Portuguese America and Southern Africa the Redux
- Thread starter Viriato
- Start date
On 14 December 1800, Emperor Ferdinand of Spain fell ill and was found dead in his bed, leaving no surviving children, his younger brother Luiz, Prince of Viseu became emperor, making his estranged wife Paola, Empress Paula of Spain. Living in Florence, she had taken Napoleone as a lover. Emperor Ferdinand had appointed the Corsican as Commander of the Spanish forces in Italy, a move which upset Luiz. Upon receiving the news of the Emperor's death, Napoleone encouraged Paola to return to Lisbon in time for the coronation which was scheduled for July. In the meantime, the new Emperor Luiz, sought to distance his wife from Napoleone, sending him to Naples where a peasant revolt had begun as a result of the increased taxation in that Kingdom.
Knowing that the headstrong Paola would attempt to return to Lisbon, Emperor Luiz offered to increase his estranged wife's annuity by 500,000 cruzados if she would remain in exile. Paola seemed to agree, but secretly she planned to make a triumphant return to Lisbon. For months she prepared an escape from Florence that would have her arrive in Lisbon and surprise Luiz. She felt that if she were to arrive in such a fashion, there would be nothing that the Emperor could do to stop her from assuming the role of Empress. On 14 May 1801, Paola travelled to La Spezia, having had one of Napoleone's Corsican contacts hire a merchant brigantine which would bring the Empress to Lisbon.
Upon sailing into the Tagus River twelve days later, the ship hoisted the Imperial Standard of the Empress signalling whom was on-board. Upon docking at the Terreiro do Paço, sentries noted that the ship was flying the standard and a guardsman rushed to the palace by horse and contacted the Grand Master of Ceremonies, the Duke of Aveiro, Grand Master of Ceremonies, whom was the senior member of the court at the palace. Incensed at the news, but never one to break protocol, he hastily assembled an honour guard and trumpeters to greet the Empress. Meanwhile, Emperor Luiz was away from the capital at his summer palace at Queluz, and was unaware of his wife's return. The Empress was carried from her ship through the square in a litter by four shirtless Nubians dressed in Egyptian attire, and made sure that her entrance was a public spectacle which would leave the tongues of Lisbon wagging. The Duke of Aveiro attempted to persuade the Empress to leave Lisbon, trying to get her to go to Madeira or somewhere further away, but undaunted she and her retinue made their way to Queluz by carriage. Along her route, curious crowds followed the Empress, and Paola made certain to stop along the way waving to the crowds and giving out coins to children whom approached her. In Queluz, the Emperor had been enjoying the summer day, on a gondola of the palace's canal with his mistress the Countess of Caparica, was alerted and reacted angrily as he made waited at the palace's Cour d'honneur to confront the Empress.
The Empress, however had not planned to have a direct confrontation with her husband and avoided the Palace of Queluz, and instead made her way towards the smaller Palácio das Fontes. In 1787, the rococo palace had been acquired by Luiz from the Marquês de Abrantes and given to Paola upon the birth of her first son Afonso. The palace had been deeded to her and was her own private domain where she had often painted, but had lay empty since 1795 with its furniture covered and its gardens overgrown. Nevertheless, the Empress arrived with her servants and members of her inner circle to reclaim her residence. When the Emperor learned of her plans, he mounted a horse and rode feverishly made his way toward the Empress' Palace where he saw servants unloading the Empress' personal belongings into the palace. According to the accounts of bystanders he angrily shouted in an uregal manner at her "and just what do you think you are doing here" to which she replied "Florence bores me, Sire". Paola smirked as he demanded her to leave to which she replied, “This palace is mine remember! You gave it to me when Afonso was born, and nothing shall take it away from me”.
The Emperor stormed back to his palace uncertain of how to handle the reappearance of his wife. Later that evening however, the Cardinal appeared at the Empress’ palace and attempted to persuade her to return to Italy. When his attempted bribes failed, he alluded to her infidelities and how he had a collection of pamphlets, pornographic in nature, showing her debauched lifestyle with various lovers. Unfazed the Empress mocked the Cardinal, asking him if he read them on lonely nights, famously having said, “The poor lonely, patriarch, still the impotent voyeur”, adding, “I should like to see, please send them over sometime” and before dismissively sending him off, “That will be all your eminence”. The Empress' mocking of the most powerful of the Emperor's Secretary of State soon spread around Lisbon making her a hero amongst many whom hated the Cardinal-Patriarch and saw the Empress as the victim of an unfair smear campaign, gaining Paola a great deal of sympathy amongst the man on the street.
Palácio das Fontes
Knowing that the headstrong Paola would attempt to return to Lisbon, Emperor Luiz offered to increase his estranged wife's annuity by 500,000 cruzados if she would remain in exile. Paola seemed to agree, but secretly she planned to make a triumphant return to Lisbon. For months she prepared an escape from Florence that would have her arrive in Lisbon and surprise Luiz. She felt that if she were to arrive in such a fashion, there would be nothing that the Emperor could do to stop her from assuming the role of Empress. On 14 May 1801, Paola travelled to La Spezia, having had one of Napoleone's Corsican contacts hire a merchant brigantine which would bring the Empress to Lisbon.
Upon sailing into the Tagus River twelve days later, the ship hoisted the Imperial Standard of the Empress signalling whom was on-board. Upon docking at the Terreiro do Paço, sentries noted that the ship was flying the standard and a guardsman rushed to the palace by horse and contacted the Grand Master of Ceremonies, the Duke of Aveiro, Grand Master of Ceremonies, whom was the senior member of the court at the palace. Incensed at the news, but never one to break protocol, he hastily assembled an honour guard and trumpeters to greet the Empress. Meanwhile, Emperor Luiz was away from the capital at his summer palace at Queluz, and was unaware of his wife's return. The Empress was carried from her ship through the square in a litter by four shirtless Nubians dressed in Egyptian attire, and made sure that her entrance was a public spectacle which would leave the tongues of Lisbon wagging. The Duke of Aveiro attempted to persuade the Empress to leave Lisbon, trying to get her to go to Madeira or somewhere further away, but undaunted she and her retinue made their way to Queluz by carriage. Along her route, curious crowds followed the Empress, and Paola made certain to stop along the way waving to the crowds and giving out coins to children whom approached her. In Queluz, the Emperor had been enjoying the summer day, on a gondola of the palace's canal with his mistress the Countess of Caparica, was alerted and reacted angrily as he made waited at the palace's Cour d'honneur to confront the Empress.
The Empress, however had not planned to have a direct confrontation with her husband and avoided the Palace of Queluz, and instead made her way towards the smaller Palácio das Fontes. In 1787, the rococo palace had been acquired by Luiz from the Marquês de Abrantes and given to Paola upon the birth of her first son Afonso. The palace had been deeded to her and was her own private domain where she had often painted, but had lay empty since 1795 with its furniture covered and its gardens overgrown. Nevertheless, the Empress arrived with her servants and members of her inner circle to reclaim her residence. When the Emperor learned of her plans, he mounted a horse and rode feverishly made his way toward the Empress' Palace where he saw servants unloading the Empress' personal belongings into the palace. According to the accounts of bystanders he angrily shouted in an uregal manner at her "and just what do you think you are doing here" to which she replied "Florence bores me, Sire". Paola smirked as he demanded her to leave to which she replied, “This palace is mine remember! You gave it to me when Afonso was born, and nothing shall take it away from me”.
The Emperor stormed back to his palace uncertain of how to handle the reappearance of his wife. Later that evening however, the Cardinal appeared at the Empress’ palace and attempted to persuade her to return to Italy. When his attempted bribes failed, he alluded to her infidelities and how he had a collection of pamphlets, pornographic in nature, showing her debauched lifestyle with various lovers. Unfazed the Empress mocked the Cardinal, asking him if he read them on lonely nights, famously having said, “The poor lonely, patriarch, still the impotent voyeur”, adding, “I should like to see, please send them over sometime” and before dismissively sending him off, “That will be all your eminence”. The Empress' mocking of the most powerful of the Emperor's Secretary of State soon spread around Lisbon making her a hero amongst many whom hated the Cardinal-Patriarch and saw the Empress as the victim of an unfair smear campaign, gaining Paola a great deal of sympathy amongst the man on the street.
Palácio das Fontes
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I was thinking the same thing; it resembles Catherine the Great, though with some differences. I find the thought of Napoleone marshaling the power of the entire Spanish Empire towards dramatic conquests to be exciting, but I don't see what Paola brings to the table besides arrogance, melodrama, and being a Medici married to the Emperor. Hopefully Paola won't do too much damage and the empire can pass through this adolescent phase without being permanently harmed by self-destructive excess.
It would be nice if, for example, Napoleone was just using her for the advancement of his own designs. The need to consolidate his gains will then lead him to settle things down and build. Maybe he could even take Afonso under his wing, ruling as a sort of Marshal General-Prime Minister (basically a dictator) and "uncle" to the crown prince during the transition from absolutist monarchy to a global monarchical republic.
Even better, say Luiz is a kind of prisoner of circumstance in Lisbon, having to pretend that he champions Napoleone's reforms, a public cuckold and figure of fun to the man in the street. Afonso can finally come of age, take the throne, and avenge his father by giving his Corsican teacher a taste of his own medicine. He would say, "Thanks for the advice and conquests. You are dismissed now." He could imprison his mother and somehow scheme to eliminate Napoleone. Would be interesting to see the empire reinvigorated with a competent Emperor who took the lessons of the changing world to heart and was able to meet the challenge.
We almost never see that. Imagine somebody with as dynamic a personality as Napoleone Buonaparte being improved upon by a protege, like Aristotle to Plato (not to derogate Plato by comparing him to Napoleon).
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Escape from Lisbon
Dom Martim Afonso de Sousa, Cardinal Patriarch of Lisbon had seen the arrival of the Empress in Lisbon as a threat to his power and he wanted to send her back to Italy. Confronting her with blackmail had failed, but Paola knew that she had to get rid of her opponent first. Fortunately for the Empress, the Cardinal's heavy handed policies had created many enemies in Lisbon, particularly with the mercantile classes. Sometime in June 1801 the Empress was known to have attended a meeting at the home of Joaquim Pedro Quintela (1748-1817), one of Lisbon's greatest merchants, of Galician origin. The beautiful Empress seduced him and he seems to have been captivated by her and it is assumed that together, they plotted the murder of Sousa. Quintela, also gave the Empress some 300,000 cruzados worth of unpolished diamonds. Though little is known of the exact events, on 17 July 1801, Sousa's body the woods around Queluz Palace, having been struck in the head. The Emperor was devastated as he had relied on Sousa for spiritual and political guidance, and decided to postpone the coronation ceremony as the court was plunged into official mourning.
Meanwhile in Italy, Napoleone had thrown in his lot with the rebels and had the bulk of the Imperial Army in Italy loyal to him personally. A charismatic man, he managed to raise a citizen army, expanding his numbers from 30,000 to nearly 200,000 men in arms. Known as a fiery orator, by August the Kingdom of Naples and most of Sicily had joined the rebellion against Spanish rule. Empress Paola offered her services as a peacemaker to her husband, as she knew Napoleone personally and that she could have him become loyal to Luiz. The Empress' actual motives seemed to have been to win back the affection of her husband, but he confided to his inner circle that he did not trust Paola’s motives. She proposed that she travel to the neutrality of Rome where she could meet with Napoleone face to face and get him to lay down his arms. The Empress also pleaded the case of the rebels to her husband, telling him that the majority "lived in misery" and that their taxes were "a constant source of injury", and that reforms must be made. The rising taxes imposed in Italy had served to finance the wars in North Africa and particularly Egypt, leaving the 8 million subjects of the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily in increasing poverty. The Emperor seemed to agree, but was hesitant to impose higher taxes on the nobility or clergy to alleviate the suffering of his Italian subjects. Importantly, he was leery of his wife's motives in going to Italy, as he envisioned the possibility of her joining Napoleone.
In August, Empress Paola had arranged for a deputy of Napoleone's, Michele Carrascosa to arrive in Lisbon with his series of demands, and though the Emperor listened to them, on the advice of his reactionary ministers, he had Carrascosa imprisoned. The Empress was livid and knew that she must gain control of Spain. She used her time in the capital to make political allies and became determined to return to Italy so that she could join forces with Napoleone. During this time, became particularly close to the Emperor’s youngest brother, Infante Afonso, who like Paola shared a love of gambling and the opera. The relations between the Emperor and Empress had been improving and she was now allowed to have her children stay with her at the Palacio das Fontes, becoming particularly close to her eldest son, Afonso, Prince of Brazil. However, rumours began emerging that it was the Empress whom had ordered the murder of the Cardinal, but without conclusive proof, Luiz was hesitant to implicate his wife. Quintela, fled Lisbon for the safety of France and later Switzerland. The Empress strove to win her husband’s affection, but he had taken on a mistress, Carolina de Lippe (1778-1842), the illegitimate daughter of a German Count whom had been in the service of Imperial Army. The Empress hated the young blonde, whom was beautiful, tender and supportive of Luiz. It was also discovered she was carrying his child, upon discovering this, Paola was thrown into a fit of rage.
On Sunday 25 October 1801, after returning from mass, the Empress confronted Carolina in the stair hall of the Palace of Mafra calling her a “puta” and slapping her across the face. The polite but feisty mistress had been subject to the Empress’ insults for the past months and had ignored the Empress’ insults. This time however, she slapped back and to the shock of the halberdiers as the foot of the stairs the two women were fighting and pulling one another’s hair. Before they could intervene, Carolina was thrown down the stairs by the Empress. Carolina survived the fall, but her baby did not. For Emperor Luiz, he had reached the limits of patience with his wife, saying that she was no better than a common whore, and was unfit to be an Empress. He felt she refused to act in unregal manner and sent her away to the Palácio das Fontes. Paola was now determined to make her way to Italy, as she had learned that Napoleone’s rebellion had spread to the Papal States, drawing the Holy Roman Empire into the conflict against the rebels. The audacious Empress Paola, nevertheless had faith in Napoleone and decided that if she could not rule in Spain, she would join him in Italy.
Carolina de Lippe, Emperor Luiz's Mistress
During her months in Lisbon, Paola had used selective generosity giving large sums of money and gifts to people whom she knew could be of use to her. She was known for giving gold coins to the lowliest of her servants, and this generosity earned her the love of the common people, and likewise made many scornful of Emperor Luiz. With the funds obtained from the sale of diamonds given to her by Quintela, she had been able to bribe the servants in the royal palace along with many of the guards. Her behaviour was seen as undignified and earned her the contempt of the court nobility, particularly as she was known to mingle with the kitchen staff. The shrewd Empress knew that there would be a time when she would need to rely on them, and she planned to use the servants in her escape from Lisbon. With the help of servants, on the night of the 27 October 1801 she was snuck into her son Afonso’s quarters in the Royal Palace and was able to leave the palace through a series of passages leading to the kitchens. Dressed as peasants, they were able to escape in a baker’s wagon. Journeying inland they were brought to the fishing village of Nazaré, north of Lisbon where the Empress and her son boarded a fishing vessel which brought them to Aveiro. From there they were brought on a smaller ship and days later taken to Royan in France. In France the two made journeyed by land dressed as a nun, claiming the prince was an orphan, the two journeyed towards the Mediterranean when their identities were discovered and her cousin, King Louis XVII was alerted. They were temporarily held captive, but then were given escorts to take them to the Mediterranean. The King of France was only too willing to help destroy Spain’s powers and he had secretly providing arms to Napoleone. As a result, Paola and her son were given a ship to sail to Naples where the Parthenopean Republic had been proclaimed, with Napoleone as its Consul. Napoleone was made aware of Paola's return and was he was truly in love with her and he felt that now that he was ruler of much of Italy, that he could win her affection.
Meanwhile in Italy, Napoleone had thrown in his lot with the rebels and had the bulk of the Imperial Army in Italy loyal to him personally. A charismatic man, he managed to raise a citizen army, expanding his numbers from 30,000 to nearly 200,000 men in arms. Known as a fiery orator, by August the Kingdom of Naples and most of Sicily had joined the rebellion against Spanish rule. Empress Paola offered her services as a peacemaker to her husband, as she knew Napoleone personally and that she could have him become loyal to Luiz. The Empress' actual motives seemed to have been to win back the affection of her husband, but he confided to his inner circle that he did not trust Paola’s motives. She proposed that she travel to the neutrality of Rome where she could meet with Napoleone face to face and get him to lay down his arms. The Empress also pleaded the case of the rebels to her husband, telling him that the majority "lived in misery" and that their taxes were "a constant source of injury", and that reforms must be made. The rising taxes imposed in Italy had served to finance the wars in North Africa and particularly Egypt, leaving the 8 million subjects of the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily in increasing poverty. The Emperor seemed to agree, but was hesitant to impose higher taxes on the nobility or clergy to alleviate the suffering of his Italian subjects. Importantly, he was leery of his wife's motives in going to Italy, as he envisioned the possibility of her joining Napoleone.
In August, Empress Paola had arranged for a deputy of Napoleone's, Michele Carrascosa to arrive in Lisbon with his series of demands, and though the Emperor listened to them, on the advice of his reactionary ministers, he had Carrascosa imprisoned. The Empress was livid and knew that she must gain control of Spain. She used her time in the capital to make political allies and became determined to return to Italy so that she could join forces with Napoleone. During this time, became particularly close to the Emperor’s youngest brother, Infante Afonso, who like Paola shared a love of gambling and the opera. The relations between the Emperor and Empress had been improving and she was now allowed to have her children stay with her at the Palacio das Fontes, becoming particularly close to her eldest son, Afonso, Prince of Brazil. However, rumours began emerging that it was the Empress whom had ordered the murder of the Cardinal, but without conclusive proof, Luiz was hesitant to implicate his wife. Quintela, fled Lisbon for the safety of France and later Switzerland. The Empress strove to win her husband’s affection, but he had taken on a mistress, Carolina de Lippe (1778-1842), the illegitimate daughter of a German Count whom had been in the service of Imperial Army. The Empress hated the young blonde, whom was beautiful, tender and supportive of Luiz. It was also discovered she was carrying his child, upon discovering this, Paola was thrown into a fit of rage.
On Sunday 25 October 1801, after returning from mass, the Empress confronted Carolina in the stair hall of the Palace of Mafra calling her a “puta” and slapping her across the face. The polite but feisty mistress had been subject to the Empress’ insults for the past months and had ignored the Empress’ insults. This time however, she slapped back and to the shock of the halberdiers as the foot of the stairs the two women were fighting and pulling one another’s hair. Before they could intervene, Carolina was thrown down the stairs by the Empress. Carolina survived the fall, but her baby did not. For Emperor Luiz, he had reached the limits of patience with his wife, saying that she was no better than a common whore, and was unfit to be an Empress. He felt she refused to act in unregal manner and sent her away to the Palácio das Fontes. Paola was now determined to make her way to Italy, as she had learned that Napoleone’s rebellion had spread to the Papal States, drawing the Holy Roman Empire into the conflict against the rebels. The audacious Empress Paola, nevertheless had faith in Napoleone and decided that if she could not rule in Spain, she would join him in Italy.
Carolina de Lippe, Emperor Luiz's Mistress
During her months in Lisbon, Paola had used selective generosity giving large sums of money and gifts to people whom she knew could be of use to her. She was known for giving gold coins to the lowliest of her servants, and this generosity earned her the love of the common people, and likewise made many scornful of Emperor Luiz. With the funds obtained from the sale of diamonds given to her by Quintela, she had been able to bribe the servants in the royal palace along with many of the guards. Her behaviour was seen as undignified and earned her the contempt of the court nobility, particularly as she was known to mingle with the kitchen staff. The shrewd Empress knew that there would be a time when she would need to rely on them, and she planned to use the servants in her escape from Lisbon. With the help of servants, on the night of the 27 October 1801 she was snuck into her son Afonso’s quarters in the Royal Palace and was able to leave the palace through a series of passages leading to the kitchens. Dressed as peasants, they were able to escape in a baker’s wagon. Journeying inland they were brought to the fishing village of Nazaré, north of Lisbon where the Empress and her son boarded a fishing vessel which brought them to Aveiro. From there they were brought on a smaller ship and days later taken to Royan in France. In France the two made journeyed by land dressed as a nun, claiming the prince was an orphan, the two journeyed towards the Mediterranean when their identities were discovered and her cousin, King Louis XVII was alerted. They were temporarily held captive, but then were given escorts to take them to the Mediterranean. The King of France was only too willing to help destroy Spain’s powers and he had secretly providing arms to Napoleone. As a result, Paola and her son were given a ship to sail to Naples where the Parthenopean Republic had been proclaimed, with Napoleone as its Consul. Napoleone was made aware of Paola's return and was he was truly in love with her and he felt that now that he was ruler of much of Italy, that he could win her affection.
Oops. Sorry, Nappy, but I think you were just a means to an end. Think he'll be bothered when he figures it out?
I'm surprised Afonso isn't more hostile towards his mother (yet). Now that the two of them will spend more time alone involved in the family business, I'm sure he'll chafe at the bit. Similar to any King with a cold-hearted and ambitious mother, really. His own right to rule (and his power in fact) and her sociopathic meddling and insistence on obedience simply cannot coexist (I assume she isn't the sort of queen mother to freely give her son the reins). Hopefully when he finds out about his mother being a murderess and when he reflects on the fact that she also killed one of his siblings, he will find religion and lock her away.
Good stuff, Viriato. Eerily reminiscent of many of the events IOTL while also truly unique.
The Italian Wars 1801-1802
On the 11 of November 1801, Empress Paola reached Naples on a French brig, where she joined Napoleone Buonaparte at the Castel Nuovo, the formidable fortress overlooking Naples' Harbour. The Empress was keen to keep her presence a secret, retreating to the countryside palazzo on the outskirts of the city. However, rumours that the Empress was in Italy soon began to spread throughout the courts of Europe. In the meantime, Napoleone and the other leaders of the Republic had been declared outlaws and guilty of sedition. In Spain, Emperor Luiz was busy raising an army to send to Naples and to Sicily, however with most of its elite troops in North Africa, much of the winter was spent hastily recruiting an army in Portugal and Castile. Meanwhile in Naples, the new Republican Government called for a levée en masse with all unmarried men between the ages of 18 and 25 being called to arms and required to report for immediate military service. Married men along with women and children were to engage in the production of goods for the new army. As a result, the number of men in arms swelled to 300,000 in Naples and 100,000 in Sicily. Meanwhile, revolutionary activity had spread throughout Italy with uprisings in Modena and Turin in December of 1801.
To defend the new republic, Napoleone appointed men whom had served alongside him in the Egyptian campaigns to lead the various divisions as he reorganised the Neopolitan Army. Sicily remained the most vulnerable region as the Spanish Navy could cutoff the island from Naples and as a result coastal fortifications were hastily prepared. In November of 1801, the Spanish Navy was able to capture the city of Siracusa, with the Castello Maniace fortress falling to the Spaniards on 18 November 1801. The island would remain difficult to defend as a force of Spanish Royal Marines landed on the island, but they failed to capture Messina later in the month, retreating to the Southeastern corner of the island. In the consul's home island of Corsica, a uprising against Spanish rule would lead to a two year struggle finally culminating with the abandonment of the island by Spanish troops in 1805.
While the armed struggle against Spain persisted, Napoleone and the other leaders of the rebellion were busy establishing a new government and implementing reforms. Among the most significant acts of the new Provisional Assembly in Naples was the abolition of feudalist privileges and the destruction of the Latifundia in Naples. In December 14 of 1801, an act calling for the the nationalisation of church would lead to a confiscation of all church properties and an abolition of the Holy Orders. Under the leadership of Napoleone, a new legal code based on that of ancient Rome was also created. The new Republic's government was based on that of Ancient Rome, with executive authority placed in 5 person consulate, with Napoleone at its head. Additionally a 300-member senate was created with all male citizens aged 20 years or older able to vote for electors whom would elect the senators. Ironically its first legislation in May 1802 was the "War Powers Act", limited its own power. In reality, the government soon became a dictatorship with Napoleone at its helm.
Throughout the winter of 1801-1802, with few available troops, the Spanish attempted to place a blockade on Naples, but blockade runners soon became adept at smuggling goods into Naples. Pope Leo XII condemned the republic for its anti-clericism, but once riots broke out in the Papal States in support of a united Italy, leading the papacy to maintain a cautious approach to the Republic. Most of consuls advised Napoleone to pursue a defensive strategy to defend the new republic, however he wanted to go on the offensive to create a united Italy. As a result, he decided to attack, while first fortifying Naples and Bari, leaving behind only a smaller number of troops to defend the port cities. Instead he would invade the Papal States to take the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, which was still under Spanish rule, from there he would overrun the Duchy of Savoy, which was ruled by the absentee house of Savoy, now Kings of England.
Throughout the first months of 1802, Napoleone prepared for the invasion of the Papal States and Tuscany, which for the time being remained under control of the Spanish Crown. Empress Paola meanwhile kept a low profile and sent correspondence to her cousin King Louis XVII of France, hoping to have him aid the new Republic in an effort to weaken Spanish Power. The Parthenopean Consul meanwhile appealed to the Italians as "heirs of Rome", adopting a flag with a Roman Eagle their flag. Revolutionary activity spread, and in April 1802 when he finally made his move, Pope Leo was forced to flee Rome to Turin, and from there to Vienna where he sought the assistance of the Hohenzollerns. With a triumphant entrance into the city, on 12 May 1802 Napoleone proclaimed the birth of a new Roman Republic.
When Napoleone's troops had entered the the Papal States on 28 April 1802, the Papal Army offered little resistance, with its last major battle being at Loreto on 3 May 1802. However, with news that the Holy Roman Emperor had joined the war to assist Spain in "securing the peace", Napoleone had his troops rush to the Venetian Republic in an effort to seal off the Alps from invading German troops. Additionally, Napoleone hoped to capture ships from the Venetian Navy along with the shipyards there to help protect the coast of the new Roman Republic. Throughout the year, the Roman Army swelled to nearly 500,000 men as a new sense of Italian Nationalism swept through the Italy. In May and June of 1802, popular uprisings soon led to the government of the United Duchies of Milan and Modena being overthrown and provisional assemblies joining the Roman Republic as well.
Responding to appeals from the Pope, both England and the Holy Roman Emperor declared war on the Roman Republic, though France had sat idly by, Louis XVII was persuaded by his cousin Paola that by aiding Napoleone, France could gain territory at the expense of Spain. On 28 May 1802, Louis made a secret treaty with the Roman Republic whereby France would declare war on Spain, England and the Hohenzollern-led Holy Roman Empire. As a result, on 18 June 1802 French troops crossed the Pyrenees into Spain, capturing much of Catalonia by July and having captured much of Spain's industrial (particularly textile) production. Responding to the Pope's appeals, by summer of 1802, Denmark and Poland also joined the allied coalition, uniting against France and the Roman Republic. However, in July the Ottoman Empire invaded Savoy-ruled Syria, threatening the new conquests there. What had begun as a popular uprising in Naples, now spread to all of Europe as a war.
To defend the new republic, Napoleone appointed men whom had served alongside him in the Egyptian campaigns to lead the various divisions as he reorganised the Neopolitan Army. Sicily remained the most vulnerable region as the Spanish Navy could cutoff the island from Naples and as a result coastal fortifications were hastily prepared. In November of 1801, the Spanish Navy was able to capture the city of Siracusa, with the Castello Maniace fortress falling to the Spaniards on 18 November 1801. The island would remain difficult to defend as a force of Spanish Royal Marines landed on the island, but they failed to capture Messina later in the month, retreating to the Southeastern corner of the island. In the consul's home island of Corsica, a uprising against Spanish rule would lead to a two year struggle finally culminating with the abandonment of the island by Spanish troops in 1805.
While the armed struggle against Spain persisted, Napoleone and the other leaders of the rebellion were busy establishing a new government and implementing reforms. Among the most significant acts of the new Provisional Assembly in Naples was the abolition of feudalist privileges and the destruction of the Latifundia in Naples. In December 14 of 1801, an act calling for the the nationalisation of church would lead to a confiscation of all church properties and an abolition of the Holy Orders. Under the leadership of Napoleone, a new legal code based on that of ancient Rome was also created. The new Republic's government was based on that of Ancient Rome, with executive authority placed in 5 person consulate, with Napoleone at its head. Additionally a 300-member senate was created with all male citizens aged 20 years or older able to vote for electors whom would elect the senators. Ironically its first legislation in May 1802 was the "War Powers Act", limited its own power. In reality, the government soon became a dictatorship with Napoleone at its helm.
Throughout the winter of 1801-1802, with few available troops, the Spanish attempted to place a blockade on Naples, but blockade runners soon became adept at smuggling goods into Naples. Pope Leo XII condemned the republic for its anti-clericism, but once riots broke out in the Papal States in support of a united Italy, leading the papacy to maintain a cautious approach to the Republic. Most of consuls advised Napoleone to pursue a defensive strategy to defend the new republic, however he wanted to go on the offensive to create a united Italy. As a result, he decided to attack, while first fortifying Naples and Bari, leaving behind only a smaller number of troops to defend the port cities. Instead he would invade the Papal States to take the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, which was still under Spanish rule, from there he would overrun the Duchy of Savoy, which was ruled by the absentee house of Savoy, now Kings of England.
Throughout the first months of 1802, Napoleone prepared for the invasion of the Papal States and Tuscany, which for the time being remained under control of the Spanish Crown. Empress Paola meanwhile kept a low profile and sent correspondence to her cousin King Louis XVII of France, hoping to have him aid the new Republic in an effort to weaken Spanish Power. The Parthenopean Consul meanwhile appealed to the Italians as "heirs of Rome", adopting a flag with a Roman Eagle their flag. Revolutionary activity spread, and in April 1802 when he finally made his move, Pope Leo was forced to flee Rome to Turin, and from there to Vienna where he sought the assistance of the Hohenzollerns. With a triumphant entrance into the city, on 12 May 1802 Napoleone proclaimed the birth of a new Roman Republic.
When Napoleone's troops had entered the the Papal States on 28 April 1802, the Papal Army offered little resistance, with its last major battle being at Loreto on 3 May 1802. However, with news that the Holy Roman Emperor had joined the war to assist Spain in "securing the peace", Napoleone had his troops rush to the Venetian Republic in an effort to seal off the Alps from invading German troops. Additionally, Napoleone hoped to capture ships from the Venetian Navy along with the shipyards there to help protect the coast of the new Roman Republic. Throughout the year, the Roman Army swelled to nearly 500,000 men as a new sense of Italian Nationalism swept through the Italy. In May and June of 1802, popular uprisings soon led to the government of the United Duchies of Milan and Modena being overthrown and provisional assemblies joining the Roman Republic as well.
Responding to appeals from the Pope, both England and the Holy Roman Emperor declared war on the Roman Republic, though France had sat idly by, Louis XVII was persuaded by his cousin Paola that by aiding Napoleone, France could gain territory at the expense of Spain. On 28 May 1802, Louis made a secret treaty with the Roman Republic whereby France would declare war on Spain, England and the Hohenzollern-led Holy Roman Empire. As a result, on 18 June 1802 French troops crossed the Pyrenees into Spain, capturing much of Catalonia by July and having captured much of Spain's industrial (particularly textile) production. Responding to the Pope's appeals, by summer of 1802, Denmark and Poland also joined the allied coalition, uniting against France and the Roman Republic. However, in July the Ottoman Empire invaded Savoy-ruled Syria, threatening the new conquests there. What had begun as a popular uprising in Naples, now spread to all of Europe as a war.
War in the Balkans and Eastern Mediterranean
Having overrun Venetia, Napoleone led troops northwards to secure mountain passes along the Alps and launch an invasion of Innsbruck, hoping to split the Holy Roman Emperor's forces in two and relieve the French. At the time, the French were engaged in heavy fighting on several fronts, with the bulk of their forces engaged in fighting in low countries and to the South in Spain. As winter approached however, Napoleone made a bold decision to send his army eastward to capture Trieste along with the rest of Habsburg ruled Istria. This move would cut the Holy Roman Empire off from the Mediterranean, and protect the port of Venice. On 14 November 1802, the city capitulated, as Napoleone led his troops into the city. The alliance between the Roman Republic and the Ottoman Empire had brought the Kingdom of Hungary into the conflict on the side of the allies. This led Napoelone to continue his push into the Balkans as he defeated the Hungarians and within a month overran Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Slavonia. The use of cavalry allowed Napoleone to penetrate the Hungarian territory quickly and to capture Dalmatia. The Ottomans led an invasion of Polish Wallachia which King Stephen of Hungary to sue for peace in April 1803. In exchange, Hungary ceded Slavonia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Dalmatia to the Roman Republic. In the newly conquered provinces, Napoleone abolished feudalism and serfdom, implemented a new legal code, having already incorporated these territories into the Roman Republic as the Province of Illyria in January.
To the South, in Corfu, the inhabitants of the islands reacted to the fall of Venice by burning the Libro d'Oro which had enshrined the privileges of the aristocracy. Unhappy with the Venetian taxation, the inhabitants of Morea welcomed a return to Ottoman Rule, whereas Crete resisted the Ottoman forces. Instead, they proclaimed a Cretan Republic with the assistance of the English in March 1803. The English Navy was able to win a major battle in February 1803 at Candia, allowing the English to recognise the new government. Admiral Howe, commander of the fleet signed a treaty placing the island under English protection, but allowing the inhabitants to maintain their own autonomous government. In the Levant, the fighting was more serious however with the English forces suffered a blow on 18 March of 1803 when Antioch fell to the Ottomans. This victory allowed the Ottoman forces to advance southwards towards the capital Damascus. As news of the Ottoman victory reached the cities to the south, thousands of Armenian and other refugees fled the advancing Turks.
In Spain, the French pushed further south and captured Valencia in May of 1803. In the west had they had reached as far as Cantabria. This was coupled with the arrival of English forces did allow the Hispano-English forces under the Earl of Richmond to defeat the French at Vitoria, allowing the Spanish some respite. During the summer of 1803, more English arrived in Lisbon and Vigo to shore up the ramshackle Spanish Army as it was hastily reorganised. Corps of Engineers from England also arrived and were given the task of modernising the defences of several coastal fortifications. With the formidable French navy threatening Lisbon, Emperor Luis had begun to ponder the possibility of abandoning the capital for one of his overseas domains. Within the imperial household, the strain of war along with the news of the escape of Empress Paola and Prince Afonso made the once festive imperial court sombre. Tensions between the Emperor and his younger brother Infante Antonio flared as Antonio blamed Luis for having driven his consort away. Luis decided to send his brother to exile and in July 1803, Infante Antonio, Duke of Beja was sent to Cabo da Boa Esperança to act as Viceroy of Nova Lusitânia.
To the South, in Corfu, the inhabitants of the islands reacted to the fall of Venice by burning the Libro d'Oro which had enshrined the privileges of the aristocracy. Unhappy with the Venetian taxation, the inhabitants of Morea welcomed a return to Ottoman Rule, whereas Crete resisted the Ottoman forces. Instead, they proclaimed a Cretan Republic with the assistance of the English in March 1803. The English Navy was able to win a major battle in February 1803 at Candia, allowing the English to recognise the new government. Admiral Howe, commander of the fleet signed a treaty placing the island under English protection, but allowing the inhabitants to maintain their own autonomous government. In the Levant, the fighting was more serious however with the English forces suffered a blow on 18 March of 1803 when Antioch fell to the Ottomans. This victory allowed the Ottoman forces to advance southwards towards the capital Damascus. As news of the Ottoman victory reached the cities to the south, thousands of Armenian and other refugees fled the advancing Turks.
In Spain, the French pushed further south and captured Valencia in May of 1803. In the west had they had reached as far as Cantabria. This was coupled with the arrival of English forces did allow the Hispano-English forces under the Earl of Richmond to defeat the French at Vitoria, allowing the Spanish some respite. During the summer of 1803, more English arrived in Lisbon and Vigo to shore up the ramshackle Spanish Army as it was hastily reorganised. Corps of Engineers from England also arrived and were given the task of modernising the defences of several coastal fortifications. With the formidable French navy threatening Lisbon, Emperor Luis had begun to ponder the possibility of abandoning the capital for one of his overseas domains. Within the imperial household, the strain of war along with the news of the escape of Empress Paola and Prince Afonso made the once festive imperial court sombre. Tensions between the Emperor and his younger brother Infante Antonio flared as Antonio blamed Luis for having driven his consort away. Luis decided to send his brother to exile and in July 1803, Infante Antonio, Duke of Beja was sent to Cabo da Boa Esperança to act as Viceroy of Nova Lusitânia.
Nova Luzitânia
On 12 September 1803, after an 86 day journey, a squadron of 16 ships arrived at the Vila do Cabo da Boa Esperança, bringing Infante Antonio and his wife Princess Charlotte of Hungary to Southern Africa. In 1803, the Viceroyalty had a population of 18 million inhabitants, nearly 11 million of whom were classified as "brancos" or white, another 4 million being slaves of African and to a lesser extent Asian origin, and another 3 million being free persons of colour. The gold and diamond mines continued to produce a large amount of revenue for the Spanish Crown, though rapid population growth in the southern provinces had created a large underclass. For over a century, men had migrated northwards seeking fortune, hoping to find gold, silver or diamonds. They often felt prey to disease or attacks by natives, while others settled on the prazos (large farms). The lack of farmland in the South, coupled with restrictions on manufacturing made it so that discontentment with the Spanish crown grew, particularly among the upper classes.
The grievances against the Spanish crown in Nova Luzitânia would manifest themselves in the form of various plots against the crown, with the most significant occurring in 1797. In April of 1797, a small group of educated men from Vila Dourada had begun fomenting the idea of rebellion against Spain, hoping to establish an independent kingdom. They resented the heavy taxation of gold and diamonds along with the prohibition of establishing local industries. The conspirators were led by a local lawyer, Jaime Peixoto, who had studied at the University of Coimbra. Having been influenced by the Englightened ideas coming out of Florence in the period, he sought to foment a mass uprising of Novo Lusitanos against Spanish rule. The plans were discovered by a local priest leading with the conspirators being condemned to perpetual to exile in the Lazarus Islands (Philippines). Many of the grievances remained however, particularly during war time which had begun to hurt the colonial economy.
The threat of French attacks on Nova Luzitânia were omnipresent throughout 1803 as French pirates operating from Madagascar began plundering Spanish ships passing to the Indies. Nearly 30% of all Spanish ships on the Carreira da Índia had been lost during the first half of the year, and the cost of tea, spices and cotton textiles from China and the Indies was increasing as a result. To combat the French threat, Infante Antonio replaced independent shipping with armed convoys sailing from Cabo along the coast to Mombasa and from there to Goa. Additionally, a squadron was sent to the Red Sea to prevent the Ottomans from attacking Spanish shipping in the Indian Ocean. With a shortage of goods arriving into Nova Luzitânia from Spain, in November of 1803 Infante Antonio opened the the commerce of Nova Luzitânia to ships from England, Denmark and Burgundy, placing customs houses to collect import duties at the ports. The new 15% tariff was able to increase the government revenue, though when word reached Lisbon, merchants in the imperial capital protested to the Emperor that their goods would not be able to compete with those of England, particularly woollens.
In 1805 to deal with the sudden influx of English woollens, Infante Antonio ignored Lisbon and instead allowed for the manufacture of woollen goods using looms imported from Burgundy. Local wool was abundant, and within a decade dozens of textile mills sprung up around the Rio do Ouro (Vaal River). This was followed by the cotton mills, along with sugar refineries and a printing press. With Spain in turmoil, there was little that Lisbon could but protest. Additionally, men from Nova Luzitânia formed most of the European sailors of the Armada of the Indies and were engaged in a war with the French in India, giving the Novo Lusitanos a growing sense of independence from Spain.
The economic reforms implemented by the Infante allowed the local economy to not only recover, but prosper throughout the war. The need for goods by the army and navy in the Indian Ocean led to a wartime boom. Additionally, the need soldiers and sailors helped alleviate the growing lack of land in the southern provinces of the Viceroyalty. Infante Antonio soon became very popular in the territory, and even more so when his first child was born, Infanta Isabel on 16 May 1805. She would be the first member of a European royal family to have been born outside of Europe.
The grievances against the Spanish crown in Nova Luzitânia would manifest themselves in the form of various plots against the crown, with the most significant occurring in 1797. In April of 1797, a small group of educated men from Vila Dourada had begun fomenting the idea of rebellion against Spain, hoping to establish an independent kingdom. They resented the heavy taxation of gold and diamonds along with the prohibition of establishing local industries. The conspirators were led by a local lawyer, Jaime Peixoto, who had studied at the University of Coimbra. Having been influenced by the Englightened ideas coming out of Florence in the period, he sought to foment a mass uprising of Novo Lusitanos against Spanish rule. The plans were discovered by a local priest leading with the conspirators being condemned to perpetual to exile in the Lazarus Islands (Philippines). Many of the grievances remained however, particularly during war time which had begun to hurt the colonial economy.
The threat of French attacks on Nova Luzitânia were omnipresent throughout 1803 as French pirates operating from Madagascar began plundering Spanish ships passing to the Indies. Nearly 30% of all Spanish ships on the Carreira da Índia had been lost during the first half of the year, and the cost of tea, spices and cotton textiles from China and the Indies was increasing as a result. To combat the French threat, Infante Antonio replaced independent shipping with armed convoys sailing from Cabo along the coast to Mombasa and from there to Goa. Additionally, a squadron was sent to the Red Sea to prevent the Ottomans from attacking Spanish shipping in the Indian Ocean. With a shortage of goods arriving into Nova Luzitânia from Spain, in November of 1803 Infante Antonio opened the the commerce of Nova Luzitânia to ships from England, Denmark and Burgundy, placing customs houses to collect import duties at the ports. The new 15% tariff was able to increase the government revenue, though when word reached Lisbon, merchants in the imperial capital protested to the Emperor that their goods would not be able to compete with those of England, particularly woollens.
In 1805 to deal with the sudden influx of English woollens, Infante Antonio ignored Lisbon and instead allowed for the manufacture of woollen goods using looms imported from Burgundy. Local wool was abundant, and within a decade dozens of textile mills sprung up around the Rio do Ouro (Vaal River). This was followed by the cotton mills, along with sugar refineries and a printing press. With Spain in turmoil, there was little that Lisbon could but protest. Additionally, men from Nova Luzitânia formed most of the European sailors of the Armada of the Indies and were engaged in a war with the French in India, giving the Novo Lusitanos a growing sense of independence from Spain.
The economic reforms implemented by the Infante allowed the local economy to not only recover, but prosper throughout the war. The need for goods by the army and navy in the Indian Ocean led to a wartime boom. Additionally, the need soldiers and sailors helped alleviate the growing lack of land in the southern provinces of the Viceroyalty. Infante Antonio soon became very popular in the territory, and even more so when his first child was born, Infanta Isabel on 16 May 1805. She would be the first member of a European royal family to have been born outside of Europe.
I’m surprised that Spain didn’t take control of Madagascar or he Levant as soon as possible. Could’ve saved them a headache. Not to mention trying to maintain a monopoly in the Indian Ocean.
Map of Syria
Below is a mid-18th century map of Syria after the English conquest, and its administrative regions.
The photo here is not working for some reason.