Expansion and Colonisation (1888-1914):
- 1889: Rising tensions between the local Christian and Muslim communities inhabiting the island of Crete convince the High Porte to abrogate the Pact of Halepa which has served to regulate the Cretan State's autonomy since 1878, and reinstate direct rule under an Ottoman Governor, supported by an Ottoman Expeditionary Force in order to maintain order. The Christian Cretans, already displeased with the state of affairs, immediately begin to incite a new revolt against the reintroduction of full-and-exclusive Ottoman rule, and reinstitute their traditional demands for unification with the Kingdom of Greece.
- 1890: The Ottoman High Porte, enraged that the Kingdom of Greece has been providing the Cretans with covert support (which serves to boost the monarchy's popularity with the public quite a bit when this is revealed, though it does also serve to further sour relations with the Great Powers), declares war on the Hellenic Kingdom. Both the Greek and Ottoman forces underwent significant reforms following the Russo-Turkish War of 1878, under the respective guidance of a French (for the Greeks) and German (for the Ottomans) military mission in preparation for the inevitable future engagements they would have to participate in. As a consequence, this war would serve as a testing ground for both of their newly-minted armed forces, leaving both sides with high hopes and lofty expectations as to its outcome.
The initial Ottoman invasion of Thessaly and Epirus sees them net a chain of significant victories, before they're ultimately stalled by a contingent of Greek forces and Italian "Red Shirt" (Camicie Rossi) Hellenophile volunteer troops operating in conjunction. By the end of the year, the front has ground to a complete standstill, and the Ottomans are now facing a growing general uprising throughout their remaining holdings in the Balkans, as well as threats of escalation from Serbia, Bulgaria, Russia, and even Italy.
- 1891: Following repeat reports of Ottoman troop abusiveness towards the Cretan Christian communities, the Great Powers begin to intervene in the ongoing Cretan Revolt by sending their warships to the island and establishing a combined "International Squadron" charged with intervening on the island in order to bring the fighting to a complete halt. A month later, an armistice is called by the Great Powers in order to permit the Ottomans to restore order throughout their Balkan holdings, to which the King of the Hellenes, finding himself in a most favourable position, refuses to abide by, preferring instead to push the front and route the Ottoman invasion entirely, rather than appearing to rely on the Great Powers to "rescue" him from the Ottoman invasion. In this, the final phase of the war, the Greeks successfully push the front all the way through the occupied lands and deep into the Ottoman holdings of Western Macedonia, until a contingent of troops, newly-landed by the Great Powers at the Axios (Vardar) River, halts their advance dead in its tracks.
- 1892: At the post-war conference, the Great Powers concede to the de facto situation that is the Greek occupation of Western Macedonia and agree to its annexation into the Kingdom of Greece, with the eastern border set at the Axios (Vardar) River, while the northern border is set to be demarcated by an international commission on a joint ethnographic, economic, strategic and geographical basis in order to punish the High Porte for its renunciation of the Pact of Halepa and for declaring war on Greece (and losing, mainly for losing), though they also overwhelmingly reject any and all notions by Greece and Crete for unification, in order to punish Greece for assisting the Cretans in their revolt against the Ottomans. However, recognising the inevitability of further Ottoman abuses, they opt to expel all Ottoman troops and reinstate the Cretan State as a nominal Ottoman vassal with an international military force garrisoning it (what with both Greek and Ottoman troops being barred from setting foot on the island) and a Greek High Commissioner, effectively detaching Crete from the Ottoman Empire as an inevitable prelude to her eventual unification with Greece.
As a part of the finalised peace treaty between Greece and the Ottoman Empire negotiated with the oversight of the Great Powers, Greece is made to wave all demands for reparations, leaving the Hellenic Kingdom's economy in dire straits for the next for years as the war, as brief as it actually was, did take a severe toll on the state's continuously-strained finances due to the scale of the deployments they had to undertake and the financial investments the newly-liberated territories of Western Macedonia would also require.
Meanwhile, alarmed by the perceived "wronging" of having lands she holds territorial ambitions towards be annexed and integrated into Greece (amongst which are the City of Monastir / Bitola), coupled with the perceived "threat" that Greece's new frontier along the Axios (Vardar) River poses to Bulgaria's interests in the regions of Aegean Macedonia and Thrace, the Bulgarian government establishes the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), with the explicit intent of promoting the establishment of a unified, autonomous Macedonian state that would eventually be annexed into Bulgaria in much the same way as Eastern Rumelia ultimately was 10 years ago, thus commencing the long and bloody "Macedonian Struggle" for the independence and "reunification" of Western Macedonia and "Macedonia Beyond the Vardar."
On the other side of the Balkans, the perceived continuous spiteful attitudes shown to Greek interests by the Great Powers leads to a growing bitterness and alienation between the Kingdom of Greece and the Western European Great Powers, which, in turn, leads to a continued deepening of relations with Italy and (to a degree) Russia, out of which the Libya Partition Plan is first born in the mind of Crown Prince Constantine, and subsequently continuously revisited time and time again over the following years by the Crown Prince in extensive talks with the Italian Ambassador.
- 1900: Crown Prince Constantine of Greece is wed to Princess Sofia of Serbia.
- 1904: The Kingdom of Greece crowns King Constantine I of the Hellenes
Shortly afterwards, the secret Caserta Agreement is signed between the Kings of Italy and Greece, which stipulates that in return for Greece supporting Italy's pursuits of the port of Vlorë and the island of Sazan at the entrance to the Bay of Vlorë (which have been heavily coveted by Italian naval strategists since unification as they would give Italy control of the entrance to the Adriatic Sea) and by extension an Albanian state under the suzerainty of the Italian Kingdom, Italy is to grant Greece sole rights to the Cyrenaica region following an invasion and occupation of Ottoman Libya, which is to be undertaken jointly by the Kingdoms of Italy and Greece.
- 1905: The Principality of Montenegro crowns its first king, establishing the Kingdom of Montenegro.
The joint Greco-Italian invasion of Libya results in the outbreak of the Libyan War.
The Cretan State Assembly unilaterally passes a constitution declaring itself an independent state as the Principality of Crete in personal union with the Kingdom of Greece under King Constantine I, following a brief period of negotiation between the Kingdom of Greece (backed by the Kingdom of Italy) and the Great Powers following the outbreak of the Libyan War, in order to avert an outbreak of violence across the island targeted at the international troops stationed there.
The invasion of Libya basically amounts to nothing less than a slap in the face of the established order, as they pursue this course of action without first seeking any form of support or approval from any of the other Great Powers, following a failed Austrian mediation attempt to reach an agreement that would see Italy granted administrative control over Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (without any mention of a subsequent administrative transfer to Greece, which would leave the matter open to interpretation from a legal standpoint), while the Ottoman Empire retains suzerainty in a situation comparable to that of British-controlled Egypt.
- 1906: The brief-but-decisive (thanks to the land bridge provided to them by Italian Tunisia) Greco-Italian Libyan War results in the Italian Kingdom's annexation of the regions of Tripolitania and Fezzan, while the Kingdom of Greece annexes the region of Cyrenaica.
Following the Empire's defeat in Libya, the Young Turks incite a revolution, marking the start of the Second Ottoman Constitutional Era which, as a byproduct, leads to IMRO ceasing all hostilities in Ottoman Macedonia due to the new administration promising reforms.
As a further result of the perceived weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the Principality of Bulgaria declares her full independence and crowns her first Tzar, establishing the Kingdom of Bulgaria.
- 1907: In the aftermath of the Libyan War, the Balkan states begin to weave a web of alliances in pursuit of a mutual defence pact with each other, as they see the Young Turks' revolution as nothing more than further evidence of the continuing decline and eventual fall of the remnants of the once-mighty Ottoman Empire.
The "Balkan League" alliance treaties are broken down thus; Serbia and Montenegro, Serbia and Bulgaria, Bulgaria and Greece. The public texts are much the same, describing them as nothing more than agreements establishing a "mutual friendship and defensive aid" agreement to be triggered in case an outside power issues a declaration of war on one or more of them. The secret text, negotiated primarily by Bulgaria, also stipulates a secret amendment for a joint attack on the Ottoman Empire "at some point in the near future."
Upon receiving news of the Balkan League, the Great Powers exhibit largely mixed-to-negative reactions to it, the most extreme of which comes from Austria-Hungary, which is prompted to definitively annex the Bosnia Vilayet in response (which has effectively been under Austrian occupation since 1878), triggering the Bosnian Crisis.
- 1908: The Bosnian Crisis is peacefully resolved, averting an all-out armed conflict between Austria-Hungary and the Balkan League alliance, for the time being. However, in the aftermath of the Crisis tensions begin to escalate between Serbia and Bulgaria, as Serbia's expansionist ambitions are redirected towards Ottoman Macedonia, which, until this moment, was always expected to form a core part of the Bulgarian state once it would be liberated from the Ottoman occupation forces. As such, facing increased levels of hostility from Serbia and alienation from Russia due to a degradation in their mutual relations, Bulgaria embarks upon a path of heavy militarisation in preparation for the coming war. Greece, paranoid about its hostile northern neighbour and harbouring long-standing suspicions of it having ties to the IMRO, follows suit.
Meanwhile, in response to the perceived "slight" incurred by Austria-Hungary upon the Kingdom of Italy by her unilateral annexation of Bosnia without prior consultation in direct violation of their mutual agreement concerning further territorial aspirations in the Balkans being reciprocated between their two powers, Italy coerces Austro-Hungarian support for a future Italian-controlled Albanian state, under threat of withdrawing from the Triple Alliance agreement entirely.
"However, if, in the course of events, the maintenance of the status quo in the regions of the Balkans or of the Ottoman coasts and islands in the Adriatic and in the Aegean Sea should become impossible, and if, whether in consequence of the action of a third Power or otherwise, Austria-Hungary or Italy should find themselves under the necessity of modifying it by a temporary or permanent occupation on their part, this occupation shall take place only after a previous agreement between the two Powers, based upon the principle of a reciprocal compensation for every advantage, territorial or other, which each of them might obtain beyond the present status quo, and giving satisfaction to the interests and well founded claims of the two Parties."
At the same time, following the imposition of anti-Albanian policies by the General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire, the Kings of Italy and Greece enter a parallel secret agreement with Ismail Qemali, a leader in the Albanian National Movement, that would see Greece recognise and support an independent Albanian state under Italian suzerainty, in return for Italy assisting Greece with her territorial ambitions east of the Axios River and in the Aegean Sea. In accordance with the agreement, the three signatories agree that the Greco-Albanian boundary line will remain set on the Acroceraunian mountains, leaving Northern Epirus / Chameria in Greek hands, with a formal renouncement of all territorial claims against Greek Epirus to follow, as part of a larger agreement to forge a "Greco-Albanian-Italian entente" once the Albanian Government is fully established and the Italian King is formally recognised as Prince of the Albanians by an elected assembly operating under a constitutional mandate. Ismail Qemali is to serve as Governor in the interim, with consideration for a potential Premiership appointment afterwards. Furthermore, the agreement, at Qemali's insistence, affirms Albania as having its own language, literature, history and traditions, with a right to liberty and independence, under the suzerainty of the Italian Crown. At this time, Qemali's goals are to promote Albanian interests at the expense of thwarting the Bulgarian ambitions for the wider Balkans region, the terrifying Serbian and Austrio-Hungarian territorial ambitions in the Balkans and the Adriatic Sea by obtaining solid outside support for the cause of Albanian independence from the lesser of the "evils" surrounding the Albanian homeland.
Early on during the Albanian National Awakening, Qemali perceived Austria-Hungary as the Great Power intended to assist the Albanians in their development of a national consciousness by founding schools, cultivating their language and attaining autonomy within the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, however, due to his developing of ties with the Italo-Albanian (Arbëreshë) communities and the Italian Kingdom's more favourable Albanian policies, he shifted his support towards the Italian policy for Albania. There are differing accounts as to how exactly the Hellenic Kingdom first became involved, with some sources suggesting the idea was first brought up by the Italian government, while other sources allege he himself approached the Greek embassy in Istanbul, intending to negotiate a secret agreement with them for recognition of their mutual territorial claims and ambition. Ultimately, however, regardless of how it all came about, the field was finally set for the deal to be subsequently made.
- 1910: The Balkan League, now finally prepared for a full-scale conflict against the Ottoman Empire, reaffirms its treaties with each other, and proceeds to sign secondary treaties delineating individual conquests; Montenegro will take Northern Albania, Bulgaria will receive all of Macedonia south of the Kriva Palanka–Ohrid line, and Serbia's expansion will be to the north of the Shar Mountains (i.e. Kosovo). The intervening area is classified as "disputed" with a final demarcation line to be arbitrated by the Tsar of Russia in the event of a victory. Bulgaria and Greece both refuse to agree on a mutual demarcation line with each other, however, which results in a race between them to claim as much territory as they possibly can before the other does once the conflict breaks out.
Following the outbreak of an Albanian revolt against the Empire's centralisation policies, Montenegro is the first to declare war on the Ottomans, swiftly followed by Serbia, Bulgaria, and finally Greece, which prompts the Principality of Crete to declare its full unification to the Hellenic Kingdom. Shortly afterwards, the Italian Kingdom invades Ottoman Albania in pursuit of securing its territorial ambitions towards a viable Albanian state under Italian rule against the various competing claims of its neighbouring states, as well as to assist Greece in the Aegean, as previously agreed upon between them, by having the Regia Marina establish a blockade across the Dardanelles Straits, preventing the bulk of the Ottoman fleet from ever deploying, and permitting the Greeks to rampage throughout the Aegean Sea relatively unimpeded, liberating island after island from Ottoman occupation. The Principality of Crete takes advantage of the outbreak of the war to declare its unification to the Kingdom of Greece, following a unanimous vote in favour by the Cretan Assembly. The remaining Great Powers condemn the invasion with a particular focus put on Italy's involvement in it, though as they each have their own interests in the Balkans, there is no unified response.
- 1911: The conflict proceeds apace, with the Italian forces slowly securing the Albanian lands west of the Drina River, while the Greek land forces continue their march through Macedonia and Thrace from the Axios (Vardar) River up to the Maritsa River, as the Greek naval forces continue to liberate Aegean islands from centuries of Ottoman occupation thanks to the ongoing Regia Marina blockade of the Dardanelles. Meanwhile, the other League members continue to strike severe blows against the Ottoman forces, resulting in decisive setbacks which ultimately reverberate into an overwhelming defeat for them as they're pushed back to behind the Maritsa River and beyond, at which time the Bulgarian forces pursue them up to the gates of Constantinople (in direct defiance of Russia's warnings that if they were to successfully occupy Constantinople, Russia would respond by attacking them), where they are ultimately routed upon being confronted with a massive force of Ottoman regulars and end up turning back.
In the aftermath of this catastrophic defeat, the Ottoman Empire finds itself situated on the brink of a civil war between the revolutionary factions who blame each other for the massive territorial losses incurred in the Balkan War. Following several large-scale riots throughout Anatolia, further escalation is ultimately only averted once the situation culminates in a coup that successfully restores the Sultan to power, bringing an end to the Second Ottoman Constitutional Era, and temporarily restoring at least some semblance of peace and order to the otherwise crumbling superpower. After the coup, the Ottomans withdraw from the London Peace Conference called by the Great Powers to resolve the outstanding territorial disputes incurred by the Balkan War, and refuse to sign or recognise the subsequent London Conference Treaty that stems from it.
- 1912: Disputes over the final partition of the liberated Balkan territories continue on for well over a year, as Bulgaria is thoroughly displeased with the limited gains she ultimately succeeded in making compared to her territorial ambitions, whereas Serbia, who failed to secure Northern Albania, is facing an Italian-governed Albanian state pressing territorial claims against certain areas under her control, as well. The disputes threaten to become violent, but Bulgaria ultimately backs down after Russia definitively break ties with her and the Kingdom of Greece signs a defensive alliance treaty with the Kingdom of Serbia in return for a concession on several areas of the disputed Serbo-Albanian border.
The finalised London Conference Treaty establishes the borders of the Albanian state that is to function as an independent Principality in personal union with the Kingdom of Italy under the appointed Governor Ismail Qemali (until such time as a constitution is finalised and elections are called to order) and confirms the gains made by the Kingdoms of Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece; Greece expands eastward into the mainland regions of Central and Eastern "Aegean Macedonia" ("Macedonia Beyond the Vardar") and Western Thrace, she unifies with the Principality of Crete (the international troops are peacefully evacuated) and also secures the annexation of all the Aegean Sea islands occupied by the Hellenic and Italian Navies during the war, in return for a provision that permits for the Regia Marina navy to use the port facilities in Crete and Rhodes under a long-term leasing agreement.
The Greeks are disappointed at the perceived failure to liberate the Holy City of Constantinople (having never actually been informed that the city would not be a target for liberation at this time - a course of action that was specifically decided upon by the Greek High Command before the war on the basis that successfully recapturing Constantinople from the Ottomans would require a great deal of resources, coordination and preparation on such a scale that the Balkan League would ultimately be thoroughly incapable of achieving such a feat - especially when faced with the knowledge that ultimately, only one of them would actually walk away with the almighty prize of annexing the Holy City of Constantinople, and that would inevitably be either Bulgaria or Greece), but are otherwise extremely satisfied with the territorial gains from the war and King Constantine is universally lauded by his subjects for this slew of successes. Relations with Italy are now ironclad and the two powers have all-but established themselves as a closely-knit pair of regional powers operating in constant tandem, largely independently of the whims and desires of the Great Powers, as they see fit. On the other hand, Bulgaria's definitive break with Russia sets her down the inevitable path towards an alliance with Germany and the Central Powers, which sets the stage for her eventual role in the coming conflict.
- 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand is assassinated in Sarajevo while on a state visit to Bosnia by a Serbian nationalist group known as the Black Hand. Austria-Hungary accuses Serbia and demands her immediate surrender and reparations. Serbia refuses, to which Austria-Hungary responds by issuing a declaration of war. In response, Russia declares war on Austria-Hungary, resulting in Germany declaring war on Russia, and France on Germany due to the network of treaties between them. The United Kingdom joins the war as an ally of France shortly afterwards, citing Belgium's violated neutrality, to which she was a guarantor. In the meanwhile, Italy declares her withdrawal from the Triple Alliance Pact citing Austria-Hungary's repeat violations of their agreement concerning the status quo in the Balkans, and espouses neutrality pending secret negotiations with both sides as to her future status in the ongoing conflict.