Portuguese America and Southern Africa the Redux
- Thread starter Viriato
- Start date
Wow! I didn't perceive how important was the Hohenzollerns inheriting the Habsburg lands until seeing your map. It seems that German unification will come under a Holy Roman Empire banner.
Plus Cyprus stands as a knife pointed to the Ottoman Empire. I wonder if they will meet their desmise in the XVIII century just like the other Gunpowder Muslim Empires.
Plus Cyprus stands as a knife pointed to the Ottoman Empire. I wonder if they will meet their desmise in the XVIII century just like the other Gunpowder Muslim Empires.
French Madagascar
Early in 1642, the French began establishing their first settlements in the uninhabited Mascarene Islands in the Southern Indian Ocean. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1512, the islands had been ignored as Spanish shipping to India preferred to sail through the Mozambique Channel, calling upon East African and Arabian ports on the route to the Indies. The first French settlement was built on the Île d'Orléans (Reunion), consisting of several hundred Frenchmen and many more Malagasy slaves. However, disease and famine took a toll on the settlement, leaving the colony to French pirates, who would make use of the island as a base to attack Spanish shipping. By 1671, the French attempts to settle Madagascar had also been abandoned, and it appeared that France's attempts to build an empire in Indian Ocean were faltering.
In 1685, however the French Crown took renewed interest in its endeavours to colonise the Mascarenes by sending six-hundred settlers to the islands, and funds were lavished on building new fortifications. In addition, settlements were re-established in Madagascar, with new settlements on the northern portion of the island and on the eastern coast, where local kings became vassals of the King of France. Sugarcane was planted and soon became the most successful staple crop, allowing the French to end their dependence on Spanish sugar from the Americas. Soon, French merchants began shipping sugar through the Red Sea and then overland to the Mediterranean where it was sold by Venetian and French merchants. By the early 18th century this would have French engineers begin studying the possibility of a canal linking the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, particularly after their success in building canal in Languedoc (Canal du Midi). However, this did not go further than the planning stages due to internal turmoil in Egypt and the Ottoman Empire itself.
During the War of Hapsburg Succession, the French Empire in the Indian Ocean proved to be vulnerable, with the Spanish capturing the French factories on the Indian Subcontinent (Pondicherry and Chanernagore) along with sacking the Mascarenes and occupying Fort Sainte-Anne and Fort Dauphin in Madagascar. However, these were returned to France in 1723, with the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle and the French crown became serious about colonisation. It was at this point that the French took control of Île de France (Mauritius) and established one of the world's richest sugar-producing islands.
Piracy was suppressed and French botanists brought plants from the Indies to cultivate in Madagascar and cloves, pepper, nutmeg and cinnamon all thrived in the northern regions of the island. In addition, sugarcane was cultivated allowing a planter elite to develop on the island. Until the 1730s, most French coffee was imported from Mocha in Yemen, however in 1738 the French entered into conflict with the Imams of Yemen and bombarded the city. As a result, the cultivation of coffee was introduced on Île d'Orléans and the Madagascar highlands. The Spanish soon followed suit, introducing coffee cultivation to America. Soon, vanilla and cocoa was planted in Madagascar as well, with plants having been smuggled from America, finally cotton cultivation in the south was introduced, however this would remain relatively minor in importance. However, the production of cattle along with the cultivation of rice continued to be a staple crop however for the majority of the Malagasy population, and their export would continue to be a vital source of income.
During the early 18th century, Madagascar remained divided into several kingdoms often at war with one another, and the French would spend the better part of the century attempting to build alliances with various kings. In the late 1720s, gold was discovered in Ambositra, creating a gold rush, where 50,000 Europeans settled in the island over the next decade,leading the French to begin exerting direct control over most of the island, despite the relatively small amounts of gold found. With most settlers failing to find mineral wealth, many turned to farming while others engaged in the lucrative slave trade, capturing men from enemy kingdoms. Hundreds of thousands of Malagasy slaves being shipped to the Mascarenes along with others being sold to illegally to the Spanish in New Lusitania. In addition, African slaves were obtained from the mainland by Muslim traders obtaining slaves in Kilwa (modern Tanzania).
By the mid-18th century, Madagascar and the Mascarenes were amongst the richest colonies in the world, with a wealthy planter elite gaining prominence. The production of agricultural goods had managed to undercut the Spanish spice and sugar monopoly and allowed French merchants to build a lucrative trade in tropical commodities. In addition, with the introduction of quinine, the French islands of the Indian Ocean were home to nearly 100,000 Europeans by the mid-18th century (97,614 in 1748). Also, the islands became an important as a way to undercut Spanish controlled trade. In 1767, the French would further liberalise trade in the islands, with Danish, Irish and Scottish shipping all calling on Port Louis in Île de France. This would lead to further French expansion in the Indian Ocean. including the settlement of the archipelago that would come to be known as the Séchelles, after French Minister of the Marine, Jean Moreau de Séchelles.
Saint-Denis, Île d'Orléans
Early in 1642, the French began establishing their first settlements in the uninhabited Mascarene Islands in the Southern Indian Ocean. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1512, the islands had been ignored as Spanish shipping to India preferred to sail through the Mozambique Channel, calling upon East African and Arabian ports on the route to the Indies. The first French settlement was built on the Île d'Orléans (Reunion), consisting of several hundred Frenchmen and many more Malagasy slaves. However, disease and famine took a toll on the settlement, leaving the colony to French pirates, who would make use of the island as a base to attack Spanish shipping. By 1671, the French attempts to settle Madagascar had also been abandoned, and it appeared that France's attempts to build an empire in Indian Ocean were faltering.
In 1685, however the French Crown took renewed interest in its endeavours to colonise the Mascarenes by sending six-hundred settlers to the islands, and funds were lavished on building new fortifications. In addition, settlements were re-established in Madagascar, with new settlements on the northern portion of the island and on the eastern coast, where local kings became vassals of the King of France. Sugarcane was planted and soon became the most successful staple crop, allowing the French to end their dependence on Spanish sugar from the Americas. Soon, French merchants began shipping sugar through the Red Sea and then overland to the Mediterranean where it was sold by Venetian and French merchants. By the early 18th century this would have French engineers begin studying the possibility of a canal linking the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, particularly after their success in building canal in Languedoc (Canal du Midi). However, this did not go further than the planning stages due to internal turmoil in Egypt and the Ottoman Empire itself.
During the War of Hapsburg Succession, the French Empire in the Indian Ocean proved to be vulnerable, with the Spanish capturing the French factories on the Indian Subcontinent (Pondicherry and Chanernagore) along with sacking the Mascarenes and occupying Fort Sainte-Anne and Fort Dauphin in Madagascar. However, these were returned to France in 1723, with the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle and the French crown became serious about colonisation. It was at this point that the French took control of Île de France (Mauritius) and established one of the world's richest sugar-producing islands.
Piracy was suppressed and French botanists brought plants from the Indies to cultivate in Madagascar and cloves, pepper, nutmeg and cinnamon all thrived in the northern regions of the island. In addition, sugarcane was cultivated allowing a planter elite to develop on the island. Until the 1730s, most French coffee was imported from Mocha in Yemen, however in 1738 the French entered into conflict with the Imams of Yemen and bombarded the city. As a result, the cultivation of coffee was introduced on Île d'Orléans and the Madagascar highlands. The Spanish soon followed suit, introducing coffee cultivation to America. Soon, vanilla and cocoa was planted in Madagascar as well, with plants having been smuggled from America, finally cotton cultivation in the south was introduced, however this would remain relatively minor in importance. However, the production of cattle along with the cultivation of rice continued to be a staple crop however for the majority of the Malagasy population, and their export would continue to be a vital source of income.
During the early 18th century, Madagascar remained divided into several kingdoms often at war with one another, and the French would spend the better part of the century attempting to build alliances with various kings. In the late 1720s, gold was discovered in Ambositra, creating a gold rush, where 50,000 Europeans settled in the island over the next decade,leading the French to begin exerting direct control over most of the island, despite the relatively small amounts of gold found. With most settlers failing to find mineral wealth, many turned to farming while others engaged in the lucrative slave trade, capturing men from enemy kingdoms. Hundreds of thousands of Malagasy slaves being shipped to the Mascarenes along with others being sold to illegally to the Spanish in New Lusitania. In addition, African slaves were obtained from the mainland by Muslim traders obtaining slaves in Kilwa (modern Tanzania).
By the mid-18th century, Madagascar and the Mascarenes were amongst the richest colonies in the world, with a wealthy planter elite gaining prominence. The production of agricultural goods had managed to undercut the Spanish spice and sugar monopoly and allowed French merchants to build a lucrative trade in tropical commodities. In addition, with the introduction of quinine, the French islands of the Indian Ocean were home to nearly 100,000 Europeans by the mid-18th century (97,614 in 1748). Also, the islands became an important as a way to undercut Spanish controlled trade. In 1767, the French would further liberalise trade in the islands, with Danish, Irish and Scottish shipping all calling on Port Louis in Île de France. This would lead to further French expansion in the Indian Ocean. including the settlement of the archipelago that would come to be known as the Séchelles, after French Minister of the Marine, Jean Moreau de Séchelles.
Saint-Denis, Île d'Orléans
With increasing competition in the spice trade from the French in Madagascar, the Spanish were forced to adapt to the changing realities int eh Estado da Inida. By the mid-18th century, the trade in spices was no longer as profitable as it had been a century earlier. This change, led to the Estado da India being increasingly focussed on Bengal and Taungoo (Burma). The fiercest competitors in the spice trade were the French and Danish East India Companies, though they were joined by Scottish, English and Flemish traders as well. The big difference trade of Spain's European rivals was generally controlled by private individuals, sometimes in cooperation with the state, Spanish trade, on the other hand was controlled in its entirety by the Estado da India, based in Goa. Though nominally ruled from Lisbon, its physical distance from the metropole allowed the Viceroys of India a great deal of autonomy. Additionally, the large amounts of gold flowing from Nova Lusitania’s mines gave the Spanish the ability to reassert their trading empire in the Indian Ocean, which stretched from the Cape of Good Hope all the way to Nagasaki. Though Spain’s merchant houses and banking houses reaped enormous profits during throughout the 18th century, unlike with many of European competitors little of an industrial base was allowed to form in Spain itself. The Spanish Empire relied on the importation of manufactured goods from India, China, Persia and Japan rather than building its own manufactures. Ship-building was the single industry where the Spanish Crown poured large amounts of funds into, however even a large amount of this was off-shored to India where better quality timber was available.
Perhaps the most important manufactured goods the Spanish imported from Asia, in particular India were the high quality cotton textiles, considered luxuries in Europe during the 17th century. Initially, these were produced at lower prices and of such quality with which the Europeans could not compete. The brightly coloured calicoes, muslins and chintzes soon spread from Lisbon throughout the rest of Europe. By the 1670s the Coromandel Coast had become the principal supply of cotton textiles, with São Tomé de Meliapore being the principal Spanish factory in the region. Due to this growing trade, the French at Pondicherry and the Danish at Dansborg, began their own trade in textiles. Within a few decades however, Bengal began to replace the Coromandel as the source of the highest-quality cotton textiles. Devoid of spices, Bengal had been secondary to the Spanish settlements in the rest of India. Though Bengal had a large Catholic community, and an elite of mixed-race “Portuguese” traders, the region supplied foodstuffs such as rice to the East Indies. However, by 1700 Spanish imports of Bengal textiles had increased, with over three-quarters of the Spanish textiles were imported from Bengal. Based in Porto da Bengala (Chittagong), Spanish traders, often mestiços began dominating the textile trade in the region, establishing themselves in various settlements, most importantly at Dacca (Dhaka), the hub of the textile trade. They became part of a global trading network with credit being advanced by Jewish banking houses from Lisbon, which had established banking houses throughout the Estado da India. They began facilitating credit to local weavers and bargaining for the price of textiles, allowing the Spanish to become the pre-eminent traders in the region. This would soon allow Spanish traders soon expanded their trading into other commodities such as salt and grain for the local populace.
With increasing commercial control of Bengal, came political control as well. In 1711, the Spanish received a concession from the Mughal Emperor making them exempt from paying customs duties in return for an annual tribute of 200 silver reais. This gave the Spanish a commercial advantage as the Danish and French were paying forty times as much customs duties. In 1712, the Captaincy at Porto da Bengala was elevated to a governorship, and soon thereafter the Estado da India began selling alvarás or contracts for Spanish subjects to trade with other parts of the vast Estado, including the Malabar Coast, Dio in the Gujarat as well as the Persian Gulf. As a result, the Spanish Bengal merchant fleet soon grew and ousted the formerly dominant Muslim merchants in places like Gujarat. Coupled with this was the decline of the Mughal power, leaving a vacuum for the Spanish Crown to begin buying the influence of local rulers. Using the gold from Nova Lusitania, and backed by the power in Goa, they were able to win important trading privileges and concessions resulting in a situation where the Nawab of Bengal became more of a Spanish vassal than a subject of the Mughal Emperor.
Though Spanish power in Bengal resided in Porto da Bengala, the factory at Dacca (Dhaka), soon became the centre of the bustling textile trade, though other settlements such as Ugolim (Hughli), Pipli, and Sandip became important as well. In addition, a network of Spanish factories was built as far inland as Patna. The Spanish traders in the region enriched themselves, and emulated the luxurious lifestyle of the local Indian princes, smoking hookahs and behaving much like the Indian gentlemen of the region. However, Bengal was not without problems, with droughts often plaguing the supply of cotton to weavers in India by the mid-18th century. In response the Spanish Crown sent settlers from India to Mozambique where Indian prazeros established large cotton plantations. Perhaps the greatest threat to the prosperity of Bengal came with the decline of Mughal power, allowing Maratha armies to lead destructive raids into West Bengal by the 1740s. To combat this, the Estado da India began to allocate more towards building a formidable army, recruiting large numbers of soldiers from the Indian rulers as well as European soldiers from Nova Lusitania.
The quality Indian cotton textiles with their brightly coloured motifs soon became popular throughout Europe, with Spanish shipments spreading throughout the continent, and enriching Lisbon's merchants. England and Flanders had begun dominated the production of woolen textiles, including the Spanish market from which they imported vast quantities of raw wool from Spain and re-exported finished textiles. However, the woollen textiles had little success outside of Europe and the Mediterranean. By the late 17th century, the Spanish re-exports of Indian cotton textiles was seen as a threat by the European weavers, including those in Catalonia. Domestic authorities began worried about the effects on their own economies and protectionist tariffs were erected. In 1686, tariffs against Indian textiles were imposed by France, followed other countries such as Germany in 1701
.
Though a Spanish ally, England began fearing the damage to its textile industry with the flood of Indian textiles. In 1685, a 10% tariff was imposed Indian goods, and this was doubled to 20% in 1690. In 1701, the Calico Act banned the importation of dyed, painted or printed fabrics. In 1721, the Second Calico Act further increased tariffs on Indian textiles to 50% and eventually an outright ban was imposed. However, smuggled Indian calicoes still made their way to England. Perhaps the most important effect of the tariffs was to grant the English weavers a reprieve, and allow them to grow and adapt to the Indian threat behind protectionist tariff walls. The real breakthrough came in 1734, when in Lancashire a more efficient indigo dying process than the one used in India was invented by James Watkins. This coupled with new advances spinning, weaving and finishing of textiles, allowed the English to tailor their growing cotton textile industry to European tastes. In addition, the invention of new looms made the English textile industry more competitive. These new processes soon spread to Scotland and Flanders. France too began importing raw cotton from the Ottoman Empire with which it enjoyed a privileged trading relationship. In the 1670s, France imported Armenian workmen to emulate the colour and dye East Indian cottons. Soon workshops began spreading around Languedoc and to other parts of France. Southern France, already the home to the silk industry, became the leading textile producing region of France. With an increasing demand for cotton, new sources of raw cotton were needed by the European weavers. After the King of England gained control over Cyprus, cotton was cultivated in small quantities on the island, however England began coveting Ottoman Territories such as Syria where it could be acquire more, whereas France turned to Anatolia for its supplies. Increasingly, raw cotton was becoming an important staple to the weavers of England, Flanders, and France. Here to the Spanish filled the gap, as raw cotton production began to increase in Brazil and the West Indies, for export to Europe
.
Despite this, the Indian textile industry retained a preeminent position throughout the rest of the 18th century, this was due in part due to the size of the Spanish trading network. Specialised textiles were customised to the various markets, with different patterns and motifs, such as ones made for the Siamese market. The most important market however, became West Africa, where 70% of imports into Luanda and São Jorge da Mina (Elmina) consisted of cotton textiles, mostly “Guinea cloths” from India. These were traded for slaves, as the demand for slaves in the West Indies and Brazil increased exponentially during this period. Indian textiles also found another large market in America by way of Manila. Indian cottons were popular, particularly in the tropics, where cotton was preferred to wool in the manufacture of clothing. In addition, Armenian traders exported cotton textiles from Bengal overland to Persia and Ottoman Empire. In the end though, the Spanish dependence on Indian textiles kept a textile industry from forming in Spain, with only small weavers being relegated to Catalonia. Unlike in England and in France, the merchants in Spain with their colonial interests were far more powerful, and as a result only minimal duties were placed on imported cotton from the Indies.
Indian Weavers at a Loom during the Second Half of the 18th century
Perhaps the most important manufactured goods the Spanish imported from Asia, in particular India were the high quality cotton textiles, considered luxuries in Europe during the 17th century. Initially, these were produced at lower prices and of such quality with which the Europeans could not compete. The brightly coloured calicoes, muslins and chintzes soon spread from Lisbon throughout the rest of Europe. By the 1670s the Coromandel Coast had become the principal supply of cotton textiles, with São Tomé de Meliapore being the principal Spanish factory in the region. Due to this growing trade, the French at Pondicherry and the Danish at Dansborg, began their own trade in textiles. Within a few decades however, Bengal began to replace the Coromandel as the source of the highest-quality cotton textiles. Devoid of spices, Bengal had been secondary to the Spanish settlements in the rest of India. Though Bengal had a large Catholic community, and an elite of mixed-race “Portuguese” traders, the region supplied foodstuffs such as rice to the East Indies. However, by 1700 Spanish imports of Bengal textiles had increased, with over three-quarters of the Spanish textiles were imported from Bengal. Based in Porto da Bengala (Chittagong), Spanish traders, often mestiços began dominating the textile trade in the region, establishing themselves in various settlements, most importantly at Dacca (Dhaka), the hub of the textile trade. They became part of a global trading network with credit being advanced by Jewish banking houses from Lisbon, which had established banking houses throughout the Estado da India. They began facilitating credit to local weavers and bargaining for the price of textiles, allowing the Spanish to become the pre-eminent traders in the region. This would soon allow Spanish traders soon expanded their trading into other commodities such as salt and grain for the local populace.
With increasing commercial control of Bengal, came political control as well. In 1711, the Spanish received a concession from the Mughal Emperor making them exempt from paying customs duties in return for an annual tribute of 200 silver reais. This gave the Spanish a commercial advantage as the Danish and French were paying forty times as much customs duties. In 1712, the Captaincy at Porto da Bengala was elevated to a governorship, and soon thereafter the Estado da India began selling alvarás or contracts for Spanish subjects to trade with other parts of the vast Estado, including the Malabar Coast, Dio in the Gujarat as well as the Persian Gulf. As a result, the Spanish Bengal merchant fleet soon grew and ousted the formerly dominant Muslim merchants in places like Gujarat. Coupled with this was the decline of the Mughal power, leaving a vacuum for the Spanish Crown to begin buying the influence of local rulers. Using the gold from Nova Lusitania, and backed by the power in Goa, they were able to win important trading privileges and concessions resulting in a situation where the Nawab of Bengal became more of a Spanish vassal than a subject of the Mughal Emperor.
Though Spanish power in Bengal resided in Porto da Bengala, the factory at Dacca (Dhaka), soon became the centre of the bustling textile trade, though other settlements such as Ugolim (Hughli), Pipli, and Sandip became important as well. In addition, a network of Spanish factories was built as far inland as Patna. The Spanish traders in the region enriched themselves, and emulated the luxurious lifestyle of the local Indian princes, smoking hookahs and behaving much like the Indian gentlemen of the region. However, Bengal was not without problems, with droughts often plaguing the supply of cotton to weavers in India by the mid-18th century. In response the Spanish Crown sent settlers from India to Mozambique where Indian prazeros established large cotton plantations. Perhaps the greatest threat to the prosperity of Bengal came with the decline of Mughal power, allowing Maratha armies to lead destructive raids into West Bengal by the 1740s. To combat this, the Estado da India began to allocate more towards building a formidable army, recruiting large numbers of soldiers from the Indian rulers as well as European soldiers from Nova Lusitania.
The quality Indian cotton textiles with their brightly coloured motifs soon became popular throughout Europe, with Spanish shipments spreading throughout the continent, and enriching Lisbon's merchants. England and Flanders had begun dominated the production of woolen textiles, including the Spanish market from which they imported vast quantities of raw wool from Spain and re-exported finished textiles. However, the woollen textiles had little success outside of Europe and the Mediterranean. By the late 17th century, the Spanish re-exports of Indian cotton textiles was seen as a threat by the European weavers, including those in Catalonia. Domestic authorities began worried about the effects on their own economies and protectionist tariffs were erected. In 1686, tariffs against Indian textiles were imposed by France, followed other countries such as Germany in 1701
.
Though a Spanish ally, England began fearing the damage to its textile industry with the flood of Indian textiles. In 1685, a 10% tariff was imposed Indian goods, and this was doubled to 20% in 1690. In 1701, the Calico Act banned the importation of dyed, painted or printed fabrics. In 1721, the Second Calico Act further increased tariffs on Indian textiles to 50% and eventually an outright ban was imposed. However, smuggled Indian calicoes still made their way to England. Perhaps the most important effect of the tariffs was to grant the English weavers a reprieve, and allow them to grow and adapt to the Indian threat behind protectionist tariff walls. The real breakthrough came in 1734, when in Lancashire a more efficient indigo dying process than the one used in India was invented by James Watkins. This coupled with new advances spinning, weaving and finishing of textiles, allowed the English to tailor their growing cotton textile industry to European tastes. In addition, the invention of new looms made the English textile industry more competitive. These new processes soon spread to Scotland and Flanders. France too began importing raw cotton from the Ottoman Empire with which it enjoyed a privileged trading relationship. In the 1670s, France imported Armenian workmen to emulate the colour and dye East Indian cottons. Soon workshops began spreading around Languedoc and to other parts of France. Southern France, already the home to the silk industry, became the leading textile producing region of France. With an increasing demand for cotton, new sources of raw cotton were needed by the European weavers. After the King of England gained control over Cyprus, cotton was cultivated in small quantities on the island, however England began coveting Ottoman Territories such as Syria where it could be acquire more, whereas France turned to Anatolia for its supplies. Increasingly, raw cotton was becoming an important staple to the weavers of England, Flanders, and France. Here to the Spanish filled the gap, as raw cotton production began to increase in Brazil and the West Indies, for export to Europe
.
Despite this, the Indian textile industry retained a preeminent position throughout the rest of the 18th century, this was due in part due to the size of the Spanish trading network. Specialised textiles were customised to the various markets, with different patterns and motifs, such as ones made for the Siamese market. The most important market however, became West Africa, where 70% of imports into Luanda and São Jorge da Mina (Elmina) consisted of cotton textiles, mostly “Guinea cloths” from India. These were traded for slaves, as the demand for slaves in the West Indies and Brazil increased exponentially during this period. Indian textiles also found another large market in America by way of Manila. Indian cottons were popular, particularly in the tropics, where cotton was preferred to wool in the manufacture of clothing. In addition, Armenian traders exported cotton textiles from Bengal overland to Persia and Ottoman Empire. In the end though, the Spanish dependence on Indian textiles kept a textile industry from forming in Spain, with only small weavers being relegated to Catalonia. Unlike in England and in France, the merchants in Spain with their colonial interests were far more powerful, and as a result only minimal duties were placed on imported cotton from the Indies.
Indian Weavers at a Loom during the Second Half of the 18th century
This must be one of the best TLs here. So explanative.
For what it seems the Spanish Empire has one advantage that is a huge internal colonial market. That they get their textiles from India is a good news for the Indians themselves, but it might come to bite the Spanish back in the future.
I really enjoyed seeing that Spanish presence in India is indeed very Indian. A multiethnic global empire is always a treat to the eyes. Keep up the good work!
For what it seems the Spanish Empire has one advantage that is a huge internal colonial market. That they get their textiles from India is a good news for the Indians themselves, but it might come to bite the Spanish back in the future.
I really enjoyed seeing that Spanish presence in India is indeed very Indian. A multiethnic global empire is always a treat to the eyes. Keep up the good work!
The East Indies
By the 18th century the importance of the spice trade to Spain centered around the Spice Islands (Moluccas), had declined due to increasing competition from other European powers, along with the appearance of new sources of spices in the Americas and East Africa. Had this not coincided with discovery of gold in Nova Lusitania, it is possible that the Spanish Crown might have reduced its presence in the region to a few ports in the region as relics of a more glorious age. However, the gold brought new life to the moribund Estado da Índia, particularly in the Far East.
By the early 18th century, French Compagnie des Indes Orientales and the Danish East India Company had broken the Spanish monopoly in the region, and they were soon joined by the English, Scots, Bretons and lesser European maritime powers. Even in China, where the Spanish had a monopoly of trade through Macau, the Chinese agreed to open Canton, 88 miles up the Pearl River to foreign commerce. The French took advantage of this in 1724, building a trading station there, however it would be the Scandinavians, sailing under the Danish flag who would establish a lucrative trade in tea, silks and porcelains between China and Northern Europe.
In response to foreign competition with Asian-European trade, the Spanish sought to focus on controlling intra-Asian trade. However, much of the Spanish trade in the Far East was controlled by Chinese merchants from the Pearl River Delta who would settle in the Spanish colonies, many converting to Catholicism and forming a powerful, but often hated merchant class. They were able to trade even with areas often hostile to the Spanish such as the Sulu Archipelago. In the Lazarine Islands, the Chinese established a lucrative trade, acquiring new world silver in return for porcelain, silk and tea which made its way to America. Their growing importance often led to jealousy from locals along with the Spanish however, as a result, at different times restrictions were placed on the Chinese and occasionally resulted in wholesale massacres, however they remained undeterred and their wealth and power only increased.
Perhaps the most ironic consequence of the declining revenues from the spice trade was the increasing political control over lands in the Far East by the Estado da India. To offset decreasing revenues from the spice trade, the collection of taxes from farms and mines around the Spanish settlements became increasingly important. Areas like Ceylon and Java were divided into administrative regions called comarcas, resembling the administrative divisions of Spain itself, and local rulers were supplanted with Crown Officials. This led to a larger bureaucracy as more soldiers and sailors were required to defend and administer the expanding empire. In other areas, Spanish officials began obtaining the right to appoint local rulers, including sultans, thereby obtaining indirect control over new regions. In an effort to control revenue, Spanish officials drew up lists of nutmeg and cinnamon trees, along with the population of inhabitants in villages. Working in conjunction with church officials, they drew up lists of marriages and births as well. Surveying land and drawing up maps also became a part of the local administration.
In their efforts to shut out European rivals from the Far East, the Spanish began securing new monopoly trading rights in the East Indies from various rulers, often by force. In the mid-17th century the Spanish had turned the Mataram Sultanate into a virtual protectorate, and after a debilitating Succession War between 1703 and 1708, it was annexed into Spanish Java, giving them an important source of rice, and with the annexation of the island of Madura, salt. As the revenues from pepper declined, the Spanish encouraged the cultivation of coffee, sugarcane, quinine, and rice. As demand for coffee in Europe increased, it soon became the island’s principal export and by 1750 accounted for two-thirds of Java’s exports, planted on the highlands it would lead to an unprecedented expansion into the hinterlands of Java.
Though coffee became important to Java, one of the largest founts of revenue for the Estado da India was the importation of opium from Bengal, with the Estado da India collecting a profit equal to over 500 tonnes of silver at Porto da Espanha during the 18th century. The trade had begun as early as the 16th century, but began expanding rapidly during the late 17th century. Initially most of the Spanish opium trade was from Bihar to the Malabar Coast of India. However, Java, Sumatra and Malaya became the largest markets for the drug, from where it was re-exported to China. The French and Danes took notice and they too began sourcing opium from their factories in Bengal to export it to Sumatra and Malaya, however they were only able to export a fraction of what the Spanish. As a result, Porto de Espanha (Jakarta) reversed its decline to become a major city. The fortified city, was planned in a grid pattern, and by 1700 was home to over 25,000 inhabitants by 1700, with another 50,000 living outside the fortifications, of these, one-third being slaves. In addition, 10,000 Chinese also lived in the city, with half of them living within the European walled city. Just as in Manila and Malaca, the Chinese became merchants, acquiring opium and pepper and exporting the goods by junk to China. Many however settled and became farm labourers, while many eventually began their own plantations and established sugar mills, producing refined sugar and rum for export.
Another important commodity in the region, was tin, with Malaca on the Malay Peninsula being its trading hub. Here too, the Spanish sought to impose a monopoly over the tin mines of the region. In the 16th century, Indian traders had sought to escape the Spanish monopoly in Malaca by trading at Tenasserim, however, in 1605 this too was conquered by the Spaniards. However, Siam remained an important source of tin, and initially there Spanish were successful in influencing the Siamese kings to grant them a monopoly. By the late 17th century however, the Siamese became wary of Spanish territorial expansion in the region. In 1681, there was a dispute with the Spanish over the Sultanate of Jambi on the island of Sumatra. The King of Siam declared that it was a Siamese vassal, while the Sultan of Mataram (who was a Spanish vassal) claimed overlordship of Jambi. The French traders in the region fanned the anti-Spanish sentiments in Ayutthaya, sending weapons to the Siamese and in 1687 succeeded in obtaining a tin monopoly and the right to build a fort at Phuket. This was followed with another fort at Singorre (Singora) in 1689. However, in 1690, the French themselves were expelled from Siam.
Tin production was also important in Perak and Kedah on the Malay Peninsula, however the Spanish sought to direct this trade through the port of Malaca. As in Java, the Chinese traders and miners were important in the region and in 1743, Chinese backed by Spanish attacked Perak, conquering it from Aceh. As a result in 1746 a monopoly was won by the Spanish over Perak tin trade. The Spanish now controlled over half of Malaya’s tin trade, however the sultans of Perak and Kedah were free to sell to French and Danes. Only 10% of tin went to Europe, with the vast majority going to China. At Malaca, Chinese merchants traded tea for tin, opium, pepper and rattan. With the tin being used to line the tea chests of tea being shipped to Europe so as to preserve the flavour and to a lesser extent to back sacred paper used in China. This situation only changed in the late 18th century, this changed as the English began importing large quantities of tin.
As the demand for tin in China increased, so too did the Spanish efforts to control production and trade in other regions. Though Malaya and Siam were important, tin increasingly mined in West Sumatra and Riau. There Chinese miners from Yunnan known as "Ticos" became the primary intermediaries as they were thought to possess superior mining skills. Though the Spanish controlled Palembang in Southern Sumatra, the rest of the island remained resistant to the Spaniards, with various rulers trading freely with European rivals. Palembang controlled Banca (Bangka), leading the Spanish to take direct control of the island, and gain revenue over its mines. Soon, the tin sourced from Banca became cheaper than that from Siam or Malaya, and by the mid-18th century the island became the centre of the lucrative tin trade. To further shut out rivals, in 1761-1765, the Spanish waged war to conquer Riau in an attempt to control the trade.
A mestico "Portuguese" man and his native wife in Java c.1704
By the 18th century the importance of the spice trade to Spain centered around the Spice Islands (Moluccas), had declined due to increasing competition from other European powers, along with the appearance of new sources of spices in the Americas and East Africa. Had this not coincided with discovery of gold in Nova Lusitania, it is possible that the Spanish Crown might have reduced its presence in the region to a few ports in the region as relics of a more glorious age. However, the gold brought new life to the moribund Estado da Índia, particularly in the Far East.
By the early 18th century, French Compagnie des Indes Orientales and the Danish East India Company had broken the Spanish monopoly in the region, and they were soon joined by the English, Scots, Bretons and lesser European maritime powers. Even in China, where the Spanish had a monopoly of trade through Macau, the Chinese agreed to open Canton, 88 miles up the Pearl River to foreign commerce. The French took advantage of this in 1724, building a trading station there, however it would be the Scandinavians, sailing under the Danish flag who would establish a lucrative trade in tea, silks and porcelains between China and Northern Europe.
In response to foreign competition with Asian-European trade, the Spanish sought to focus on controlling intra-Asian trade. However, much of the Spanish trade in the Far East was controlled by Chinese merchants from the Pearl River Delta who would settle in the Spanish colonies, many converting to Catholicism and forming a powerful, but often hated merchant class. They were able to trade even with areas often hostile to the Spanish such as the Sulu Archipelago. In the Lazarine Islands, the Chinese established a lucrative trade, acquiring new world silver in return for porcelain, silk and tea which made its way to America. Their growing importance often led to jealousy from locals along with the Spanish however, as a result, at different times restrictions were placed on the Chinese and occasionally resulted in wholesale massacres, however they remained undeterred and their wealth and power only increased.
Perhaps the most ironic consequence of the declining revenues from the spice trade was the increasing political control over lands in the Far East by the Estado da India. To offset decreasing revenues from the spice trade, the collection of taxes from farms and mines around the Spanish settlements became increasingly important. Areas like Ceylon and Java were divided into administrative regions called comarcas, resembling the administrative divisions of Spain itself, and local rulers were supplanted with Crown Officials. This led to a larger bureaucracy as more soldiers and sailors were required to defend and administer the expanding empire. In other areas, Spanish officials began obtaining the right to appoint local rulers, including sultans, thereby obtaining indirect control over new regions. In an effort to control revenue, Spanish officials drew up lists of nutmeg and cinnamon trees, along with the population of inhabitants in villages. Working in conjunction with church officials, they drew up lists of marriages and births as well. Surveying land and drawing up maps also became a part of the local administration.
In their efforts to shut out European rivals from the Far East, the Spanish began securing new monopoly trading rights in the East Indies from various rulers, often by force. In the mid-17th century the Spanish had turned the Mataram Sultanate into a virtual protectorate, and after a debilitating Succession War between 1703 and 1708, it was annexed into Spanish Java, giving them an important source of rice, and with the annexation of the island of Madura, salt. As the revenues from pepper declined, the Spanish encouraged the cultivation of coffee, sugarcane, quinine, and rice. As demand for coffee in Europe increased, it soon became the island’s principal export and by 1750 accounted for two-thirds of Java’s exports, planted on the highlands it would lead to an unprecedented expansion into the hinterlands of Java.
Though coffee became important to Java, one of the largest founts of revenue for the Estado da India was the importation of opium from Bengal, with the Estado da India collecting a profit equal to over 500 tonnes of silver at Porto da Espanha during the 18th century. The trade had begun as early as the 16th century, but began expanding rapidly during the late 17th century. Initially most of the Spanish opium trade was from Bihar to the Malabar Coast of India. However, Java, Sumatra and Malaya became the largest markets for the drug, from where it was re-exported to China. The French and Danes took notice and they too began sourcing opium from their factories in Bengal to export it to Sumatra and Malaya, however they were only able to export a fraction of what the Spanish. As a result, Porto de Espanha (Jakarta) reversed its decline to become a major city. The fortified city, was planned in a grid pattern, and by 1700 was home to over 25,000 inhabitants by 1700, with another 50,000 living outside the fortifications, of these, one-third being slaves. In addition, 10,000 Chinese also lived in the city, with half of them living within the European walled city. Just as in Manila and Malaca, the Chinese became merchants, acquiring opium and pepper and exporting the goods by junk to China. Many however settled and became farm labourers, while many eventually began their own plantations and established sugar mills, producing refined sugar and rum for export.
Another important commodity in the region, was tin, with Malaca on the Malay Peninsula being its trading hub. Here too, the Spanish sought to impose a monopoly over the tin mines of the region. In the 16th century, Indian traders had sought to escape the Spanish monopoly in Malaca by trading at Tenasserim, however, in 1605 this too was conquered by the Spaniards. However, Siam remained an important source of tin, and initially there Spanish were successful in influencing the Siamese kings to grant them a monopoly. By the late 17th century however, the Siamese became wary of Spanish territorial expansion in the region. In 1681, there was a dispute with the Spanish over the Sultanate of Jambi on the island of Sumatra. The King of Siam declared that it was a Siamese vassal, while the Sultan of Mataram (who was a Spanish vassal) claimed overlordship of Jambi. The French traders in the region fanned the anti-Spanish sentiments in Ayutthaya, sending weapons to the Siamese and in 1687 succeeded in obtaining a tin monopoly and the right to build a fort at Phuket. This was followed with another fort at Singorre (Singora) in 1689. However, in 1690, the French themselves were expelled from Siam.
Tin production was also important in Perak and Kedah on the Malay Peninsula, however the Spanish sought to direct this trade through the port of Malaca. As in Java, the Chinese traders and miners were important in the region and in 1743, Chinese backed by Spanish attacked Perak, conquering it from Aceh. As a result in 1746 a monopoly was won by the Spanish over Perak tin trade. The Spanish now controlled over half of Malaya’s tin trade, however the sultans of Perak and Kedah were free to sell to French and Danes. Only 10% of tin went to Europe, with the vast majority going to China. At Malaca, Chinese merchants traded tea for tin, opium, pepper and rattan. With the tin being used to line the tea chests of tea being shipped to Europe so as to preserve the flavour and to a lesser extent to back sacred paper used in China. This situation only changed in the late 18th century, this changed as the English began importing large quantities of tin.
As the demand for tin in China increased, so too did the Spanish efforts to control production and trade in other regions. Though Malaya and Siam were important, tin increasingly mined in West Sumatra and Riau. There Chinese miners from Yunnan known as "Ticos" became the primary intermediaries as they were thought to possess superior mining skills. Though the Spanish controlled Palembang in Southern Sumatra, the rest of the island remained resistant to the Spaniards, with various rulers trading freely with European rivals. Palembang controlled Banca (Bangka), leading the Spanish to take direct control of the island, and gain revenue over its mines. Soon, the tin sourced from Banca became cheaper than that from Siam or Malaya, and by the mid-18th century the island became the centre of the lucrative tin trade. To further shut out rivals, in 1761-1765, the Spanish waged war to conquer Riau in an attempt to control the trade.
A mestico "Portuguese" man and his native wife in Java c.1704
Persia and India
When the Portuguese first established their presence in the Persian Gulf in the 16th century, they had gained access to the markets of Persia and Mesopotamia. The Spaniards had traded extensively in the Persian Gulf and possessed a customs house and a Carmelite Monastery in Basra, along with a forts on the island of Failaca and at Coveite (Kuwait). In addition, they collected customs revenues at Kong in Persia and protected an Augustinian Monastery in Isfahan, the Safavid capital of Persia.
However, the region's importance had declined, and by the late 17th century the forts were relics of more prosperous times, with Ormuz reduced to the role of a small fishing village. In addition, the area suffered from several epidemics of the plague and by the 1690s the population of lower Mesopotamia had been greatly reduced, and as a result so too was the local market for goods from India. This was followed by a Persian occupation in 1701, and as a result of wars and epidemics, the population of the city had shrunk from 80,000 in 1605 to 5,000 in 1705. Additionally, Basra had been hampered by its geographic location, as it was a considerable distance from the open water of the Persian Gulf, accessible only via a treacherous estuary filled with shifting shoals and sandbanks. As a result, by the mid-18th century, much of Basra’s former trade had shifted to Spanish Coveite, which was now a source of pearls as well.
Persia, ruled by the Safavids was also experiencing a decline in fortunes. Beginning in 1716, the Persian Empire was plagued by a series revolts, with the most menacing coming from the Afghan tribes of Eastern Persia. In 1716, the Hotakis managed to overthrow the Safavid Shah that year. In addition, revolts by the Sunni Muslims, supported by the Ottomans in the Eastern part of the Persian Empire were menacing the empire as well. To make matters worse, in 1722, Russia in an attempt to grab territory, invaded Persia to occupy the Caucasus. That same year, the Afghans laid siege to Isfahan, Persia’s capital city. Initially unaware of just how weak Safavid power had become, the Marquis of Cienfuegos, Captain of Hormuz sent a request for ships with weapons Goa, but the flotilla arrived too late in 1723, by which time the Afghans were firmly in control. Meanwhile, the Ottomans and Russians signed a Peace Treaty in 1723 and agreed to divide the spoils of war in the Caucasus between them.
By 1730, a new force emerged in Persia, the Ashfars, an Afghan tribe led by Nadir Shah, a formidable military leader who would become ruler of Persia. That same year, he declared war on the Ottomans, expelling the Turks from much of their newly conquered territory. In 1732, he allied himself with the Russians against the Ottomans, and was able to not only win back the lost territories in the Caucasus, but also gain control of Mesopotamia. In 1733, he besieged Baghdad, forcing the Ottomans to surrender territory, and in 1735, he signed a peace treaty with the Russians and the Ottomans, allowing him to turn his attention to India. As a result of his successes, in 1738, the Hotakis last stronghold in Kandahar was captured by Nadir Shah.
Seeking an opportune moment to plunder the riches of India, Nadir Shah launched a war against the much weakened Mughal Empire under the pretext of removing the Marathas, claiming that the Mughals were allowing the infidels to conquer Muslim lands. In 1737 he laid siege to Delhi, finally capturing the city in 1739, looting its fabulous treasures, among them the famed "Peacock Throne". Realising the strength of the Afghans, the Spanish formed an alliance with Nadir Shah, to protect themselves from the rising power of the Marathas on the subcontinent. Additionally, the Spanish were allowed to maintain their presence in various islands off the Persian Gulf, including Qeixome, Larak and Ormuz.
Beginning in 1737, the Spanish had been unofficially at war with the Marathas in India. They had harassed Spanish settlements along the Malabar Coast and were disrupting the economic activity around the Northern Provinces in Damão. In 1739, the Marathas laid siege to Goa, and Chaul, capturing Bassein and Salsette, with only Bombaim (Bombay) resisting. The Marathas were hoping to compel the Spanish to pay an annual tribute, however the Viceroy refused. Fortunately, in October 1739, after the monsoon season, 20,000 reinforcements from Ceylon and East Africa arrived in Goa and Bombaim. Had they not arrived, Bombaim may have capitulated. In addition, the Spanish Viceroy sent envoys to Nadir Shah for an alliance.
Having been routed on land, the Maratha Navy was defeated at Bombaim in 1740, therefore Maratha attention turned to defending the Deccan, the very heart of Maratha power from the Afghans. The Spanish had paid the equivalent of 4 million rupees to Nadir Shah and he sent his forces there in a diversionary tactic to relieve the pressure on Spanish India. However, Nadir Shah soon returned to Persia, taking with him the booty he had looted from India. The Marathas were not defeated yet however, and In 1741, led by Balaji Baji Rao they sent their forces into Bihar and Bengal, threatening the valuable opium producing regions so important to the Spaniards. However, after 1740 the Marathas were badly divided by infighting, allowing the Spaniards to use their financial power to build a large army and allies in India, extending their control into Bihar, leading the Marathas to focus on Punjab instead. In 1757, the Maratahas captured Delhi from the moribund Moghuls and later Lahore, expelling the Afghani representatives. These moves led the Spaniards to send weapons and financial backing to the Durrani Afghans who in 1759 sent an army of over 100,000 to recapture Delhi and re-establish the Mughal Emperors. Though they had received training and weapons from the French, the Marathas had been formidable foes for the Spaniards but were ultimately defeated by their lack of cohesion.
Below the Peacock Throne of the Mughals, captured by Nadir Shah in 1739 and brought back to Persia as part of his loot.
When the Portuguese first established their presence in the Persian Gulf in the 16th century, they had gained access to the markets of Persia and Mesopotamia. The Spaniards had traded extensively in the Persian Gulf and possessed a customs house and a Carmelite Monastery in Basra, along with a forts on the island of Failaca and at Coveite (Kuwait). In addition, they collected customs revenues at Kong in Persia and protected an Augustinian Monastery in Isfahan, the Safavid capital of Persia.
However, the region's importance had declined, and by the late 17th century the forts were relics of more prosperous times, with Ormuz reduced to the role of a small fishing village. In addition, the area suffered from several epidemics of the plague and by the 1690s the population of lower Mesopotamia had been greatly reduced, and as a result so too was the local market for goods from India. This was followed by a Persian occupation in 1701, and as a result of wars and epidemics, the population of the city had shrunk from 80,000 in 1605 to 5,000 in 1705. Additionally, Basra had been hampered by its geographic location, as it was a considerable distance from the open water of the Persian Gulf, accessible only via a treacherous estuary filled with shifting shoals and sandbanks. As a result, by the mid-18th century, much of Basra’s former trade had shifted to Spanish Coveite, which was now a source of pearls as well.
Persia, ruled by the Safavids was also experiencing a decline in fortunes. Beginning in 1716, the Persian Empire was plagued by a series revolts, with the most menacing coming from the Afghan tribes of Eastern Persia. In 1716, the Hotakis managed to overthrow the Safavid Shah that year. In addition, revolts by the Sunni Muslims, supported by the Ottomans in the Eastern part of the Persian Empire were menacing the empire as well. To make matters worse, in 1722, Russia in an attempt to grab territory, invaded Persia to occupy the Caucasus. That same year, the Afghans laid siege to Isfahan, Persia’s capital city. Initially unaware of just how weak Safavid power had become, the Marquis of Cienfuegos, Captain of Hormuz sent a request for ships with weapons Goa, but the flotilla arrived too late in 1723, by which time the Afghans were firmly in control. Meanwhile, the Ottomans and Russians signed a Peace Treaty in 1723 and agreed to divide the spoils of war in the Caucasus between them.
By 1730, a new force emerged in Persia, the Ashfars, an Afghan tribe led by Nadir Shah, a formidable military leader who would become ruler of Persia. That same year, he declared war on the Ottomans, expelling the Turks from much of their newly conquered territory. In 1732, he allied himself with the Russians against the Ottomans, and was able to not only win back the lost territories in the Caucasus, but also gain control of Mesopotamia. In 1733, he besieged Baghdad, forcing the Ottomans to surrender territory, and in 1735, he signed a peace treaty with the Russians and the Ottomans, allowing him to turn his attention to India. As a result of his successes, in 1738, the Hotakis last stronghold in Kandahar was captured by Nadir Shah.
Seeking an opportune moment to plunder the riches of India, Nadir Shah launched a war against the much weakened Mughal Empire under the pretext of removing the Marathas, claiming that the Mughals were allowing the infidels to conquer Muslim lands. In 1737 he laid siege to Delhi, finally capturing the city in 1739, looting its fabulous treasures, among them the famed "Peacock Throne". Realising the strength of the Afghans, the Spanish formed an alliance with Nadir Shah, to protect themselves from the rising power of the Marathas on the subcontinent. Additionally, the Spanish were allowed to maintain their presence in various islands off the Persian Gulf, including Qeixome, Larak and Ormuz.
Beginning in 1737, the Spanish had been unofficially at war with the Marathas in India. They had harassed Spanish settlements along the Malabar Coast and were disrupting the economic activity around the Northern Provinces in Damão. In 1739, the Marathas laid siege to Goa, and Chaul, capturing Bassein and Salsette, with only Bombaim (Bombay) resisting. The Marathas were hoping to compel the Spanish to pay an annual tribute, however the Viceroy refused. Fortunately, in October 1739, after the monsoon season, 20,000 reinforcements from Ceylon and East Africa arrived in Goa and Bombaim. Had they not arrived, Bombaim may have capitulated. In addition, the Spanish Viceroy sent envoys to Nadir Shah for an alliance.
Having been routed on land, the Maratha Navy was defeated at Bombaim in 1740, therefore Maratha attention turned to defending the Deccan, the very heart of Maratha power from the Afghans. The Spanish had paid the equivalent of 4 million rupees to Nadir Shah and he sent his forces there in a diversionary tactic to relieve the pressure on Spanish India. However, Nadir Shah soon returned to Persia, taking with him the booty he had looted from India. The Marathas were not defeated yet however, and In 1741, led by Balaji Baji Rao they sent their forces into Bihar and Bengal, threatening the valuable opium producing regions so important to the Spaniards. However, after 1740 the Marathas were badly divided by infighting, allowing the Spaniards to use their financial power to build a large army and allies in India, extending their control into Bihar, leading the Marathas to focus on Punjab instead. In 1757, the Maratahas captured Delhi from the moribund Moghuls and later Lahore, expelling the Afghani representatives. These moves led the Spaniards to send weapons and financial backing to the Durrani Afghans who in 1759 sent an army of over 100,000 to recapture Delhi and re-establish the Mughal Emperors. Though they had received training and weapons from the French, the Marathas had been formidable foes for the Spaniards but were ultimately defeated by their lack of cohesion.
Below the Peacock Throne of the Mughals, captured by Nadir Shah in 1739 and brought back to Persia as part of his loot.
The Estado da India is actually in a better position in India ITTL than the BEIC in Clive's day - basically combining the OTL British, French, Dutch, and Portuguese possessions, plus Burma! It's seeming more and more likely that by around 1800-1820 Spain will control much of India and Egypt directly - setting the stage for a global juggernaut in the 19th Century.
Siamese isolation could spell trouble for them if they don't moderate, given Spanish power in the region. How do things stand in Annam for European traders and Catholic missionaries?
Siamese isolation could spell trouble for them if they don't moderate, given Spanish power in the region. How do things stand in Annam for European traders and Catholic missionaries?
North Africa
In 1415, Portugal's conquest of Ceuta in North Africa had initiated the beginning of the kingdom's overseas expansion and the beginning of the Christian reconquista of North Africa from the Moors. Though the Kingdoms of Fez and Morocco (Marrakech) appeared to be a relatively poor and barren land, particularly once the New World was discovered, the Portuguese, Castilian and later Spanish Crown would spend the next four centuries on the reconquest of North Africa.
Initially, the Portuguese expansion was motivated by the desire to protect the Algarve coast from raids North African corsairs, and to secure a portion of the lucrative Trans-Saharan in gold and slaves from West Africa. However, by the late 15th century, the establishment of forts in West Africa allowed Portugal to redirect this trade to its maritime routes, making Fez and Morocco unnecessary. One of the other economic reasons the Portuguese coveted North Africa was for its grain and agricultural lands, as the kingdom lacked a steady supply of grain, however this too became redundant once North America began sending steady supplies of wheat, flour and rice to Portugal. Perhaps the most compelling reason to continue the reconquista was idealogical rather than economic. The crusade in North Africa brought Portugal prestige in the eyes of the Papacy and also gave its nobles valuable military training, which would prove useful in the conquest of America, and that is why the Kings of Portugal, and later Spain would continue to allocate vast resources to their expansion in North Africa.
The conquest of Ceuta was soon followed by the conquest of additional ports, including Alcácer-Ceguer in 1458. Though this required a force of 25,000 men led by King Afonso V, a massive undertaking for Portugal at the time. This was followed by Tangier and Arzila in 1471, Mazagão in 1485, Safi in 1488 and Graciosa in 1489. Not be left out, the Castilians soon turned their eyes towards North Africa, and in 1476 Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña was established opposite the Canary Islands to supply the sugar plantations of the islands with slaves. Castile however, would only begin focussing on the North African crusade after 1492 once the Moors had been expelled from Andalusia. The next phase of Castilian expansion began in 1497 when Melilla was conquered. In 1499, Cardinal Cisneros of Castile, adviser to Queen Juana made it his priority to continue the reconquista into North Africa and began preparing an army to that effect, just as the Portuguese interest was overshadowed by the riches of the East and West Indies.
In the early 16th century, Portugal established a few more fortresses in North Africa, however the kingdom had a mere 1 million inhabitants and its manpower was stretched as the overseas empire took precedence. In 1513, Dom Jaime, Duke of Braganza had informed the king that between fifty and sixty-thousand men were needed to colonise the Maghreb, however these could not be spared as the Indies required the manpower. This issue became acute with the capture of the Portuguese fortress at Mamora by the Moors in 1515. King Afonso used the defeat to rebuild the existing Portuguese fortresses, spending lavish amounts of money to hire Italian and French engineers to build the largest and most secure fortresses in Africa. However, the reality of Portuguese North Africa by 1520 was that it controlled much of the coastline with heavily garrisoned fortress cities, but the hinterlands remained under Moorish control, forcing the Christian inhabitants to rely on ships from Portugal for provisions.
In comparison to Portugal, Castile with its 5 million inhabitants was unencumbered by an overseas entanglements or wars other parts of Europe as Aragon was. During Queen Juana's reign, Castile began its expansionary phase in 1505, and in 1509 it captured Oran from the King of Tlemcen, reducing him to a Aragonese Vassal. In 1510 Algiers and Bugia (Bejaia) were captured, helping to remove the threat of piracy to the Spanish coastal cities. In a joint attack with Aragon, Tripoli was captured in 1511 and given over to the Knights of Saint John to use as a base to attack the Moors. In 1530 with the union of the Spanish Kingdoms under King Afonso, Castile now had access to the seemingly endless reservoir of silver and gold, allowing massive operations to be undertaken against the Muslims and their Ottoman allies. This came just in time, because the Ottomans had arrived in the region, attacking Algiers by sea in 1518, and again in 1529. The combination of resources of the new Spanish Kingdom culminated with the conquest of Tunis in 1535. This was a military operation funded by Portugal which included The Papal States, and Genoa with a force of 400 ships and 60,000 troops. The conquest was seen as a success, helping to protect Malta and Sicily from constant raids. In 1540, another joint operation with the Genoese was undertaken and they conquered Tabarca (ceded to Spain in 1752). More importantly in 1541, the conquest of Bona (Annaba) was undertaken with 24,000 soldiers, further extending Spain's grip on North Africa.
However, another threat was rising in the west, the Saadi who had seized Morocco (Marrakech) from the Wattasid Sultans in 1524, and sought to take control of the Kingdom of Fez as well. In 1536, the King of Fez declared himself a Spanish vassal in return for support against the Saadi. Despite this support, the Saadi power continued to grow, and in 1541 they laid siege to several Spanish fortresses, forcing the establishment of a costly permanent garrison of 60,000 in North Africa. Despite this increased Spanish presence, in 1549, Fez fell to the Saadi and in 1554, the last Wattasid sultan sought refuge in Arzila. Further east, Tlemcen was captured by a joint Castilian-Aragonese force in 1543, only to be lost to the Ottomans in 1554. However, in 1558, Murustaga (Mostaganem) was captured and held, along with Tetuan, Xauen and Velez de la Gomera by 1567, halting Ottoman expansion westwards.
Despite this, Ottoman power was at its peak, and in 1560 the Ottomans were able to lay siege to Tripoli and attack of Sicily, diverting Spanish troops to Italy. In Fez and Morocco, the Saadi had triumphed, but in 1574, Sultan Abdallah Mohammed Al-Mutawakkil II arrived in Lisbon requesting an alliance against his uncle who had usurped his throne and was allied to the Ottoman Turks. The Spanish King acquiesced, sending a large army and armaments to North Africa to fight the Ottomans. In 1575, the Ottomans laid siege to Tunis and sent troops west completely unopposed, culminating in The Battle of Fez in 1576, with both Saadi claimants to the Moroccan throne being killed in a battle. However, Spain won control of Fez and its now depopulated hinterlands.
This constant state of war in North Africa throughout the 16th century had greatly reduced the population as the Muslim population fled inland away from the Spanish controlled coastal regions. Additionally, the influx of Spanish silver, drastically increased inflation as local currency became worthless, impoverishing the locals. In addition, Spanish control of the coastline and strategic forts disrupted trade and the overall economy of the region. After the defeat of his brother in 1576, Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur of Morocco turned to the weakened Songhai Empire as a source of revenue from salt and gold, hoping to raise revenues to fight the Spaniards. He dispatched his army across the Sahara desert, sacking Timbuktu and Gao and as a result established an empire in the interior of West Africa.
The conquest of Fez marked a decisive turning point in Spanish North Africa, as Spanish control extended inland. New forts were built to defend settlements from the Moors. Noblemen were recruited to defend the garrisons for two to three year periods, often in return for land and more prestigious commissions in the West Indies. Initially, convicts were used as settlers, however, African slaves were also important as soldiers in the region, often being granted their freedom along with monetary gain in return for their services. The Jewish population of the region, many of whom were descendants of the Jews expelled from Castile in 1391 and already spoke Castilian, settled in Spanish towns and act as intermediaries between the Spaniards and Moors, trading in goods and eventually also in the exchange of captives.
As Spanish control of the hinterlands increased, many of the Muslim inhabitants fled to the Atlas mountains, however others made their way though the Sahara to the growing Saadi inland empire, profiting in the trade of gold, slaves and salt. The Spanish policies towards Muslims were often ambiguous at best, and brutal at their worst. With atrocities committed on both sides, the Spanish troops resorted to scorched earth policies, destroying entire towns, using wooden beams for fire and destroying the homes they did not occupy, often massacring the inhabitants. As a result, many Muslims became refugees, heading west to the safety of Ottoman lands. As a result of this exodus, in 1622, the Spanish were able to conquer Morocco (Marrakech). However, east of Algiers, the Spanish situation was far more precarious, with the hinterland controlled by the Ottomans. In 1642, the Ottomans laid siege to Tunis and were able to capture Tripoli, making it a base of piracy against the Spanish Mediterranean. Meanwhile Algiers was also surrounded, with only Spain's navy being able to bring food to its inhabitants. The low point for Spain came in 1663 when Tunis was captured after a sixteen-month siege by the Ottomans.
However, by the 1680s, the Spanish Navy had been rebuilt and with lavish funds to spend on its army, King Pedro made recapturing Tunis a priority. In 1686 the city was once again under Spanish control, after a long battle and the massacre of much of its inhabitants. The Spanish army of over 120,000 in North Africa was able to capture Berenice (Benghazi) and Antipyrgos (Tobruk), making its way towards Egypt, before the Ottomans sued for peace.
After the 1680s, the Spaniards began to usurp larger tracts of land in North Africa, often expelling the Muslim inhabitants. This led to a protracted state of conflict, that which though costly to the Spanish Crown, was deemed necessary. By 1700, the Muslim population North of the Sahara was estimated to be 2-2.5 million, however as Arab lands were taken away, many fled to crowded settlements inland, often coming into conflict with the Berbers. In addition, they suffered from bouts of the bubonic plague, particularly one in 1719-1721, having arrived from Egypt.
The Christian population of Spanish North Africa was estimated at 300,000 in 1711 a significant number of whom were converts, in addition there were some 30,000 Jews as well. The Christians lived primarily in the large cities and towns, with the Jews and Muslims having separate quarters. In the West, Morocco was administered as part as part of the Portuguese Crown, and the majority of Christians were Portuguese with many arriving from overpopulated Madeira after 1600, and the Canary Islands along with fishermen from the Algarve, as fisheries dominated the coastline of Morocco. In Oran and Pomoria (Tlemcen) the Christians were mainly settlers from Alicante, Murcia and Almeria. As the Spanish population increased in the 18th century, larger numbers of Spaniards made their way to North Africa, cultivating grain, olives and particularly engaging in wine production. East of Caesarea (Cherchell), inland settlement by Christians was still too dangerous, and most remained in the fortified towns and cities. However, here many were the king's Italian lands, particularly Sicily and to a lesser extent Naples, while some were Greeks, mostly engaged in fishing. Berenice and Antipyrgos had Greek sponge divers, many of whom had arrived during the Ottoman period.
A Hispano-Turkish battle in 1661.
In 1415, Portugal's conquest of Ceuta in North Africa had initiated the beginning of the kingdom's overseas expansion and the beginning of the Christian reconquista of North Africa from the Moors. Though the Kingdoms of Fez and Morocco (Marrakech) appeared to be a relatively poor and barren land, particularly once the New World was discovered, the Portuguese, Castilian and later Spanish Crown would spend the next four centuries on the reconquest of North Africa.
Initially, the Portuguese expansion was motivated by the desire to protect the Algarve coast from raids North African corsairs, and to secure a portion of the lucrative Trans-Saharan in gold and slaves from West Africa. However, by the late 15th century, the establishment of forts in West Africa allowed Portugal to redirect this trade to its maritime routes, making Fez and Morocco unnecessary. One of the other economic reasons the Portuguese coveted North Africa was for its grain and agricultural lands, as the kingdom lacked a steady supply of grain, however this too became redundant once North America began sending steady supplies of wheat, flour and rice to Portugal. Perhaps the most compelling reason to continue the reconquista was idealogical rather than economic. The crusade in North Africa brought Portugal prestige in the eyes of the Papacy and also gave its nobles valuable military training, which would prove useful in the conquest of America, and that is why the Kings of Portugal, and later Spain would continue to allocate vast resources to their expansion in North Africa.
The conquest of Ceuta was soon followed by the conquest of additional ports, including Alcácer-Ceguer in 1458. Though this required a force of 25,000 men led by King Afonso V, a massive undertaking for Portugal at the time. This was followed by Tangier and Arzila in 1471, Mazagão in 1485, Safi in 1488 and Graciosa in 1489. Not be left out, the Castilians soon turned their eyes towards North Africa, and in 1476 Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña was established opposite the Canary Islands to supply the sugar plantations of the islands with slaves. Castile however, would only begin focussing on the North African crusade after 1492 once the Moors had been expelled from Andalusia. The next phase of Castilian expansion began in 1497 when Melilla was conquered. In 1499, Cardinal Cisneros of Castile, adviser to Queen Juana made it his priority to continue the reconquista into North Africa and began preparing an army to that effect, just as the Portuguese interest was overshadowed by the riches of the East and West Indies.
In the early 16th century, Portugal established a few more fortresses in North Africa, however the kingdom had a mere 1 million inhabitants and its manpower was stretched as the overseas empire took precedence. In 1513, Dom Jaime, Duke of Braganza had informed the king that between fifty and sixty-thousand men were needed to colonise the Maghreb, however these could not be spared as the Indies required the manpower. This issue became acute with the capture of the Portuguese fortress at Mamora by the Moors in 1515. King Afonso used the defeat to rebuild the existing Portuguese fortresses, spending lavish amounts of money to hire Italian and French engineers to build the largest and most secure fortresses in Africa. However, the reality of Portuguese North Africa by 1520 was that it controlled much of the coastline with heavily garrisoned fortress cities, but the hinterlands remained under Moorish control, forcing the Christian inhabitants to rely on ships from Portugal for provisions.
In comparison to Portugal, Castile with its 5 million inhabitants was unencumbered by an overseas entanglements or wars other parts of Europe as Aragon was. During Queen Juana's reign, Castile began its expansionary phase in 1505, and in 1509 it captured Oran from the King of Tlemcen, reducing him to a Aragonese Vassal. In 1510 Algiers and Bugia (Bejaia) were captured, helping to remove the threat of piracy to the Spanish coastal cities. In a joint attack with Aragon, Tripoli was captured in 1511 and given over to the Knights of Saint John to use as a base to attack the Moors. In 1530 with the union of the Spanish Kingdoms under King Afonso, Castile now had access to the seemingly endless reservoir of silver and gold, allowing massive operations to be undertaken against the Muslims and their Ottoman allies. This came just in time, because the Ottomans had arrived in the region, attacking Algiers by sea in 1518, and again in 1529. The combination of resources of the new Spanish Kingdom culminated with the conquest of Tunis in 1535. This was a military operation funded by Portugal which included The Papal States, and Genoa with a force of 400 ships and 60,000 troops. The conquest was seen as a success, helping to protect Malta and Sicily from constant raids. In 1540, another joint operation with the Genoese was undertaken and they conquered Tabarca (ceded to Spain in 1752). More importantly in 1541, the conquest of Bona (Annaba) was undertaken with 24,000 soldiers, further extending Spain's grip on North Africa.
However, another threat was rising in the west, the Saadi who had seized Morocco (Marrakech) from the Wattasid Sultans in 1524, and sought to take control of the Kingdom of Fez as well. In 1536, the King of Fez declared himself a Spanish vassal in return for support against the Saadi. Despite this support, the Saadi power continued to grow, and in 1541 they laid siege to several Spanish fortresses, forcing the establishment of a costly permanent garrison of 60,000 in North Africa. Despite this increased Spanish presence, in 1549, Fez fell to the Saadi and in 1554, the last Wattasid sultan sought refuge in Arzila. Further east, Tlemcen was captured by a joint Castilian-Aragonese force in 1543, only to be lost to the Ottomans in 1554. However, in 1558, Murustaga (Mostaganem) was captured and held, along with Tetuan, Xauen and Velez de la Gomera by 1567, halting Ottoman expansion westwards.
Despite this, Ottoman power was at its peak, and in 1560 the Ottomans were able to lay siege to Tripoli and attack of Sicily, diverting Spanish troops to Italy. In Fez and Morocco, the Saadi had triumphed, but in 1574, Sultan Abdallah Mohammed Al-Mutawakkil II arrived in Lisbon requesting an alliance against his uncle who had usurped his throne and was allied to the Ottoman Turks. The Spanish King acquiesced, sending a large army and armaments to North Africa to fight the Ottomans. In 1575, the Ottomans laid siege to Tunis and sent troops west completely unopposed, culminating in The Battle of Fez in 1576, with both Saadi claimants to the Moroccan throne being killed in a battle. However, Spain won control of Fez and its now depopulated hinterlands.
This constant state of war in North Africa throughout the 16th century had greatly reduced the population as the Muslim population fled inland away from the Spanish controlled coastal regions. Additionally, the influx of Spanish silver, drastically increased inflation as local currency became worthless, impoverishing the locals. In addition, Spanish control of the coastline and strategic forts disrupted trade and the overall economy of the region. After the defeat of his brother in 1576, Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur of Morocco turned to the weakened Songhai Empire as a source of revenue from salt and gold, hoping to raise revenues to fight the Spaniards. He dispatched his army across the Sahara desert, sacking Timbuktu and Gao and as a result established an empire in the interior of West Africa.
The conquest of Fez marked a decisive turning point in Spanish North Africa, as Spanish control extended inland. New forts were built to defend settlements from the Moors. Noblemen were recruited to defend the garrisons for two to three year periods, often in return for land and more prestigious commissions in the West Indies. Initially, convicts were used as settlers, however, African slaves were also important as soldiers in the region, often being granted their freedom along with monetary gain in return for their services. The Jewish population of the region, many of whom were descendants of the Jews expelled from Castile in 1391 and already spoke Castilian, settled in Spanish towns and act as intermediaries between the Spaniards and Moors, trading in goods and eventually also in the exchange of captives.
As Spanish control of the hinterlands increased, many of the Muslim inhabitants fled to the Atlas mountains, however others made their way though the Sahara to the growing Saadi inland empire, profiting in the trade of gold, slaves and salt. The Spanish policies towards Muslims were often ambiguous at best, and brutal at their worst. With atrocities committed on both sides, the Spanish troops resorted to scorched earth policies, destroying entire towns, using wooden beams for fire and destroying the homes they did not occupy, often massacring the inhabitants. As a result, many Muslims became refugees, heading west to the safety of Ottoman lands. As a result of this exodus, in 1622, the Spanish were able to conquer Morocco (Marrakech). However, east of Algiers, the Spanish situation was far more precarious, with the hinterland controlled by the Ottomans. In 1642, the Ottomans laid siege to Tunis and were able to capture Tripoli, making it a base of piracy against the Spanish Mediterranean. Meanwhile Algiers was also surrounded, with only Spain's navy being able to bring food to its inhabitants. The low point for Spain came in 1663 when Tunis was captured after a sixteen-month siege by the Ottomans.
However, by the 1680s, the Spanish Navy had been rebuilt and with lavish funds to spend on its army, King Pedro made recapturing Tunis a priority. In 1686 the city was once again under Spanish control, after a long battle and the massacre of much of its inhabitants. The Spanish army of over 120,000 in North Africa was able to capture Berenice (Benghazi) and Antipyrgos (Tobruk), making its way towards Egypt, before the Ottomans sued for peace.
After the 1680s, the Spaniards began to usurp larger tracts of land in North Africa, often expelling the Muslim inhabitants. This led to a protracted state of conflict, that which though costly to the Spanish Crown, was deemed necessary. By 1700, the Muslim population North of the Sahara was estimated to be 2-2.5 million, however as Arab lands were taken away, many fled to crowded settlements inland, often coming into conflict with the Berbers. In addition, they suffered from bouts of the bubonic plague, particularly one in 1719-1721, having arrived from Egypt.
The Christian population of Spanish North Africa was estimated at 300,000 in 1711 a significant number of whom were converts, in addition there were some 30,000 Jews as well. The Christians lived primarily in the large cities and towns, with the Jews and Muslims having separate quarters. In the West, Morocco was administered as part as part of the Portuguese Crown, and the majority of Christians were Portuguese with many arriving from overpopulated Madeira after 1600, and the Canary Islands along with fishermen from the Algarve, as fisheries dominated the coastline of Morocco. In Oran and Pomoria (Tlemcen) the Christians were mainly settlers from Alicante, Murcia and Almeria. As the Spanish population increased in the 18th century, larger numbers of Spaniards made their way to North Africa, cultivating grain, olives and particularly engaging in wine production. East of Caesarea (Cherchell), inland settlement by Christians was still too dangerous, and most remained in the fortified towns and cities. However, here many were the king's Italian lands, particularly Sicily and to a lesser extent Naples, while some were Greeks, mostly engaged in fishing. Berenice and Antipyrgos had Greek sponge divers, many of whom had arrived during the Ottoman period.
A Hispano-Turkish battle in 1661.
Interesting update!
Would it be more efficient to have Portugal's administration concentrated on the overseas colonies and let Castille handle North Africa? If the 4 kingdom's administrations are still mostly separate then I think delegating all the costs, colonization, and risks to Castille allow for more effective use of the Portuguese kingdom to focus on the outside world. colonization could be opened to all from mainland Spain and Italy but the management done under Castille, with the resources Portugal saves can be used in India. Fair trade?
Speaking of that, is the Italian lands being under Aragon cost effective to the crown?
What is the biggest city of Spanish north Africa? (and population)
Is Gallicia still with Castille or has it been transferred to Portugal?
Would it be more efficient to have Portugal's administration concentrated on the overseas colonies and let Castille handle North Africa? If the 4 kingdom's administrations are still mostly separate then I think delegating all the costs, colonization, and risks to Castille allow for more effective use of the Portuguese kingdom to focus on the outside world. colonization could be opened to all from mainland Spain and Italy but the management done under Castille, with the resources Portugal saves can be used in India. Fair trade?
Speaking of that, is the Italian lands being under Aragon cost effective to the crown?
What is the biggest city of Spanish north Africa? (and population)
Is Gallicia still with Castille or has it been transferred to Portugal?
Spanish Europe 1700-1750
By 1750, the King of Spain's dominions in Europe and the adjacent islands spanned 289,000 square miles and were home to nearly 23 million inhabitants, around the same as the King of France. Below is the population taken from a census conducted by the Catholic Church in 1752.
Spain's Naval Ensign (thanks to Reagent)
Population in 1752
Crown of Aragon
Aragon 664,817
Balearic Islands 219,515
Catalonia 1,200,741
Corsica 164,725
Malta 118,614
Naples 5,201,743
Sardinia 422,313
Sicily 2,042,746
Valencia 901,644
Total: 10,936,858
Crown of Castile and Leon
Andalucia 2,202,796
Asutrias 389,848
Cantabria 144,712
Castile La Mancha 1,104,194
Castile & Leon 1,442,212
Extremadura 507,205
Galicia 1,392,546
Murcia 265,565
La Rioja 126,024
Total: 7,575,102
Crown of Navarre 732,818
Crown of Portugal
Alentejo 224,669
Algarve 98,609
Azores 186,500
Beira 799,277
Canary Islands 188,575
Extremadura 1,104,919
Minho 644,303
Madeira 89,250
Traz-os-Montes 223,748
Total 3,559,880
Portugal
Though not the most populous Kingdom of the Spanish monarch's dominions, Portugal by far the richest due to its overseas empire. Highly centralised around its capita Lisbon, the wealth from its gold had swelled the population, with people from all over Europe flocking to the what was dubbed the "Golden City" due it becoming the world's principal centre of gold trade. As a result of this wealth, the population 800,000 by 1750, making it the largest city in Europe. Outside of Lisbon, the only other city of any significance was Porto, a centre of the wine producing region with 40,000 inhabitants. The gold from New Lusitania, Brazil and silver from the Americas allowed Portugal, and Lisbon in particular to allocate funds generously to the other constituent kingdoms of the empire, and also attracted a large number of nobles to the court in Lisbon. Economically, trade and the re-export of goods from the Indies and Antilles remained the cornerstone of the economy. With regards to locally produced goods, wine became Portugal's principal export, with much of it going to Northern Europe, particularly England, however the colonies bought large amounts as well. The other main exports were olive oil, cork, copper, salt, and dried fruits.
Wheat, flour and rice from North America became cheaper and important imports, particularly for the Spanish port cities. Coupled with the introduction of new crops from the Americas, the rural population of Spain began growing at a faster pace. The widespread cultivation of potatoes in particular, allowed plots to get smaller, leading to earlier marriages and more children. By the mid-18th century however this had led to overpopulation in some regions and poverty, accelerating emigration.
The vast majority of trade within Spain's largest cities was by sea.
Castile
The largest cities were Seville with 135,000 and the capital Toledo with 105,000 inhabitants. One of the major exports from Spain during this period was wool, particularly prized Merino wool from Castile and Portugal. It was exported to northern Europe, and in 1730 the Spanish Crown invested heavily in Guadalajara
One major development was the increased attention to the copper mines along the Rio Tinto in Andalusia and Southern Portugal. By the late 17th century, the Spanish were having to import copper from Sweden and Wales. However, with the reopening of the ancient mines in the region, Spain soon became a leader in copper production.
Like other regions in the Spanish Empire, emigration to the colonies tended to originate from the port areas along the coast. Galicians began to emigrate heavily to the Americas and Nova Lusitania during the 18th century, principally from the port cities trading directly with America, like Corunha and Vigo, however they were soon joined by migrants from the small farming regions. From Asturias there was particularly heavy emigration as this region had the highest number of tenant farmers in all of Spain.
Aragon
Aragon was the most developed region industrially, with silk and woollens being produced in Barcelona, Reus and Valencia and cutlery being produced in Barcelona. Mataro, Ripoll and Solsona produced firearms and cannons.
Barcelona was the principal city with 95,000 inhabitants, though not the largest city, it was the most developed region
Navarre
Basque fishermen had been settling in North America for centuries, particularly in Nova Navarra (New Navarre), where they figured prominently in the cod fisheries off Terra Nova. Many eventually settled inland, and became important in sheep ranching. However, Basque merchants were prominent throughout the Empire, forming a network stretching from Spain to the East Indies, particularly in the São Lázaro Islands (Philippines).
In Navarre itself, iron-mining around Bilbao became increasingly important, especially once the Spanish Crown raised duties on iron imported from Sweden. The low-sulphur iron-ore from the region was ideal for the state-owned Royal Ironworks in Lisbon where bronze cannons were built to outfit the navy, along with manufacturers or muskets and swords in Castile. In addition, iron was exported in large quantities to England and Flanders. During this period Baiona (Bayonne), thrived as it became a major source of smuggling of goods in from France, many of which were exported to Spain's colonies.
The Atlantic Islands
Initially colonised in the 15th century, the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands were administered as part of the Portuguese Crown. By the mid-18th century the population of the islands was nearly 400,000, and the islanders were increasingly subjected to poverty, leading to ever larger numbers of emigration. In the first half of the 18th century alone, some 100,000 would emigrate to the overseas empire. Around half to America, another third to Morocco and the rest to Nova Lusitania, Asia and a small number to far off Australia (fewer than 1,000).
Though the Azores were an important stopover point for trade between America and Spain, the islands were plagued by a series of natural disasters, leading to large-scale emigration from the archipelago, with nearly 50,000 Azoreans settling in America. Many settled in South America, whilst a small number of whalers from the island of Pico made their way to Cabo dos Bacalhaus, establishing the foundation for whaling in North America. By the mid-18th century an increasing demand for whale oil as a source of illumination in Europe increased.
Madeira's sugar economy had been surpassed by that of America, and increasingly wine production became important. The decline of the sugar economy in the 17th century, also made it so the importation of African slaves came to a halt. Though Madeiran wine was exported to America, it's largest market soon became England, Ireland and Flanders, where it gained prominence amongst the upper classes.
The Canary Islands were plagued by drought, and like the Azores with volcanic eruptions including a series of major eruptions in Lanzarote between 1730-1736, causing half of the island's population being relocated to Morocco, over 2,500 people. As the population continued to grow, the island's governors began to sponsor the emigration of islanders to the Americas. They particularly settled in the Caribbean Basin, mainly in the Antilles where many became successful as overseers on the sugarcane plantations.
Italy
Ruled by the Council of Italy, was responsible for the King of Spain's 7.5 million Italian subjects, spread out in Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and Malta. The economy of Italian regions under the Crown of Aragon were overwhelmingly agrarian, and dominated by the export of olive oil and wine. Both products were in great demand in the Spanish Empire.
Naples was the second-largest city in the Spanish Empire, with 400,000 inhabitants, it possessed a silk industry. Bari in Apulia became a thriving city of 20,000 and the richest region in the Kingdom of Naples, particularly as its olive oil industry was the most developed on the peninsula. Palermo also remained a large city with 120,000 inhabitants.
Like other regions in Europe under the Spanish Crown, the introduction of crops from the Americas, particularly potatoes. With an increasing population, the Viceroy of Naples ordered the rounding up of beggars and street prostitutes, deporting them to the most peripheral regions of North Africa. However, with a scarcity of land, many more Italians began migrating in droves voluntarily to the Spanish Empire.
From Malta and Sardinia, some 30,000 settled in Aragonese North Africa, particularly in Tunis where they would engage in the production of olive oil.
By 1750, the King of Spain's dominions in Europe and the adjacent islands spanned 289,000 square miles and were home to nearly 23 million inhabitants, around the same as the King of France. Below is the population taken from a census conducted by the Catholic Church in 1752.
Spain's Naval Ensign (thanks to Reagent)
Population in 1752
Crown of Aragon
Aragon 664,817
Balearic Islands 219,515
Catalonia 1,200,741
Corsica 164,725
Malta 118,614
Naples 5,201,743
Sardinia 422,313
Sicily 2,042,746
Valencia 901,644
Total: 10,936,858
Crown of Castile and Leon
Andalucia 2,202,796
Asutrias 389,848
Cantabria 144,712
Castile La Mancha 1,104,194
Castile & Leon 1,442,212
Extremadura 507,205
Galicia 1,392,546
Murcia 265,565
La Rioja 126,024
Total: 7,575,102
Crown of Navarre 732,818
Crown of Portugal
Alentejo 224,669
Algarve 98,609
Azores 186,500
Beira 799,277
Canary Islands 188,575
Extremadura 1,104,919
Minho 644,303
Madeira 89,250
Traz-os-Montes 223,748
Total 3,559,880
Portugal
Though not the most populous Kingdom of the Spanish monarch's dominions, Portugal by far the richest due to its overseas empire. Highly centralised around its capita Lisbon, the wealth from its gold had swelled the population, with people from all over Europe flocking to the what was dubbed the "Golden City" due it becoming the world's principal centre of gold trade. As a result of this wealth, the population 800,000 by 1750, making it the largest city in Europe. Outside of Lisbon, the only other city of any significance was Porto, a centre of the wine producing region with 40,000 inhabitants. The gold from New Lusitania, Brazil and silver from the Americas allowed Portugal, and Lisbon in particular to allocate funds generously to the other constituent kingdoms of the empire, and also attracted a large number of nobles to the court in Lisbon. Economically, trade and the re-export of goods from the Indies and Antilles remained the cornerstone of the economy. With regards to locally produced goods, wine became Portugal's principal export, with much of it going to Northern Europe, particularly England, however the colonies bought large amounts as well. The other main exports were olive oil, cork, copper, salt, and dried fruits.
Wheat, flour and rice from North America became cheaper and important imports, particularly for the Spanish port cities. Coupled with the introduction of new crops from the Americas, the rural population of Spain began growing at a faster pace. The widespread cultivation of potatoes in particular, allowed plots to get smaller, leading to earlier marriages and more children. By the mid-18th century however this had led to overpopulation in some regions and poverty, accelerating emigration.
The vast majority of trade within Spain's largest cities was by sea.
Castile
The largest cities were Seville with 135,000 and the capital Toledo with 105,000 inhabitants. One of the major exports from Spain during this period was wool, particularly prized Merino wool from Castile and Portugal. It was exported to northern Europe, and in 1730 the Spanish Crown invested heavily in Guadalajara
One major development was the increased attention to the copper mines along the Rio Tinto in Andalusia and Southern Portugal. By the late 17th century, the Spanish were having to import copper from Sweden and Wales. However, with the reopening of the ancient mines in the region, Spain soon became a leader in copper production.
Like other regions in the Spanish Empire, emigration to the colonies tended to originate from the port areas along the coast. Galicians began to emigrate heavily to the Americas and Nova Lusitania during the 18th century, principally from the port cities trading directly with America, like Corunha and Vigo, however they were soon joined by migrants from the small farming regions. From Asturias there was particularly heavy emigration as this region had the highest number of tenant farmers in all of Spain.
Aragon
Aragon was the most developed region industrially, with silk and woollens being produced in Barcelona, Reus and Valencia and cutlery being produced in Barcelona. Mataro, Ripoll and Solsona produced firearms and cannons.
Barcelona was the principal city with 95,000 inhabitants, though not the largest city, it was the most developed region
Navarre
Basque fishermen had been settling in North America for centuries, particularly in Nova Navarra (New Navarre), where they figured prominently in the cod fisheries off Terra Nova. Many eventually settled inland, and became important in sheep ranching. However, Basque merchants were prominent throughout the Empire, forming a network stretching from Spain to the East Indies, particularly in the São Lázaro Islands (Philippines).
In Navarre itself, iron-mining around Bilbao became increasingly important, especially once the Spanish Crown raised duties on iron imported from Sweden. The low-sulphur iron-ore from the region was ideal for the state-owned Royal Ironworks in Lisbon where bronze cannons were built to outfit the navy, along with manufacturers or muskets and swords in Castile. In addition, iron was exported in large quantities to England and Flanders. During this period Baiona (Bayonne), thrived as it became a major source of smuggling of goods in from France, many of which were exported to Spain's colonies.
The Atlantic Islands
Initially colonised in the 15th century, the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands were administered as part of the Portuguese Crown. By the mid-18th century the population of the islands was nearly 400,000, and the islanders were increasingly subjected to poverty, leading to ever larger numbers of emigration. In the first half of the 18th century alone, some 100,000 would emigrate to the overseas empire. Around half to America, another third to Morocco and the rest to Nova Lusitania, Asia and a small number to far off Australia (fewer than 1,000).
Though the Azores were an important stopover point for trade between America and Spain, the islands were plagued by a series of natural disasters, leading to large-scale emigration from the archipelago, with nearly 50,000 Azoreans settling in America. Many settled in South America, whilst a small number of whalers from the island of Pico made their way to Cabo dos Bacalhaus, establishing the foundation for whaling in North America. By the mid-18th century an increasing demand for whale oil as a source of illumination in Europe increased.
Madeira's sugar economy had been surpassed by that of America, and increasingly wine production became important. The decline of the sugar economy in the 17th century, also made it so the importation of African slaves came to a halt. Though Madeiran wine was exported to America, it's largest market soon became England, Ireland and Flanders, where it gained prominence amongst the upper classes.
The Canary Islands were plagued by drought, and like the Azores with volcanic eruptions including a series of major eruptions in Lanzarote between 1730-1736, causing half of the island's population being relocated to Morocco, over 2,500 people. As the population continued to grow, the island's governors began to sponsor the emigration of islanders to the Americas. They particularly settled in the Caribbean Basin, mainly in the Antilles where many became successful as overseers on the sugarcane plantations.
Italy
Ruled by the Council of Italy, was responsible for the King of Spain's 7.5 million Italian subjects, spread out in Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and Malta. The economy of Italian regions under the Crown of Aragon were overwhelmingly agrarian, and dominated by the export of olive oil and wine. Both products were in great demand in the Spanish Empire.
Naples was the second-largest city in the Spanish Empire, with 400,000 inhabitants, it possessed a silk industry. Bari in Apulia became a thriving city of 20,000 and the richest region in the Kingdom of Naples, particularly as its olive oil industry was the most developed on the peninsula. Palermo also remained a large city with 120,000 inhabitants.
Like other regions in Europe under the Spanish Crown, the introduction of crops from the Americas, particularly potatoes. With an increasing population, the Viceroy of Naples ordered the rounding up of beggars and street prostitutes, deporting them to the most peripheral regions of North Africa. However, with a scarcity of land, many more Italians began migrating in droves voluntarily to the Spanish Empire.
From Malta and Sardinia, some 30,000 settled in Aragonese North Africa, particularly in Tunis where they would engage in the production of olive oil.
Based on that wording, it seems like the Spanish are going to be able to easily flood whatever portion of the world they want with settlers in fifty years, what with having the population base of France and the colonial disposition of Portugal, combined with the population growth rate of the industrial era. North Africa won't be minority-Christian for long at that rate.