The war began in May 1672 when France nearly overran the Dutch Republic, an event still known as the Rampjaar or "Disaster Year"
Background
As part of a general policy of opposition to Habsburg power in Europe, France backed the Dutch Republic during the 1568 to 1648 Eighty Years War against Spain. The 1648 Peace of Münster confirmed Dutch independence and permanently closed the Scheldt estuary, benefiting Amsterdam by eliminating its rival, Antwerp. Preserving this monopoly was a Dutch priority, but this increasingly clashed with French aims in the Spanish Netherlands, which included reopening Antwerp.
William II of Orange's death in 1650 led to the First Stadtholderless Period, with political control vested in the urban patricians or Regenten. This maximised the influence of the States of Holland and Amsterdam, the power base of Johan de Witt, Grand Pensionary from 1653. He viewed his relationship with Louis XIV of France as crucial for preserving Dutch economic power, but also to protect him from his domestic Orangist opponents.
Although France and the Republic concluded an assistance treaty in 1662, the States of Holland refused to support a division of the Spanish Netherlands, convincing Louis his objectives could only be achieved by force. The Dutch received limited French support during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-1667) but increasingly preferred a weak Spain as a neighbour to a strong France.
Shortly after talks to end the Anglo-Dutch War began in May 1667, Louis launched the War of Devolution, rapidly occupying most of the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté.
In July, the Treaty of Breda ended the Anglo-Dutch War, leading to talks between the Dutch and Charles II of England on a common diplomatic front against France. This was supported by Spain and Emperor Leopold, who was also concerned by French expansion. After his first suggestion of an Anglo-French alliance was rejected by Louis, Charles entered the 1668 Triple Alliance, between England, the Republic and Sweden. The Triple Alliance was the diplomatic achievement of the Dutch Republic.
After the Alliance mediated between France and Spain, Louis hand over many of his gains in the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Breda and Aix-la-Chapelle were Dutch diplomatic triumphs, although they also presented significant dangers. It convinced Louis XIV that the Republic, a state form he and many aristocrats could not accept, deprived him of the conquest of the Habsburg Netherlands and Franche-Comté. De Witt himself was well aware of these, but failed to convince his colleagues.
Louis considered the January 1668 Partition Treaty with Leopold confirmation of his right to the Spanish Netherlands, a point reinforced by Aix-la-Chapelle, despite his concessions. He no longer saw the need to negotiate, and decided their acquisition was best achieved by first defeating the Republic.
The conquest of the Spanish Netherlands had also a economic motif. The Flemish cities still had at this time a strong industrial potential and Antwerp was still a trade city with an excellent port. For Jean Babtiste Colbert Antwerp was the main objective. If Antwerp would be French the economic benefits would be very large.
Due to their success at sea the Dutch start to over-estimated their own power. The Anglo-Dutch War was primarily fought at sea, masking the poor state of their army and forts. Deliberately neglected since they were viewed as bolstering the power of the Prince of Orange. The poor stat of the army was exposed by the invasion of the Prince Bishopric of Münster and Electorate of Cologne, Bernhard Von Galen, as and ally of Charles II during the 2nd Anglo-Dutch war. His army invaded and rampaged the Provinces of Overijssel, Parts of Gelre, Drenthe and Groningen. He did this with an army of 20000 mercenaries partly paid with a subsidy of the English king Charles II. The Prince Bishop was halted by the defences of the City of Groningen, but only retreated after a Prussian Army arrived to the aid the Dutch Republic.
The Dutch Navy was rapidly eroded by English and French naval expansion programs.
French Preparations.
In preparation for an attack on the Republic, Louis embarked on a series of diplomatic initiatives, the first being the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover, an Anglo-French alliance against the Dutch. It contained secret clauses not revealed hundred years later, including the payment to Charles of £230,000 per year for providing a British brigade of 6,000. Agreements with the Prince Bishopric of Münster and Electorate of Cologne, Bernhard Von Galen allowed French forces to bypass the Spanish Netherlands, by attacking via the Bishopric of Liège, then a dependency of Cologne. Preparations were completed in April 1672, when Charles XI of Sweden accepted French subsidies in return for invading areas of Pomerania claimed by Brandenburg-Prussia.
Reforms introduced by Louvois, the Secretary of War, helped maintain large field armies that could be mobilised much quicker. This meant the French could mount offensives in early spring before their opponents were ready, seize their objectives, then assume a defensive posture. The army's strength was 180,000 in 1672.
For the attack on the Republic 120,000 men were allocated. This force was split into two main groups; one at Charleroi, under Turenne, the other near Sedan, commanded by Condé. After marching through the Bishopric of Liège, they would join near Maastricht, then occupy the Duchy of Cleves, a possession of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. At the same time 30,000 mercenaries, paid by Münster and Cologne and led by Luxembourg, would attack from the East.
The Dutch defences
The Dutch were poorly prepared for a campaign against France; available funds had mostly been invested in the fleet, at the expense of their land defences.
Most of the Dutch States Army was based in the three southern fortresses of Breda,
's-Hertogenbosch and Maastricht. November 1671, the Council of State reported these as being short of supplies and money, with many fortifications barely defendable due to lack of maintenance. Most units were substantially below strength As Example in June, an officer reported that the official strength of eighteen companies had in reality only a man power strength of four companies.
The French preparations however were not complete concealed. The Dutch were given accurate information on their plans as early as February 1671. These were confirmed by Condé in November and again in January 1672.
Increase of the army budget was now blocked by the Orangist supporters, of now of age Prince William. They refused to approve additional military spending unless William was appointed Captain-General. Obvious this move was opposed by de Witt. Aware of internal English opposition to the Anglo-French alliance, the Dutch relied on the provisions of the Triple Alliance requiring England and the Republic to support each other, if attacked by Spain or France. This assumption was shared by the Parliament of England, who approved funding for the fleet in early 1671 to fulfil its obligations under the alliance. However on 23 March 1672, when acting under orders from Charles, the Royal Navy attacked a Dutch merchant convoy in the Channel. This was nearly a similar incident as in 1664 which triggered the last war with the English.
In February 1672, de Witt agreed by appointing William as Captain-General for a year as a compromise. Quickly after that budgets were approved and contracts issued to increase the army to over 80,000. However assembling these men would take months.
Negotiations with Frederick William of Brandenburg to reinforce Cleves with 30,000 men were delayed by his demands for Dutch-held fortresses on the Rhine, including Rheinberg and Wesel. By the time they reached agreement on 6 May 1672 Frederick William of Brandenburg was occupied with a French-backed Swedish invasion of Pomerania, and could not spare troop to reinforce Cleves. The Maastricht garrison was increased to 11,000. In an attempt to delay the French long enough at the Eastern border cities along the Ijssel river provided 12,000 men from their civil militia, with 70,000 peasants conscripted to build earthworks along this river. These earth works were unfinished when France declared war on 6 April, followed by England on 7 April, using a manufactured diplomatic incident known as the 'Merlin' affair. Münster and Cologne entered the war on 18 May.
The French Offensive
The French offensive began on 4 May 1672 when a division force under Condé left Sedan and marched north along the right bank of the Meuse. The next day, Louis XIV arrived in Charleroi to inspect the main body of 50,000 men under command of Turenne. This was probably one of the most magnificent displays of military power in the seventeenth century. Accompanied by the King in person, Turenne met up with Condé at Visé, just south of Maastricht on 17 May. Supported by Condé, Louis XIV wanted to besiege the fortress of Maastricht immediately but Turenne convinced him it would be folly to allow the Dutch time to reinforce other positions. Instead of besieging Maastricht, Turenne stationed occupying forces of 10000 men at Tongeren, Maaseik and Valkenburg closing of Maastrcht.
The rest of the French army crossed back over the Meuse, then advanced along the Rhine, supported by troops from Münster and the Electorate of Cologne, led by Luxembourg. The Dutch garrisoned forts intended to defend the Rhine crossings were still severely undermanned and poorly equipped. By 5 June, the French had captured Rheinberg, Orsoy and Burick, with minimal resistance. Wesel, perhaps the most important fortress, surrendered when the townspeople threatened to butcher the commanders, followed by Rees on 9 June. Having secured their rear, the bulk of the French army began to cross the Rhine at Emmerich am Rhein. In the mean time Grand Pensionary De Witt was deeply shocked by the news of the catastrophe and concluded apparently saying "the fatherland is now lost”.
Although the situation on land had become critical for the Dutch, events at sea were much more favourable. On 7 June, Dutch Lieutenant-Admiral Michiel de Ruyter attacked the Anglo-French fleet as it took on supplies at Southwold on the English coast. The French squadron under d'Estrées failed to properly coordinate with the English and ended up fighting a separate battle with Lieutenant-Admiral Adriaen Banckert, which led to mutual recriminations between the two allies. Although ship losses were roughly equal, Solebay ensured the Dutch retained control of their coastal waters, secured their trade routes and ended hopes of an Anglo-French landing in Zeeland. Anger at the alleged lack of support from D'Estrées increased opposition to the war, and Parliament was reluctant to approve funds for essential repairs. For the rest of the year, this restricted English naval operations to a failed attack on the Dutch East India Company Return Fleet.
In early June, the Dutch headquarters at Arnhem prepared itself for a French onslaught on the IJssel Line. Only twenty thousand troops could be assembled to block a crossing and a dry spring meant that the river could be forded at many points. Nevertheless, there seemed to be no alternative but to make a last stand at the Ijssel river. However, should the enemy outflank this river by crossing the Lower Rhine into the Betuwe, the field army would fall back to the west to prevent being surrounded and quickly annihilated. The commander of Fort Schenkenschanz protecting the Lower Rhine abandoned his position. When Field Marshal Paulus Wirtz, arrived at Arnhem with his Dutch troops, immediately a force of two thousand horse and foot under was sent out to cover the Betuwe. At arrival they intercepted French cavalry crossing at a ford pointed out to them by a farmer. A bloody encounter fight followed but in this Battle of Tolhuis on 12 June, the Dutch cavalry was eventually overwhelmed by French reinforcements. King Louis XIV personally observed the battle from the Elterberg. Condé was shot through the wrist. In France, this battle was celebrated as a major victory and paintings of the Passage du Rhin have this crossing as their subject, not the earlier one at Emmerich.
Dutch Captain-General William Henry now wanted the entire field army to fall back on Utrecht. However, since 1666 the provinces had regained full sovereignty of their forces, making the State army a true confederate army, this was again a measure to deprive the House of Orange any power base.
In June 1672 Overijssel and Guelders withdrew their troops from the confederated army. The French army made little effort to cut off the escape route of the Dutch field army. Turenne recrossed the Lower Rhine to attack Arnhem, while part of his army moved to the Waal river towards Fort Knodsenburg at Nijmegen. Louis wanted to besiege Doesburg first, on the east side of the IJssel, taking it on 21 June. The king delayed the capture somewhat to allow his brother, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, to take Zutphen some days earlier.
On Louis XIV right flank, the armies of Münster and Cologne, reinforced by a French corps under de Luxembourg, advanced to the North along the river IIssel, after having taken Grol on 10 June and Bredevoort on 18 June. The IJssel cities panicked. Deventer seceded from the Republic and again rejoined the Holy Roman Empire on 25 June. Then, the province of Overijssel surrendered as a whole to the bishop of Münster, Bernard von Galen, whose troops plundered towns on the west side of the IJssel, such as Hattem, Elburg and Harderwijk. Louis XIV ordered de Luxembourg to expel them again, on the 21st of June as he wanted to make the duchy of Guelders a French possession. Annoyed, Von Galen announced to advance to the North of the Republic and invited de Luxembourg to follow him by wading through the IJssel, as no pontoon bridge was available. Frustrated, de Luxembourg got permission from Louis to withhold his corps and the army of Cologne from the Münsterite forces. From that point onwards, Von Galen would wage a largely separate campaign. He started to besiege Coevorden on 20 June. He bombard the garrison of Coevorden into a quick surrender on 1 July. He was advised by his subcommanders to subsequently plunder the hardly defended Friesland and use vessels captured there to isolate Groningen, the largest city in the north. Alternatively, he could take Delfzijl, allowing a landing by an English expeditionary force. However the bishop feared the Protestant British would make common cause with the Calvinist Groningers and expected that his siege mortars would force a fast capitulation, starting the Siege of Groningen on 21 July.
On 14 June, William of Nassau arrived with the remnants of the field army, some eight thousand men, at Utrecht. The common citizens had taken over the city gates and refused him entrance. In talks with the official city council, William of Nassau had to admit that he had no intention to defend the city but would retreat more West of Utrecht. Eventually, the council of Utrecht literally delivered the keys of the gates to Henri Louis d'Aloigny , the Marquis de Rochefort, to avoid plundering.
On 18 June, William withdrew the State Army behind a hap hazard envisioned water line, later know as the Hollandse Waterline. This was a series of inundations which should protect the core of the Republic, the province of Holland. The flooding was not ready yet, only having been ordered on 8 June, and the countryside of Holland was basically defenceless against the French. On 19 June, the French took the fortress of Naarden close to Amsterdam.
In a defeatist mood a divided States of Holland sent a delegation to de Louvois in Zeist to ask for peace terms, the Dutch envoy headed by Pieter de Groot. The king Louis XIV was offered the Generality Lands and ten million guilders. The Generality Lands included the fortresses of Breda, 's-Hertogenbosch and Maastricht. Their possession would have ensured a future conquest of the Spanish Netherlands and the remaining Republic would have been little more than a French satellite state. De Louvois, rather bemused that the Estates had not capitulated but the Dutch still considered some damage control possible and demanded far harsher terms.
The French gave the Dutch the choice of surrendering their southern fortresses, the Generality lands, permitting religious freedom for Catholics and a payment of sixteen million livres, or France and Münster retaining their existing gains, thus the loss of Overijssel, Guelders and Utrecht. Louis XIV knew perfectly well that the delegation did not have the mandate to agree such terms and would have to return for new instructions. He ordered his troops to advance in to Holland by this surpassing the very slow upcoming inundations of the water line.
Dilemma or a too successful war?
King Louis XIV was confronted with a dilemma he did not expected. The French were rather overwhelmed by their success. The war progressed a lightning campaign the Dutch forces almost crumbled before their eyes. They had within a month captured the astonishing number of three dozen fortresses. This strained their organisational and logistical capacities. All these strongholds had to be garrisoned and supplied.
An intrusion into Holland proper could endanger this, only a siege of Amsterdam would limit this overstretch. Although besieging Amsterdam would be very problematic. Amsterdam had a population of 200,000 and could raise a large civil militia, reinforced by thousands of sailors. The city had recently finished an expansion and its fortifications were the best maintained in the Republic. Their normal armament of three hundred guns was being would be enlarged if the militia hauled the reserve ordnance of the Admiralty of Amsterdam upon the ramparts. This would then be bristle with thousands of cannon. The low-lying surrounding terrain, close to sea level, was easily flooded, making a traditional attack via trenches impractical. The Dutch battle fleet, or even only the fleet of Amsterdam, could support the fortifications from the IJ estuary and Zuyderzee with gun fire. This would ensure a constant resupply of food and ammunition.
A deeper problem was that Amsterdam was the world's main financial centre. The promissory notes with which many of the French military and the contractors had been paid, were covered by the gold and silver reserves of the Amsterdam banks. Their loss would mean the collapse of Europe's financial system and the personal bankruptcy of large segments of the French elite
Relations with England were also delicate. Louis had promised Charles to make William Henry the Sovereign Prince of a Holland rump state and puppet state. He very much preferred that it would be France pulling the strings but there was a distinct possibility that the uncle of the prince, Charles II, would be in control. Louis had not mentioned William in his peace conditions. The very patricians that the Louis XIV desired to punish were traditionally pro-French and his natural allies against the pro-English Orangists. Louis XIV wanted to simply annex Holland and hoped that fear of the Orangists would cause the patricians, Regenten, to surrender the province of Holland to him. However, the French advance could lead to a rally by the Orangists who could take power and capitulating to England. The province of Zealand had already decided to rather make Charles II their lord than be subjugated by the French. Only fear of the military power of De Ruyter's fleet had kept them from surrendering outright to the English. De Ruyter would not tolerate any talk of capitulation and intended, if necessary, to take the fleet overseas to continue the fight. Louis feared the English wanted to claim Dutch State Flanders which he saw as French territory because the County of Flanders was a fief of the French crown. In secret he arranged an informal warband of six thousand under Claude Antoine de Dreux to quickly cross the officially neutral Spanish Flanders and execute a surprise assault on the Dutch fortress of Aardenburg, on 25-26 June. The attempt became a very bloody affair, the small garrison killing hundreds of attackers and eventually fight to their death.
Louis also allowed his honour to take precedence over the raison d'état. The harsh peace conditions upon which he insisted were meant to humiliate the Dutch. He demanded an annual embassy to the French court asking pardon for their disloyalty and presenting a plaquette praising the benevolence of the French king. What also played was personal glory in a campaign. The quick surrender of so many cities had been somewhat disappointing in respect of glory. Maastricht having escaped him for the time being, he contemplated between 's-Hertogenbosch, which was considered "inexpungable". The city was not only a formidable fortress in itself, it was surrounded by a rare fortification belt. Normally its marshy surroundings would make a siege impossible but its presently weak garrison seemed to offer some possibility of success or still Amsterdam. He chose Amsterdam. On 9 July, Muiden and its castle was captured which controlled the sluice outlets of the area, halting further inundations. The main French force, could push through a narrow part of non inundated land and sealed of Amsterdam and her surroundings.
Civil unrest in the Republic
The news that the French had penetrated into the heart of the Republic led to a general panic in the cities of the province of Holland. Blaming the States regime for the Dutch collapse, their populations rioted. Members of the city councils were by force replaced by Orangist partisans or in fear of reprisals declared for the cause of the Prince of Orange. Pamphlets accused the regenten of having betrayed the Republic to King Louis and Amdiral De Ruyter of wanting to deliver the fleet to the French. When the French peace terms became known on 1 July, they caused outrage.
The result was to bolster Dutch resistance. On 2 July, William of Nassau was appointed stadtholder of Zealand and on 4 July of Holland. The new stadtholder William III of Orange was given a general mandate to negotiate. Although the waterline was penetrated in the North and Amsterdam was sealed of never the les the inundations delayed the French advance further in Holland.
Charles II of England thought that William's rise to power allowed to quickly obtain a peace favourable to England. He sent two of his ministers to Holland. They were received with jubilation by the population, who assumed they came to save them from the French. Arriving at the Dutch army camp in Nieuwerbrug, they proposed to install William as monarch of a Principality of Holland. In return he should pay ten million guilders as "indemnities" and formalise a permanent military English occupation of the ports of Brill, Sluys and Flushing. England would respect the French and Münsterite conquests. To the English surprise, William flatly refused. He indicated that he might be more pliable if they managed to moderate the French peace terms. They then travelled to Heeswijk Castle, but the Accord of Heeswijk they agreed there was even harsher, England and France promising never to conclude a separate peace. France demanded the areas of Brabant, Limburg and Guelders.
During July Louis XIV observed that the water around Amsterdam showed little sign of receding, Louis became impatient and ordered a looting campaign throughout Holland on 26 July. The cities of Haarlem, Leiden and eventually the Hague become victims of this campaigns.
Eventually William of Nassau was forced to ask terms to the French.
France would annex State Brabant, State Flanders, Maastricht would be ceded by the Dutch in favour of Gelre and the Dutch had to pay thirtytwo milion livres and an annual embassy to the French court asking pardon for their disloyalty and presenting a plaquette praising the benevolence of the French king. Further Catholic fait had to be restored in Amsterdam and openly tolerated any were else in the Republic.
France its allies England and Munster would end not so beneficial. England would have Brill an Flussing as ransoms cities and would receive ten million guilders. Further trade and fishery agreements. Munster would only receive the city of Grol, Borculo and some fiefdoms at the expense of Overijssel and Gelre and Rheinberg, Lingen and Moers. The Latter were personle possions of William of Nassau.
The peace was officially conluded in Amsterdam in the presnece of King Louis XIV in person. It would go in history as the Dictate of Amsterdam. King Louis XIV demanded a Catholic mass in the New Church and Old Church of Amsterdam after the signature of the peace treaty.
Background
As part of a general policy of opposition to Habsburg power in Europe, France backed the Dutch Republic during the 1568 to 1648 Eighty Years War against Spain. The 1648 Peace of Münster confirmed Dutch independence and permanently closed the Scheldt estuary, benefiting Amsterdam by eliminating its rival, Antwerp. Preserving this monopoly was a Dutch priority, but this increasingly clashed with French aims in the Spanish Netherlands, which included reopening Antwerp.
William II of Orange's death in 1650 led to the First Stadtholderless Period, with political control vested in the urban patricians or Regenten. This maximised the influence of the States of Holland and Amsterdam, the power base of Johan de Witt, Grand Pensionary from 1653. He viewed his relationship with Louis XIV of France as crucial for preserving Dutch economic power, but also to protect him from his domestic Orangist opponents.
Although France and the Republic concluded an assistance treaty in 1662, the States of Holland refused to support a division of the Spanish Netherlands, convincing Louis his objectives could only be achieved by force. The Dutch received limited French support during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-1667) but increasingly preferred a weak Spain as a neighbour to a strong France.
Shortly after talks to end the Anglo-Dutch War began in May 1667, Louis launched the War of Devolution, rapidly occupying most of the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté.
In July, the Treaty of Breda ended the Anglo-Dutch War, leading to talks between the Dutch and Charles II of England on a common diplomatic front against France. This was supported by Spain and Emperor Leopold, who was also concerned by French expansion. After his first suggestion of an Anglo-French alliance was rejected by Louis, Charles entered the 1668 Triple Alliance, between England, the Republic and Sweden. The Triple Alliance was the diplomatic achievement of the Dutch Republic.
After the Alliance mediated between France and Spain, Louis hand over many of his gains in the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Breda and Aix-la-Chapelle were Dutch diplomatic triumphs, although they also presented significant dangers. It convinced Louis XIV that the Republic, a state form he and many aristocrats could not accept, deprived him of the conquest of the Habsburg Netherlands and Franche-Comté. De Witt himself was well aware of these, but failed to convince his colleagues.
Louis considered the January 1668 Partition Treaty with Leopold confirmation of his right to the Spanish Netherlands, a point reinforced by Aix-la-Chapelle, despite his concessions. He no longer saw the need to negotiate, and decided their acquisition was best achieved by first defeating the Republic.
The conquest of the Spanish Netherlands had also a economic motif. The Flemish cities still had at this time a strong industrial potential and Antwerp was still a trade city with an excellent port. For Jean Babtiste Colbert Antwerp was the main objective. If Antwerp would be French the economic benefits would be very large.
Due to their success at sea the Dutch start to over-estimated their own power. The Anglo-Dutch War was primarily fought at sea, masking the poor state of their army and forts. Deliberately neglected since they were viewed as bolstering the power of the Prince of Orange. The poor stat of the army was exposed by the invasion of the Prince Bishopric of Münster and Electorate of Cologne, Bernhard Von Galen, as and ally of Charles II during the 2nd Anglo-Dutch war. His army invaded and rampaged the Provinces of Overijssel, Parts of Gelre, Drenthe and Groningen. He did this with an army of 20000 mercenaries partly paid with a subsidy of the English king Charles II. The Prince Bishop was halted by the defences of the City of Groningen, but only retreated after a Prussian Army arrived to the aid the Dutch Republic.
The Dutch Navy was rapidly eroded by English and French naval expansion programs.
French Preparations.
In preparation for an attack on the Republic, Louis embarked on a series of diplomatic initiatives, the first being the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover, an Anglo-French alliance against the Dutch. It contained secret clauses not revealed hundred years later, including the payment to Charles of £230,000 per year for providing a British brigade of 6,000. Agreements with the Prince Bishopric of Münster and Electorate of Cologne, Bernhard Von Galen allowed French forces to bypass the Spanish Netherlands, by attacking via the Bishopric of Liège, then a dependency of Cologne. Preparations were completed in April 1672, when Charles XI of Sweden accepted French subsidies in return for invading areas of Pomerania claimed by Brandenburg-Prussia.
Reforms introduced by Louvois, the Secretary of War, helped maintain large field armies that could be mobilised much quicker. This meant the French could mount offensives in early spring before their opponents were ready, seize their objectives, then assume a defensive posture. The army's strength was 180,000 in 1672.
For the attack on the Republic 120,000 men were allocated. This force was split into two main groups; one at Charleroi, under Turenne, the other near Sedan, commanded by Condé. After marching through the Bishopric of Liège, they would join near Maastricht, then occupy the Duchy of Cleves, a possession of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. At the same time 30,000 mercenaries, paid by Münster and Cologne and led by Luxembourg, would attack from the East.
The Dutch defences
The Dutch were poorly prepared for a campaign against France; available funds had mostly been invested in the fleet, at the expense of their land defences.
Most of the Dutch States Army was based in the three southern fortresses of Breda,
's-Hertogenbosch and Maastricht. November 1671, the Council of State reported these as being short of supplies and money, with many fortifications barely defendable due to lack of maintenance. Most units were substantially below strength As Example in June, an officer reported that the official strength of eighteen companies had in reality only a man power strength of four companies.
The French preparations however were not complete concealed. The Dutch were given accurate information on their plans as early as February 1671. These were confirmed by Condé in November and again in January 1672.
Increase of the army budget was now blocked by the Orangist supporters, of now of age Prince William. They refused to approve additional military spending unless William was appointed Captain-General. Obvious this move was opposed by de Witt. Aware of internal English opposition to the Anglo-French alliance, the Dutch relied on the provisions of the Triple Alliance requiring England and the Republic to support each other, if attacked by Spain or France. This assumption was shared by the Parliament of England, who approved funding for the fleet in early 1671 to fulfil its obligations under the alliance. However on 23 March 1672, when acting under orders from Charles, the Royal Navy attacked a Dutch merchant convoy in the Channel. This was nearly a similar incident as in 1664 which triggered the last war with the English.
In February 1672, de Witt agreed by appointing William as Captain-General for a year as a compromise. Quickly after that budgets were approved and contracts issued to increase the army to over 80,000. However assembling these men would take months.
Negotiations with Frederick William of Brandenburg to reinforce Cleves with 30,000 men were delayed by his demands for Dutch-held fortresses on the Rhine, including Rheinberg and Wesel. By the time they reached agreement on 6 May 1672 Frederick William of Brandenburg was occupied with a French-backed Swedish invasion of Pomerania, and could not spare troop to reinforce Cleves. The Maastricht garrison was increased to 11,000. In an attempt to delay the French long enough at the Eastern border cities along the Ijssel river provided 12,000 men from their civil militia, with 70,000 peasants conscripted to build earthworks along this river. These earth works were unfinished when France declared war on 6 April, followed by England on 7 April, using a manufactured diplomatic incident known as the 'Merlin' affair. Münster and Cologne entered the war on 18 May.
The French Offensive
The French offensive began on 4 May 1672 when a division force under Condé left Sedan and marched north along the right bank of the Meuse. The next day, Louis XIV arrived in Charleroi to inspect the main body of 50,000 men under command of Turenne. This was probably one of the most magnificent displays of military power in the seventeenth century. Accompanied by the King in person, Turenne met up with Condé at Visé, just south of Maastricht on 17 May. Supported by Condé, Louis XIV wanted to besiege the fortress of Maastricht immediately but Turenne convinced him it would be folly to allow the Dutch time to reinforce other positions. Instead of besieging Maastricht, Turenne stationed occupying forces of 10000 men at Tongeren, Maaseik and Valkenburg closing of Maastrcht.
The rest of the French army crossed back over the Meuse, then advanced along the Rhine, supported by troops from Münster and the Electorate of Cologne, led by Luxembourg. The Dutch garrisoned forts intended to defend the Rhine crossings were still severely undermanned and poorly equipped. By 5 June, the French had captured Rheinberg, Orsoy and Burick, with minimal resistance. Wesel, perhaps the most important fortress, surrendered when the townspeople threatened to butcher the commanders, followed by Rees on 9 June. Having secured their rear, the bulk of the French army began to cross the Rhine at Emmerich am Rhein. In the mean time Grand Pensionary De Witt was deeply shocked by the news of the catastrophe and concluded apparently saying "the fatherland is now lost”.
Although the situation on land had become critical for the Dutch, events at sea were much more favourable. On 7 June, Dutch Lieutenant-Admiral Michiel de Ruyter attacked the Anglo-French fleet as it took on supplies at Southwold on the English coast. The French squadron under d'Estrées failed to properly coordinate with the English and ended up fighting a separate battle with Lieutenant-Admiral Adriaen Banckert, which led to mutual recriminations between the two allies. Although ship losses were roughly equal, Solebay ensured the Dutch retained control of their coastal waters, secured their trade routes and ended hopes of an Anglo-French landing in Zeeland. Anger at the alleged lack of support from D'Estrées increased opposition to the war, and Parliament was reluctant to approve funds for essential repairs. For the rest of the year, this restricted English naval operations to a failed attack on the Dutch East India Company Return Fleet.
In early June, the Dutch headquarters at Arnhem prepared itself for a French onslaught on the IJssel Line. Only twenty thousand troops could be assembled to block a crossing and a dry spring meant that the river could be forded at many points. Nevertheless, there seemed to be no alternative but to make a last stand at the Ijssel river. However, should the enemy outflank this river by crossing the Lower Rhine into the Betuwe, the field army would fall back to the west to prevent being surrounded and quickly annihilated. The commander of Fort Schenkenschanz protecting the Lower Rhine abandoned his position. When Field Marshal Paulus Wirtz, arrived at Arnhem with his Dutch troops, immediately a force of two thousand horse and foot under was sent out to cover the Betuwe. At arrival they intercepted French cavalry crossing at a ford pointed out to them by a farmer. A bloody encounter fight followed but in this Battle of Tolhuis on 12 June, the Dutch cavalry was eventually overwhelmed by French reinforcements. King Louis XIV personally observed the battle from the Elterberg. Condé was shot through the wrist. In France, this battle was celebrated as a major victory and paintings of the Passage du Rhin have this crossing as their subject, not the earlier one at Emmerich.
Dutch Captain-General William Henry now wanted the entire field army to fall back on Utrecht. However, since 1666 the provinces had regained full sovereignty of their forces, making the State army a true confederate army, this was again a measure to deprive the House of Orange any power base.
In June 1672 Overijssel and Guelders withdrew their troops from the confederated army. The French army made little effort to cut off the escape route of the Dutch field army. Turenne recrossed the Lower Rhine to attack Arnhem, while part of his army moved to the Waal river towards Fort Knodsenburg at Nijmegen. Louis wanted to besiege Doesburg first, on the east side of the IJssel, taking it on 21 June. The king delayed the capture somewhat to allow his brother, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, to take Zutphen some days earlier.
On Louis XIV right flank, the armies of Münster and Cologne, reinforced by a French corps under de Luxembourg, advanced to the North along the river IIssel, after having taken Grol on 10 June and Bredevoort on 18 June. The IJssel cities panicked. Deventer seceded from the Republic and again rejoined the Holy Roman Empire on 25 June. Then, the province of Overijssel surrendered as a whole to the bishop of Münster, Bernard von Galen, whose troops plundered towns on the west side of the IJssel, such as Hattem, Elburg and Harderwijk. Louis XIV ordered de Luxembourg to expel them again, on the 21st of June as he wanted to make the duchy of Guelders a French possession. Annoyed, Von Galen announced to advance to the North of the Republic and invited de Luxembourg to follow him by wading through the IJssel, as no pontoon bridge was available. Frustrated, de Luxembourg got permission from Louis to withhold his corps and the army of Cologne from the Münsterite forces. From that point onwards, Von Galen would wage a largely separate campaign. He started to besiege Coevorden on 20 June. He bombard the garrison of Coevorden into a quick surrender on 1 July. He was advised by his subcommanders to subsequently plunder the hardly defended Friesland and use vessels captured there to isolate Groningen, the largest city in the north. Alternatively, he could take Delfzijl, allowing a landing by an English expeditionary force. However the bishop feared the Protestant British would make common cause with the Calvinist Groningers and expected that his siege mortars would force a fast capitulation, starting the Siege of Groningen on 21 July.
On 14 June, William of Nassau arrived with the remnants of the field army, some eight thousand men, at Utrecht. The common citizens had taken over the city gates and refused him entrance. In talks with the official city council, William of Nassau had to admit that he had no intention to defend the city but would retreat more West of Utrecht. Eventually, the council of Utrecht literally delivered the keys of the gates to Henri Louis d'Aloigny , the Marquis de Rochefort, to avoid plundering.
On 18 June, William withdrew the State Army behind a hap hazard envisioned water line, later know as the Hollandse Waterline. This was a series of inundations which should protect the core of the Republic, the province of Holland. The flooding was not ready yet, only having been ordered on 8 June, and the countryside of Holland was basically defenceless against the French. On 19 June, the French took the fortress of Naarden close to Amsterdam.
In a defeatist mood a divided States of Holland sent a delegation to de Louvois in Zeist to ask for peace terms, the Dutch envoy headed by Pieter de Groot. The king Louis XIV was offered the Generality Lands and ten million guilders. The Generality Lands included the fortresses of Breda, 's-Hertogenbosch and Maastricht. Their possession would have ensured a future conquest of the Spanish Netherlands and the remaining Republic would have been little more than a French satellite state. De Louvois, rather bemused that the Estates had not capitulated but the Dutch still considered some damage control possible and demanded far harsher terms.
The French gave the Dutch the choice of surrendering their southern fortresses, the Generality lands, permitting religious freedom for Catholics and a payment of sixteen million livres, or France and Münster retaining their existing gains, thus the loss of Overijssel, Guelders and Utrecht. Louis XIV knew perfectly well that the delegation did not have the mandate to agree such terms and would have to return for new instructions. He ordered his troops to advance in to Holland by this surpassing the very slow upcoming inundations of the water line.
Dilemma or a too successful war?
King Louis XIV was confronted with a dilemma he did not expected. The French were rather overwhelmed by their success. The war progressed a lightning campaign the Dutch forces almost crumbled before their eyes. They had within a month captured the astonishing number of three dozen fortresses. This strained their organisational and logistical capacities. All these strongholds had to be garrisoned and supplied.
An intrusion into Holland proper could endanger this, only a siege of Amsterdam would limit this overstretch. Although besieging Amsterdam would be very problematic. Amsterdam had a population of 200,000 and could raise a large civil militia, reinforced by thousands of sailors. The city had recently finished an expansion and its fortifications were the best maintained in the Republic. Their normal armament of three hundred guns was being would be enlarged if the militia hauled the reserve ordnance of the Admiralty of Amsterdam upon the ramparts. This would then be bristle with thousands of cannon. The low-lying surrounding terrain, close to sea level, was easily flooded, making a traditional attack via trenches impractical. The Dutch battle fleet, or even only the fleet of Amsterdam, could support the fortifications from the IJ estuary and Zuyderzee with gun fire. This would ensure a constant resupply of food and ammunition.
A deeper problem was that Amsterdam was the world's main financial centre. The promissory notes with which many of the French military and the contractors had been paid, were covered by the gold and silver reserves of the Amsterdam banks. Their loss would mean the collapse of Europe's financial system and the personal bankruptcy of large segments of the French elite
Relations with England were also delicate. Louis had promised Charles to make William Henry the Sovereign Prince of a Holland rump state and puppet state. He very much preferred that it would be France pulling the strings but there was a distinct possibility that the uncle of the prince, Charles II, would be in control. Louis had not mentioned William in his peace conditions. The very patricians that the Louis XIV desired to punish were traditionally pro-French and his natural allies against the pro-English Orangists. Louis XIV wanted to simply annex Holland and hoped that fear of the Orangists would cause the patricians, Regenten, to surrender the province of Holland to him. However, the French advance could lead to a rally by the Orangists who could take power and capitulating to England. The province of Zealand had already decided to rather make Charles II their lord than be subjugated by the French. Only fear of the military power of De Ruyter's fleet had kept them from surrendering outright to the English. De Ruyter would not tolerate any talk of capitulation and intended, if necessary, to take the fleet overseas to continue the fight. Louis feared the English wanted to claim Dutch State Flanders which he saw as French territory because the County of Flanders was a fief of the French crown. In secret he arranged an informal warband of six thousand under Claude Antoine de Dreux to quickly cross the officially neutral Spanish Flanders and execute a surprise assault on the Dutch fortress of Aardenburg, on 25-26 June. The attempt became a very bloody affair, the small garrison killing hundreds of attackers and eventually fight to their death.
Louis also allowed his honour to take precedence over the raison d'état. The harsh peace conditions upon which he insisted were meant to humiliate the Dutch. He demanded an annual embassy to the French court asking pardon for their disloyalty and presenting a plaquette praising the benevolence of the French king. What also played was personal glory in a campaign. The quick surrender of so many cities had been somewhat disappointing in respect of glory. Maastricht having escaped him for the time being, he contemplated between 's-Hertogenbosch, which was considered "inexpungable". The city was not only a formidable fortress in itself, it was surrounded by a rare fortification belt. Normally its marshy surroundings would make a siege impossible but its presently weak garrison seemed to offer some possibility of success or still Amsterdam. He chose Amsterdam. On 9 July, Muiden and its castle was captured which controlled the sluice outlets of the area, halting further inundations. The main French force, could push through a narrow part of non inundated land and sealed of Amsterdam and her surroundings.
Civil unrest in the Republic
The news that the French had penetrated into the heart of the Republic led to a general panic in the cities of the province of Holland. Blaming the States regime for the Dutch collapse, their populations rioted. Members of the city councils were by force replaced by Orangist partisans or in fear of reprisals declared for the cause of the Prince of Orange. Pamphlets accused the regenten of having betrayed the Republic to King Louis and Amdiral De Ruyter of wanting to deliver the fleet to the French. When the French peace terms became known on 1 July, they caused outrage.
The result was to bolster Dutch resistance. On 2 July, William of Nassau was appointed stadtholder of Zealand and on 4 July of Holland. The new stadtholder William III of Orange was given a general mandate to negotiate. Although the waterline was penetrated in the North and Amsterdam was sealed of never the les the inundations delayed the French advance further in Holland.
Charles II of England thought that William's rise to power allowed to quickly obtain a peace favourable to England. He sent two of his ministers to Holland. They were received with jubilation by the population, who assumed they came to save them from the French. Arriving at the Dutch army camp in Nieuwerbrug, they proposed to install William as monarch of a Principality of Holland. In return he should pay ten million guilders as "indemnities" and formalise a permanent military English occupation of the ports of Brill, Sluys and Flushing. England would respect the French and Münsterite conquests. To the English surprise, William flatly refused. He indicated that he might be more pliable if they managed to moderate the French peace terms. They then travelled to Heeswijk Castle, but the Accord of Heeswijk they agreed there was even harsher, England and France promising never to conclude a separate peace. France demanded the areas of Brabant, Limburg and Guelders.
During July Louis XIV observed that the water around Amsterdam showed little sign of receding, Louis became impatient and ordered a looting campaign throughout Holland on 26 July. The cities of Haarlem, Leiden and eventually the Hague become victims of this campaigns.
Eventually William of Nassau was forced to ask terms to the French.
France would annex State Brabant, State Flanders, Maastricht would be ceded by the Dutch in favour of Gelre and the Dutch had to pay thirtytwo milion livres and an annual embassy to the French court asking pardon for their disloyalty and presenting a plaquette praising the benevolence of the French king. Further Catholic fait had to be restored in Amsterdam and openly tolerated any were else in the Republic.
France its allies England and Munster would end not so beneficial. England would have Brill an Flussing as ransoms cities and would receive ten million guilders. Further trade and fishery agreements. Munster would only receive the city of Grol, Borculo and some fiefdoms at the expense of Overijssel and Gelre and Rheinberg, Lingen and Moers. The Latter were personle possions of William of Nassau.
The peace was officially conluded in Amsterdam in the presnece of King Louis XIV in person. It would go in history as the Dictate of Amsterdam. King Louis XIV demanded a Catholic mass in the New Church and Old Church of Amsterdam after the signature of the peace treaty.