe. The geography of the Dutch East Indies presented unique obstacles, the very ones that made the Japanese take less direct approaches in controlling the Philippines. To be able to move quickly throughout the Dutch East Indies required the Navy operating smaller craft while ferrying Army troops quickly to any of the islands. Unlike the Philippines, the Japanese could not rely on a revolutionary movement to facilitate their operations since the Dutch East Indies was merely a collection of smaller kingdoms that was conquered over the course of centuries by the Dutch.

The Dutch had to buy time, something that Japan was also doing since they needed more of the ships that they ordered but had not yet arrived. The Dutch were not interested in negotiating with Japan, their key area of contention being the boundary between the waters of the Philippines and the East Indies. Dutch and Japanese patrols were a regular sight, but tensions were increasing between Amsterdam and Tokyo, both of them seeking to be dominant maritime empires. Eventually, a Japanese vessel, a destroyer in this case, exploded while making a port call in Batavia. The Japanese insisted on sending their representatives to investigate, but the Dutch dragged their heels and delayed them. Rumor spread that the destroyer hit a Dutch mine, and it didn't help that the Dutch was not using respectful language to Japanese diplomats in Amsterdam, not understanding the niceties that the Japanese were used to. Eventually, Tokyo recalled its ambassador from Amsterdam and war was eventually declared.

 

[KingSweden24]

Interesting start! I enjoy the focus on Korea, I’ll be watching this move forward

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

Interesting start! I enjoy the focus on Korea, I’ll be watching this move forward

Thank you so much for that. Korea will have an interesting role in the 20th century

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

As they had planned, the Japanese Navy moved quickly to strike at the small Dutch naval squadron based out of Batavia. The Dutch squadron commander knew that he had no chance in fighting against the Japanese, so he had his ships drop anchor without leaving the docks and had coastal artillery aimed outward, so as to deter any aggressive action against Batavia. What he wanted was to delay the Japanese and pin them down until the main Dutch fleet arrived. Part of the fleet was already in Ceylon, doing a goodwill tour around British India, and they were ordered to cancel the tour and turn back to Batavia.

Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō, the overall commander of the Combined Fleet, had under his command five battleships, thirty cruisers, and over twenty destroyers. However, rather than try to wipe out the Dutch fleet in one decisive action like against the Spanish in Manila Bay, Admiral Togo realized that he had to use the geography of the Dutch East Indies to his advantage. That meant extending the battle areas to over hundreds of square miles, dividing up the fleet into more mobile units to ferry the Army to wherever they had to attack, while the main force with the battleships and most of the cruisers would remain under Togo's direct command. The goal was to wear down the Dutch and keep them guessing on where the Japanese would strike next. Like at Manila Bay, the Japanese wanted to bait the Dutch and suck them further into the East Indies, but they had to be prepared to sacrifice some of their vessels if it meant that the Dutch would become more aggressive. It would also accomplish the other goal of taking as much territory as they could before the Dutch arrived in force.

The Japanese Army, under the command of General Kodama Gentaro, found themselves tested like never before. They had to be mobile over various waterways and also maximize firepower quickly as they could on the enemy. Until they could get a foothold on the East Indies, any supplies had to be ferried from the Philippines, which was treacherous in itself since the weather patterns in that part of the Pacific was unpredictable during the summer, the season in which the Japanese expected to be active the most. And unlike the war against Spain, Japan had to devote more of its military strength to subjugate the East Indies, 600,000 men in total, but this was something that Japan could manage. However, the Dutch legislature had to temporarily suspend the law that made it impossible for conscripts to be sent to the East Indies, while Queen Wilhelmina declared a state of emergency and called on her fellow Dutchmen to volunteer. While the Dutch Army was eventually raised to 200,000 men, they were mostly inexperienced and only a portion could actually be sent to the East Indies.

(Mikasa, the flagship of the Combined Fleet under the command of Admiral Togo)

Throughout the entire war, the Japanese had the advantage in speed and numbers. The Dutch colonial troops adapted by not engaging the Japanese in a close fight, and instead used the geography of the East Indies to slow them down. The Dutch commanders understood that they were outgunned, so they had to use the jungles throughout the islands for cover and concealment. Indeed, the Japanese Army found their progress frustrated not just by the guerrilla tactics that the Dutch adopted, but the problems inherent in jungle warfare like disease and deadly wildlife began to take its toll. In fact, most of the Japanese casualties were attributed to malaria, something that the Japanese were not prepared for.

Eventually, the main Dutch fleet set sail from the Netherlands, with 4 battleships, 8 cruisers, 11 destroyers, and other auxiliary vessels, which carried 60,000 reinforcements. The Dutch commander was well-aware that he was facing an experienced foe and so, he adjusted his strategy accordingly. The Dutch Navy would land attempt to land at Sumatra, the closest island that they could land without facing the Japanese Navy. The auxiliary vessels would land the troops and escort them while the Dutch would attempt an overland advance before getting back on the vessels and marching to Batavia. Even the Dutch commanders knew that such a plan would eventually face unforeseen factors and they had to move fast before their vessels were intercepted while making the transit to Java.

Admiral Togo was aware of the Dutch progress and understood what their objectives were, but he chose to wait until the time was right. Therefore, he allowed the Dutch to land the reinforcements at Banda Aceh, and still waited after the fleet crossed the straight of Malacca. The fleet would have to stop for refuel and resupply at Surabaya, and that was where he chose to do battle.

Togo brought four battleships, twenty-five cruisers, and over fifteen destroyers, leaving a part of the fleet to maintain the blockade at Batavia. Even though his crews were more experienced, the Dutch brought relatively brand-new ships, so Togo couldn't be sure if he would be able to win decisively. He had to bait them out, so like at Manila, he had a few of his cruisers and destroyers sally forth and open fire on the Dutch. The Dutch, having studied Manila Bay in close detail, responded by launching a torpedo spread. One Japanese destroyer was sunk and the others had to turn sharply to avoid being hit. The Dutch battleships returned fire as they did, causing one Japanese cruiser to become dead in the water after a Dutch shell pierced through the stern and broke both of its shafts.

Togo expected to take losses, so he had his ships steam closer to unleash their own salvo. The Japanese gunners were able to hit their targets accurately, demonstrating their experience from the previous wars, but the Dutch vessels were well-armored and able to absorb hits. Moreover, two of the Dutch battleships were equipped with 13-inch guns, allowing them a slight range advantage over the Japanese. The Japanese were equipped and manned for quicker fire than their Dutch counterparts. In contrast, the Dutch ships had better optical equipment and rangefinding and were much better compartmentalized and able to deal with damage.

But, the Japanese were more appreciative of the power of the torpedoes, the short experience with the Joseon Navy having scared them enough to invest in their own torpedo developments. The Japanese, using the cover of their battleships' guns, advanced close enough to do another torpedo spread, and they were able to sink four of Dutch destroyers and two of the cruisers. The Dutch returned the favor by sinking some of the ships that managed to launch the torpedoes. The Dutch finally charged forth, getting confident that the Japanese suffered enough damage.

That was what Admiral Togo was waiting for. As the Dutch sailed forward, Togo formed a semicircle to cover all angles, but the Dutch formed a battle column to negate the Japanese advantage. Togo then had to risk everything by getting closer, using both gunfire and torpedoes to cause as much damage as possible. The Dutch didn't expect for Togo to be so willing to take losses, causing them some pause, and that was all that Togo needed. Finally, Togo raised the signal, taking another cue from the Joseon Navy at Ulsan and cutting into the Dutch battle column. At close range, the Japanese tore into the Dutch ships and caused significant damage. The Dutch formed up and retreated back to Surabaya. But the Japanese were unable to maintain the chase and had to sail away.

The Battle off Surabaya was a clear Japanese victory, but it came at great cost: five destroyers and three cruisers had been sunk. After the battle, Togo held a ceremony aboard his flagship, honoring the dead and reminding his officers that they had no time to celebrate.

(Admiral Togo raising the "Z" flag at the Battle off Surabaya)

The Dutch continued to advance southwards on Sumatra, but these were new arrivals from Europe and they succumbed to the same dangers that the Japanese were experiencing. By the time that they did make it to the auxiliary vessels, they lost five thousand men to disease and many more were too sick to fight. Moreover, Sumatra was filled with tribes that were hostile to Dutch rule and were more inclined to fight them. Alongside disease, morale was low among the Dutchmen.

The Japanese decided to lift the blockade of Batavia, deeming the Dutch reinforcements as a higher priority. From the sea, they bombarded their positions and sunk most of the auxiliary vessels. Landing north of them, the Japanese charged forward and simply swept the Dutch aside. Eventually, the Japanese took 50,000 prisoners and killed 5,000 Dutch, most of the prisoners in need of medical assistance. More died while under Japanese care since they simply didn't have the medicine or the facilities necessary to treat them, resulting in only 40,000 returning to the Netherlands alive.

When news of the Dutch defeat at Surabaya and Sumatra reached Europe, there was even more shock. In their heyday, the Dutch had an empire that rivaled the British, and they could still prosecute the war because of finances. However, the Dutch needed to maintain their strength in response to growing tensions in Europe and the public was demanding peace, so the Dutch legislature had to acquiesce. The British and French were against the Japanese getting control over the Dutch East Indies, but in this period, Japan would receive unexpected help from the United States.

The United States was openly against imperialism and watched as the Japanese humbled the Dutch, notwithstanding their acquisition over the entirety of the New Guinea after the Germans sold it to them and opening for the entire island to be controlled by the Americans. The Japanese agreed for New Guinea to be under US control in exchange for their support, and the US asked Germany for help. Kaiser Wilhelm was apprehensive given his discriminatory views on Asians, but if he wanted to continue making America into a Germany ally, he had to give his assistance. The British backed off, apprehensive about Canada, and the French took more convincing.

The Belgians agreed to mediate. At the Treaty of Brussels in 1908, the Dutch agreed to withdraw from the East Indies, but only after the Japanese paid them $30 million for all the infrastructure that the Dutch laid down. The Japanese had no one to give them that much cash, so they turned to a nation that was only reluctant to give them a loan: Joseon. By this point, Joseon was slowly becoming the center for all banking in Asia, with British and American bankers laying the groundwork for such after they both needed a stable country to conduct their business while in Asia and outside their jurisdiction. The Bank of Hanseong, named after the capital, agreed to give a loan in exchange for the Japanese agreeing to respect Korean claims on fishing rights and certain islands in between Japan and Joseon. Ito Hirobumi chose to be pragmatic, as Japan was near bankruptcy and they suffered too many casualties than they had expected, so he took the loan.

By the time the ink dried on the documents in Brussels, the Japanese suffered 100,000 dead, the majority from disease, and they were stretched almost to the breaking point. And the challenge of turning the East Indies into a territory under Japanese control would prove more difficult than in the Philipines. However, this was the victory that Ito was looking for, and he could sit down and finally relax. From the moment the black ships arrived in Edo to the Treaty of Brussels, Japan became a major world power.

(I believe that the Dutch presented a more serious challenge for Japan than Russia, because while the Dutch didn't offer much in terms of military power, they would be able to give Japanese a black eye in a war. The Dutch are not that stupid to devote all of their strength to fight against Japan, but the Japanese would find themselves more challenged as a empire builder than OTL)

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

(Napoleon IV as a young officer in the British Army)

Even though France prepared for a war with Japan, it would not be able to have the chance to do so in the years immediately following the Treaty of Brussels. Despite the loss of Georges Boulanger in the 1889 elections, his ideas were still resonant among French society. The Japanese victories over Spain and the Netherlands caused insecurities to spread among the French people, as Indochina was now very much likely to be targeted by Japan and this was a step too far for the French psyche. The Dreyfus Affair only made things worse, as the French started to feel smaller than after their defeat by Germany in 1871 and the traditional anti-Semitism and the new revanchism against Germany morphed into widespread xenophobia. Combining this, nationalism and agitation from the working classes started to cause chaos around the country.

Eventually, protests started to emerge throughout the cities, attacking anything deemed "Oriental" or associated with France's enemies. The army was sent to restore order, but after they opened fire in Paris, it looked as if the country would descend into anarchy. France's Third Republic imploded as shootouts broke out between the loyalists and protestors who now seized armories, and the government had no choice but to call for a plebiscite. The Bonapartists, still strong amongst society, were able to take control and they invited Louis-Napoleon, Prince Imperial, to become the new Emperor of the French.

Napoleon IV's formative years coincided with France's defeat by the Germans, his father's exile in England, and the increasingly tense political atmosphere of Europe. The prince attended elementary lectures in physics at King's College London. He applied and was accepted to the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. He finished seventh in his class of thirty-four and came top in riding and fencing. He then served for a time with the Royal Artillery at Aldershot.

During the 1870s, there was some talk of a marriage between him and Queen Victoria's youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice. Queen Victoria herself believed that "the peace of Europe" depended on the prince became Emperor of France. The prince remained a devout Catholic, and he retained hopes that the Bonapartist cause might eventually triumph if the secularizing Third Republic failed, so the marriage didn't happen. Instead, he was married to Infanta María del Pilar of Spain, who joined him in England, a match supported by his mother Empress Eugenie and Queen Isabella II. They would have six children together: Napoleon, Louis, Marie, Isabella, Joseph, and Catherine.

Napoleon initially applied to join the British Army during the war with the Zulu, but he was denied after Empress Eugenie maneuvered to prevent his deployment. But he was allowed to accompany the British during the Anglo-Egyptian War. Present at Alexandria and severely wounded at the battle of Tell El Kebir, there were great fears of his death, but he survived his wounds and was mentioned in despatches. Frustrated at being stuck in desk assignments and getting tired of socializing with the British elites, Napoleon applied for a transfer to the Royal Indian Artillery. This was unacceptable, as no ranking European royal ever joined the Indian Army on a permanent basis. But the British compromised by finding him a regiment posted to India. There, he served as an artillery officer during the Third Anglo-Burmese War, ensuring the safe transport of the army's artillery train through the dense jungle. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for this.

He then became aide-de-camp to Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, when he was commander of the Bombay Army in India from 1886 to 1890. The Bonapartes grew to love India, socializing with the upper crust at Shimla and with other Indian princes. Napoleon participated in campaigns along the North-West Frontier, to include the Chitral Expedition, where he was also mentioned in despatches. He was transferred to Egypt, where he accompanied Herbert Kitchener during the subjugation of Sudan. He was the one of the few officers who actually got along with Kitchener, with the former impressed with Kitchener's battle abilities and the latter being a Francophile and speaking fluent French. They would remain good friends long after the campaign in Sudan concluded.

His final active service was during the Second Boer War, where he was again wounded. However, it was during the conflict that Napoleon grew to have negative feelings towards the Americans. Never forgetting the Americans' embarrassing his father in Mexico and after the Americans started to become more involved in Liberia, the Americans protested British heavy-handedness in the conflict and threatened to cut off all trade with the UK. By now, the Germans were also heavily involved in Africa and regarding the Boers, and they and the Americans had common interests. The British, not wishing a repeat of the Venezuela crisis, agreed to negotiate with the Boers, resulting in a federation of South Africa while Paul Kruger and his faction became dominant. Napoleon was present during the negotiations and found it all dishonorable when the British had all the military advantages.

By 1907, Napoleon was a full colonel in the British Army, having good combat experience and having seen a good portion of the world. He was back in England, as an officer with the Household Guard, a post arranged for him by King Edward at the behest of the Bonapartists. When the Third Republic collapsed, Napoleon was invited back and was crowned Emperor. Despite his British education and experience, he proved to be no liberal. He immediately started cracking down on subversives and communists. To appease the nationalists, he had Alfred Dreyfus retried and upheld his conviction, but he showed mercy and simply exiled him and his family to the Ivory Coast. He gave the Catholic Church its political benefits back, gaining Rome's support for his reign.

Napoleon put his combat experience to good use. He reformed the army and the navy, introducing military conscription for all men ages 18 to 40 for a period of four years. He invested heavily in the best artillery and rifles for the troops, with particular emphasis on overwhelming firepower on the enemy. He retired many aging French ships, and used the freed up funds to get France truly started on dreadnoughts. Officers who spent time overseas and had seen combat were promoted rapidly through the ranks, and Napoleon had his officers study all recent conflicts to get them up to speed in warfare. Needing an additional pool of recruits, he reached out to Algeria, and he promised benefits to the Algerians in exchange for military service.

Napoleon hosted Russian officers in Paris, fully intending on continuing the Franco-Russian alliance. He made a visit to St. Petersburg, where he spoke at great lengths with Tsar Nicholas II. After he returned to Paris, the French Navy made regular trips to the Baltic Sea while French shipyards were contracted to make Russian vessels.

Napoleon fully intended on taking on Germany, and he was forced to come to terms with the Japanese over Indochina. Using his British connections, he was able to make a closer pact with London, very much helped by his rapport with King Edward. All of this very much alarmed Germany, as another war with France was judged to happen inevitably.

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

The Treaty of Hanoi resulted in the Qing losing a portion of its treasury, but the aftereffects of the war with Japan were greater than the court having to part with silver. Everyone at court was well-aware that Joseon achieved many of the victories against Japan, on land and sea, and that the Chinese were still very much vulnerable despite the many stages of reform that took place. Like during the days of their old predecessors, the Qing were going through the later stages of the dynastic cycle, in which their time as rulers over China would soon be at an end. The modernization schemes had only resulted in cosmetic changes, but the regional differences were never overcome and the Beiyang Army and Fleet were only two formations belonging to merely one faction in court and throughout the country. With the West and Russia trying to carve up more of China for themselves, and with widespread famine and breakdown of central authority, one had to assume that either the court was blind to the very cycle that brought them to power or chose to ignore it.

In the midst of the chaos, an unexpected figure arose to prominence: Sa Zhenbing. Born in Fuzhou, he attended the Fuzhou Naval Academy, where he made many friends including Deng Shichang, who would serve alongside him during the Second Imjin War. He studied at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich in England, becoming fluent in English and becoming thoroughly trained in Royal Navy tactics. During the Second Imjin War, he served under Admiral Ding Ruchang and was present at such battles like Jeju Island and Ulsan. For his services, both Yi Yung-Jun and his Qing superiors honored him, and like with Admiral Ding was granted the yellow jacket, the highest honor in China.

What Sa didn't expect was that the Confucian-influenced mandarins, long disdainful of the military profession, sought to use the Treaty of Hanoi as proof that the military officers failed and that the country had been led amok by who they called "barbarian sympathizers." Dowager Empress Cixi, also distrustful of the military and losing interest in Li Hongzhang's ideas, decided to crack down on the military and issued secret orders for their purge. Admiral Ding was the first to die, being brought in chains to the court and executed on trumped up charges of corruption. Li Hongzhang was put under house arrest, but not before he sent word out to Sa, who he warned away from Peking. He, along with Admiral Deng, managed to escape to the fleet and sailed southwards. The court declared them mutineers and ordered for their deaths, which meant that Sa only had one choice left: declaring rebellion.

Sa had to get the support of the other fleets, which he managed to do since the other fleet commanders hated the court more than they would distrust him. As for the various armies throughout China, that was a lot less straightforward due to regional divisions. But that would prove useful for him, for such divisions also worked to hamper Qing responses to his uprising. Appointing Admiral Deng as his ground commander, he moved to secure the various ports along the Chinese coast and make his northwards toward Peking, the only way that he could force a resolution on the Qing court.

On land, Deng faced the remnants of the Beiyang Army under the leadership of Yuan Shikai. But Deng did something unexpected: he took photographs of his body, which showed the scars on his chest from the wounds he sustained at Jeju Island, and he asked the Beiyang soldiers what sacrifices did Yuan make for the country. This was enough to motivate the soldiers, already frustrated with lack of pay and food, to turn on Yuan. He was shot by one of the colonels in the army, who then defected the Beiyang Army to Deng.

The Beiyang Army's defection caused Sa's rebellion to have a realistic chance against the Qing. Provinces started to declare their rebellion against the Qing, mostly in the south. Moreover, their usage of modern tactics and enjoying good discipline ensured that the advance northwards would be smooth. A few armies chose to remain loyal to the Qing, but the Qing then had to devote much of their troops to subjugate a separate rebellion that broke out in Manchuria. Unlike the Taiping Rebellion, there were no outsiders that would help the Qing and the Manchus' hold over China was ended once Sa landed in Tianjin unopposed.

Angered at the betrayal, Li Hongzhang broke out of house arrest and managed to capture both Dowager Empress Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor. Opening the gates to the Forbidden City, Li presented them both to Sa's armies and swore his allegiance to him. For the first year after that, Li held behind-the-scenes power while Sa declared a military caretaker government over China, until he died of natural causes. Sa had the Qing raise him to the rank of duke, and he held power until Empress Cixi died in 1908. Rather than overseeing another Qing succession, Deng, who remained Sa's second-in-command, persuaded him to instead purge the Qing imperial family and become emperor himself. Sa agonized over this, as powerful agitators like Sun Yat-Sen were watching with interest and they could make his rule very complicated.

To test the response to China becoming a republic, he sent out feelers to all the provinces and to especially the British, the latter of whom were nervous at which direction he would take China. The provincial governors, all of them military officers, were against it and the British showed the skepticism to such an idea. Still, Sa invited Sun Yat-Sen, Wang Jingwei, and other agitators that he released from imprisonment to a conference in the Forbidden City. He promised that China would become more constitutional in nature and other reforms in exchange for their support. Sun was especially against another imperial dynasty, but he saw the reality as well. Sa was the only one keeping the country together and if something happened to him, it would be civil war in China. Putting his inclinations aside for the good of the country, Sun arranged for a petition from his compatriots asking Sa to accept the imperial throne. Consequently, Sa became the first ruler of the Sa Dynasty.

(Sa Zhenbing in naval uniform)

While he was coronated in Peking, Deng conducted a purge of the Qing family, indicative of the start of the Sa Dynasty being far from peaceful. Moreover, the Qing lost control over northern territories like in Mongolia and Manchuria, and Sa didn't have the time or the resources to fully subjugate, not while he had to deliver on his promises to establish a Chinese imperial legislature and undertake sweeping reforms. As such, Mongolia and Manchuria fell into disarray, opening them up to complete outside interference.

As promised, Sa established the Imperial Parliament, modeled after the British Parliament, and proclaimed a constitution. But, this was merely a legitimization of the rule of the military governors that Sa empowered, all of whom simply took off their uniforms and adopted civilian dress. Sa understood that his power base was not in the cities like Peking but in the countryside, where the people still held more conservative views. He did as much as he could to limit Sun and the other agitators from getting too much control, deeming China as not ready for a republican experiment. He had to conduct first a land reform, which he knew would invite backlash from the traditional gentry and would have to carried out violently if necessary. But unlike the Qing, Sa appreciated discretion and so, he had Deng, appointed as his Interior Minister, carrying out another purge, this time against the gentry. Instead of killing them, he gave them a chance to support his reforms and keep their privileges. Against the triads, on the other hand, he armed a few thousand soldiers and authorized them to shoot on sight.

Sa would not live to see the reforms' effects, but by the time of his death, the Sa Dynasty held China together as it stood on the brink of civil war and total collapse.

 

[Yi Sun Sin]

Germany sold their portion of New Guinea to the United States for $15 million, which opened the entirety of the island to be taken under US control. Fearing Japanese designs and needing a way to get rid of unprofitable colonies, the Germans also sold the Marshall Islands to the US for another $10 million. This caused less tensions with Japan as a result, while the United States and Japan now had to negotiate where their spheres of influence throughout the Pacific would be. American businessmen still sought to gain access to the Asian markets, and the transition from the Qing to the Sa Dynasty opened up more opportunities for them. Just like how the acquisition of Alaska through peaceful means allowed America to expand and strengthen its strategic position, both New Guinea and the Marshall Islands allowed America to expand its influence through the Pacific, more so after the Dutch had to withdraw from the East Indies.

While Japan possessed a combat-proven navy, the Japanese were not sure if they were ready to fight another war so soon after the one with the Netherlands. Deciding that the former Dutch portion of New Guinea was more trouble than it was worth and that the rest of the East Indies provided enough resources for Japan, the Japanese agreed to acquiesce to America's acquisition of the Marshall Islands as well in exchange for control over the East Indies. That was agreed upon in the Allison-Ito Agreement, where President Allison and Prince Ito met in San Francisco to discuss those matters. However, those territories purchased from the Germans only increased tensions with the British, as American territories were now within range of Australia. The prospect of fighting America throughout the Pacific alongside Canada caused deep anxieties throughout London.

The United States wasted no time in turning New Guinea and the Marshall Islands into bases from which to deploy its growing military. They proceeded to construct ports, railroads, and other infrastructure while exploiting the island's vast resources in gold, copper, silver, and oil. At the same time, the United States sought to develop self-government in New Guinea, so as to avoid the problems that had befallen on other empires. As part of its adaptation to the Pacific, the US established the Asiatic Fleet, which was based in Hollandia. What complicated matters was that the British held a protectorate over British New Guinea, and the Americans had to worry about the Royal Navy sailing forth from Port Moresby and advancing northward.

(New Guinea)

Further north, the Japanese expansion southwards and the chaos preceding and during Qing-Sa transition brought an unexpected benefit for Joseon. Japan had an expanding class of businessmen that became wealthy from Japan's acquisitions, and there was simply too much money for them to handle. Furthermore, those escaping the chaos from the Qing's collapse, particularly Qing officials who brought with them their treasures, sought to keep their wealth hidden. The one place that they could be able to conduct such business but without attracting unwanted attention was Joseon.

The origins of Joseon's banking system started when a British banker doing business in Hong Kong visited Joseon. Seeing the country as ripe for men like himself, he pitched the idea of establishing a bank in Joseon just like the Bank of England before the court. He sought to use the bank to conduct business as he wished without having to deal with British regulators, and Yung-Jun saw an opportunity to use that idea to further safeguard Joseon. As Joseon was poor in resources, establishing a robust banking system in the country was the only logical way for the kingdom to remain a powerful player in Asia. The British banker brought over more men like himself from Hong Kong to conduct business, and Yung-Jun gave permission for such a bank. American bankers doing business in Asia followed suit, providing more investments. The bank's funds were then funneled to fuel Joseon's industry and expand its trading networks. By the time Prince Ito Hirobumi asked for a loan, the Bank of Hanseong was on the rise to become the most robust financial center in all of Asia.

Qing officials fleeing the Sa Dynasty and Japanese businessmen seeking to hide their profits all made deposits in the Bank of Hanseong, the former being granted asylum and the latter agreeing to pay large interest rates. This caused further economic growth in Joseon, and Yung-Jun became more ambitious in his modernization schemes.

(Bank of Hanseong)

With the chaos of the Qing-Sa transition and the breakdown of order in Manchuria, Yung-Jun saw an opportunity to finally settle Joseon's border disputes with China and also expand. He sent forces to the Gando area, and after there was no strong response from the Sa Dynasty, he decided to take a step further and move into the Liaodong Peninsula. The Russians were against it at first, but a combination of enough Russian officials doing business with the Bank of Hanseong and Yung-Jun agreeing not to touch Port Arthur allowed Joseon to expand there as well. Eventually, Joseon's influence spread throughout southern Manchuria.

With the end of the Qing, Yung-Jun decided to take things one step further. The Qing no longer existing, Joseon's role as a tributary state therefore ended. So, Yung-Jun declared himself "Emperor Wonjeong" of the Great Cheon Empire.

The Sa Dynasty naturally sought to respond to Yung-Jun's movements, but they were not able to do so after the Sa emperor had to prioritize domestic development and once Yung-Jun reached the agreement with the Russians over Port Arthur. Additionally, the Cheon emperor developed too many elaborate connections through the Bank of Hanseong, so it was deemed not worth the effort to seriously fight Joseon.

Just like how Japan strengthened itself from when the West showed up at its shores, Joseon did so through a combination of ingenuity and aggressiveness. Once a tributary state, the new Korean empire was a powerhouse in Asia.