Decades of Darkness #89: Under The Southern Cross
“The first step to getting what you want out of life is this: Decide what you want. The second step is to work out who else wants it too.â€
-- Doña Maria Inês Isabel Catarina de Bragança e Bourbon, Empress of Brazil
* * *
2 May 1884
Rio de Janeiro
Empire of Brazil
“His Majesty’s Government is troubled by the prospect of unnecessary bloodshed between Brazil, Uruguay... and other nations,†said James Henry Fox, the British ambassador.
“I dislike the blood which has already been shed,†Empress Maria replied. “Brazilian blood cowardly spilled, in a ship sent on a mission of peace.†She didn’t know, and had no way of finding out, whether the Argentines or the Uruguayans had been responsible for planting a torpedo to sink the Riachuelo. But either way, the government at Montevideo was responsible either for the sinking or for incompetence in failing to prevent Argentine agents operating on their soil. And she was sure that Argentina would declare war soon enough either way, so if the Argentines had caused it, they would receive their rightful punishment.
“Wouldn’t it be better to negotiate a settlement rather than spill further Brazilian blood?†Fox said. “Britain’s Foreign Secretary, the Viscount Howick, offers himself as a mediator between your two sides.â€
That offer surprised Maria; she would have thought that the British government would have been too busy in Europe to send such a powerful man to the New World. But it changed nothing in her mind. “The war began because Uruguay refused to admit its responsibility. If we stop before we have fired a shot, it will merely embolden them in their refusal. No, while I think your foreign secretary for his generous offer, there is no place for negotiations with Uruguay.â€
Fox looked as if he had bitten onto a lemon, but he nodded. Maria exchanged a few more meaningless statements of peaceful intentions and good wishes with their struggle against the Bonaparte, then Fox left. He conspicuously avoided asking what Brazil’s plans were for Uruguay once the war was won, which gladdened Maria. There could be only one answer to that question, but she would much rather present the world with a fait accompli.
She placed more weight on the telegram she had received from U.S. President Corbin, relayed by the American ambassador. Without that, she might have been more circumspect in rejecting the British mediation proposal:
TO HER IMPERIAL MAJESTY MARIA I STOP URUGUAY’S ACTION CONSTITUTES ACT OF WAR STOP HAVE REQUESTED CONGRESS TO DECLARE STATE OF WAR BETWEEN UNITED STATES AND URUGUAY STOP WILL REQUEST NAVY SECRETARY TO DISPATCH SQUADRON TO RIO DE JANEIRO AS SOON AS DECLARATION IS SIGNED STOP PLEASE ACCEPT MY BEST WISHES FOR THE SUCCESS OF YOUR ARMS STOP PRESIDENT THOMAS CORBIN STOP
* * *
5 May 1884
By the Rio Jaguarão
Near Jaguarão, Rio Grande do Sul
Empire of Brazil
His Excellency Lieutenant-General Bruno Gomes had gathered his leading officers in a private group to give them their final orders. The engineers had already prepared the pontoon bridges which they would deploy across the Rio Jaguarão, along with a host of boats to bring the first crossing of men. If the Uruguayans chose to contest the crossing – and why wouldn’t they? – his men were ready. A shame he did not have more artillery; the reports from his liaison officers in Mexico were emphatic that the power of artillery was worth more than brigades, sometimes. He had already sent a request that some American artillery units would be sent, but for now, he would continue with what he had.
With his officers gathered, Gomes said, ‘Men, you know your roles. If one of us advances, follow him. If one of us retreats, defend him. If one of us dies, avenge him. For Brazil and the Empress!â€
The officers ran to rejoin their units, stumbling in the pre-dawn darkness. He waited alone for the moment, offering a brief prayer that God would grant them good fortune on the day of battle. When the appointed time arrived, his artillery opened up in a barrage aimed a little behind the riverbank, to weaken the defenders. After a few moments later, he heard the first boats push into the water. The Uruguayans lacked any significant artillery to respond.
“And so it begins,†he murmured.
* * *
8 July 1884
USS Iowa [1]
Rio de la Plata
Near Montevideo, Uruguay
Captain Henry Morrison raised his binoculars, to confirm with his own eyes what the lookout had reported. Sure enough, he saw the yellow-lozenge on a green background flag of Brazil rising above Montevideo, with its coat of arms showing the globe and the imperial crown above it [2]. He sometimes wondered about the wisdom of the United States in supporting an emperor in the New World – what point to the Revolution, otherwise? – but Brazil was a valuable friend to the United States in an otherwise hostile world.
“So, General Gomes has completed his “March to Montevideoâ€,†Morrison said. “Took him long enough.†The Uruguayans must have been defeated inland and declared Montevideo an open city rather than plunge it into bloodshed. A prudent move on their part. “The Argentines nearly beat you there; I hope you realise how much our navy has helped you.â€
Argentina had entered the war the previous month, but had been unable to provide much support for Montevideo. The U.S.-Brazilian navies had complete control of the Rio de la Plata, having driven the Argentines out completely. Montevideo would receive no reinforcements by sea, and the Iowa had been among the ships shelling Argentine forces when they tried to advance into Uruguay to support. Those forces had kept advancing, but further inland. Montevideo had fallen, and with any luck that meant the war was over, and that the Argentines would give up and go home…
* * *
18 July 1884
Montevideo
Eastern Republic of Uruguay (Brazilian-occupied)
“Sir, an Argentine officer has approached under flag of truce,†the messenger said.
Gomes raised an eyebrow. “I doubt he’s come to surrender. Ah well, bring him in.â€
A rather dusty Argentine in a colonel’s uniform reached him a few minutes later. “I am Colonel Rodrigo Martinez,†he said.
A relation of President Martinez? Gomes wondered. It was far from the least common of Argentine names, but then Martinez was famous even in Brazil for giving his relatives offices. Not that it mattered. “Lieutenant-General Bruno Gomes, Knight-Grand Cross of the Southern Cross. Why have you come here?â€
“Sir, you are aware that our armies have approached Montevideo.†The colonel didn’t wait for Gomes’s nod before continuing, “What you may not have known that the governments of Paraguay and Chacras [3] have also issued a joint declaration of support for the government of Uruguay, with the promise of war if Brazil does not withdraw.â€
Gomes shrugged. “I had not heard that, but why did you bother to mention it to me?â€
Colonel Martinez said, “Because this news may well mean that your government is willing to return to negotiations. If this is so, why fight a pointless battle? My commander proposes a temporary truce until you can communicate with Rio de Janeiro.â€
“Let us have a truce for, hmm, four days. After that... we shall see.†Gomes smelled foreign influence in this news of a “quadruple allianceâ€, almost certainly that of Britain. The British had always valued Uruguay’s independence from both Brazil and Argentina. Chacras and especially Paraguay would likely have joined the war sooner or later, but not both at once, not with some encouragement from outside.
“Do not give up Uruguay, Your Majesty,†Gomes murmured, as he spared a glance to the northeast.
* * *
21 July 1884
Rio de Janeiro
Empire of Brazil
“No, Your Excellency, I respectfully decline your foreign secretary’s offer of mediation,†Empress Maria said. “I did not begin this war, but I will not stop until it is finished properly.†Neither Paraguay nor Chacras would have threatened war if they were willing to recognise Brazil’s recapture of Uruguay. So what need for pointless negotiations?
Ambassador Fox nodded, then left without another word.
Maria smiled. “Send for the Chilean ambassador.†Fox would learn that Britain was not the only nation who could play at diplomacy. Chile had never settled its northern border with Chacras to its satisfaction. They would now have an opportunity to amend that.
* * *
18 August 1884
Near Mal Abrigo,
Eastern Republic of Uruguay (recognised)
Provincia Oriental del Rêo de la Plata (Brazilian-claimed)
“Colonel Duarte still determined to get us all killed?†Sergeant Ricardo Barbosa said.
Corporal Rocha, who had ever so discreetly been waiting nearby when Duarte gave the orders, nodded glumly. “The Argentines are there, he says, and we have to drive them out.â€
“Never mind that there are more of the Argentines than us, and never mind that they are waiting for us,†Barbosa finished. No-one was around except the crew of the four cylinder guns [4], and they wouldn’t repeat what he said. Not that Barbosa particularly cared, at the moment.
Rocha said, “And he doesn’t plan to deploy our gun to the frontlines, either.â€
“Why would he?†Barbosa muttered. Duarte had never seen a cylinder gun being fired, as far as Barbosa knew, and he had definitely not seen one of the new Cromwell guns [5]. While he appreciated artillery, he didn’t understand how best to use cylinder guns. “We’ll set up positions in the rear, on that ridge over there, then. And wait for our troops to fall back.â€
“Sir?†Rocha said.
“Just deploy them, corporal,†Barbosa said. Rocha would understand, soon enough.
The battle went much as Barbosa expected. It didn’t take much experience to predict what would happen. Their two regiments were only meant to reconnoitre the area around Mal Abrigo and take up defensive positions or withdraw if they encountered superior numbers of Argentine and Uruguayan defenders. But here they were, lined up on a battlefield and ready to charge into the opposition. After a brief but powerful burst of artillery, the order came to charge.
And, a few bloody minutes of fire from entrenched defenders later, the order came to withdraw. An order which came after some of the soldiers were already fleeing. The Argentines pursued, but were held off for a few precious moments by brave Brazilians who charged into the enemy lines to slow them down while their comrades escaped.
Barbosa barked out orders, and his men stayed at their posts while their comrades ran around them. Some of his fellow soldiers had an idea of what the cylinder guns could do, and the rest followed their lead. The Argentines didn’t know, or at least didn’t know enough. The rapid mechanical fire of the Cromwells cut through the midst of their ranks, and the surviving Argentines fled as fast as they had came. The Brazilians behind Barbosa rallied, and advanced again...
By the day’s end, Barbosa had become a lieutenant, and recommended for the Military Order of the Tower and Sword...
* * *
Taken from: “The Sword and the Cross: A History of Imperial Brazilâ€
(c) 1949 by Prof. Ahmad Sharif
Trinity College, University of Dublin
Liberty Press: Dublin, Ireland.
10. The War of the Quadruple Alliance
The roots of the war go far beyond the immediate casus belli of the destruction of the SNM Riachuelo. There is no doubt that the government of Brazil genuinely believed that the sinking was a hostile act, or that the public believed the same. Perhaps the naval court of inquiry blamed a mine to avoid any suggestion of incompetence on their own part, or perhaps to confirm what was already widespread belief.
But Brazil had sought to dominate Uruguay since its formation as a nation. Only the ongoing rivalry with Argentina, and the British support for a neutral port on the Rio de la Plata, had prevented Brazil from doing so. Brazil had the capacity to defeat Uruguay since at least the 1840s; all that had held them back was the potential reaction from Argentina and Britain. With Britain busy in Europe, and with what they believed to be justifiable cause for war, Brazil no longer feared that intervention. And the prospect of Argentine opposition no longer fazed the Brazilian government, who believed, correctly as it turned out, that their military was much readier for war than Argentina.
As the course of the war showed, it became more of a question if the Brazilian military was superior to that of Argentina and Paraguay and Chacras combined. It has been popular in popular historical writing, and occasionally in professional writing, to ascribe the formation of the Quadruple Alliance to British action, but this is far from the case. The myth of British hostility was largely one perpetuated by some figures within Brazil after the war. It belies the obvious fact that Britain was perfectly willing to cooperate with Brazil where necessary; as witness their mutual support of Portugal while the War of the Quadruple Alliance raged.
The origins of the myth come from the repeated British proposals for mediation. Britain did seek an end to the war as soon as possible, but that was because they wished commerce to continue uninterrupted, and because they sought an end to bloodshed. Paraguay and Chacras chose Britain to represent their case because they wanted to avoid war with Brazil if possible, but they acted out of desperation. They believed that Brazil would declare war on them next once it was finished with Uruguay, and thus that they would do better fighting together than alone. When it became clear that their military was not up to the task, and particularly when Chile intervened, they abandoned the war, and sought instead to develop their own militaries so that they would not be caught unready again...
Important Dates in the War of the Quadruple Alliance:
1884:
15 February
Unexplained explosion sinks the SNM Riachuelo with heavy loss of life.
24 March
Brazilian naval court of inquiry finds that a mine from an unidentified source sank the Ricachuelo.
25 April:
Brazil declares war on Uruguay.
4 May:
United States declares war on Uruguay in support of Brazil.
5 May
Brazilian forces under command of Lieutenant General Gomes cross the Rio Jaguarão, brushing aside the Uruguayan defenders and beginning the “March to Montevideoâ€.
United States sends a naval task force consisting of four capital ships, two Jefferson-class battleships (East Florida and Iowa) and two Illinois-class battleships (Missouri and Arkansas), along with supporting vessels, to Brazil.
18 May
Brazilian forces defeat Uruguayan defenders in Battle of Vergara.
3 June
Brazil wins battle of Treinta y Tres and forces crossing of the Rio Olimar Grande.
16 June
Argentina declares war on Brazil in support of Uruguay.
20 June
U.S.-Brazilian naval raid on Buenos Aires damages the port facilities, fortifications, and sinks several Argentine naval vessels.
24 June
Brazilian forces occupy Minas, Uruguay, after defeating Uruguayan defenders.
7 July
Battle of Montevideo fought on the outskirts of that city, ending with Brazilian victory.
8 July
Brazilian forces occupy Montevideo after Uruguayan government declares it an open city and withdraws.
16 July
Argentine supporting forces link up with remnants of Uruguayan Army near Las Piedras, Uruguay.
22 July
Paraguay and Chacras declare war on Brazil in support of Uruguay.
23 July
Inconclusive battle fought between Brazilian and Argentine-Uruguayan forces outside Montevideo. The battle is a tactical draw, but the Argentines and Uruguayans withdraw due to lack of supplies and the Brazilian capacity to receive reinforcements by sea.
July-September
Brazilian forces spread across most of Uruguay to enforce their claimed annexation, gradually driving the Argentines back to Cardona, while further Brazilian forces invade the north through Rivera.
18 August
Border clash between Brazil and Chacras at Corumba ends in Chacrian victory but they do not pursue further into Brazil due to lack of supplies.
21 August
United States despatches an expeditionary force to Brazil under command of General Robert E. Lee, Jr., consisting of three regiments of artillery, two regiments of cavalry and four regiments of infantry (approximately 10,000 men total, including supporting troops).
August-September
Continuing indecisive border clashes between Brazil and Chacras continue until Chilean entry into the war, after which there is a de facto truce along the border as both nations concentrate on fighting other enemies.
4 September
Brazilian forces occupy Ciudad del Este, Paraguay.
14 September
Argentines cross Brazilian border and advance on Foz do Iguacu, threatening the flank of the Brazilian advance into Paraguay.
September-October
Argentine and Paraguayan forces advance into Brazil’s Parana Province, reaching as far as Porto San Jose.
24 September
Argentine forces defeat probing Brazilian attack outside Cardona, and both sides adopt defensive positions.
29 September
Chile declares war on Chacras.
2 October
Argentine forces occupy Panorama, Brazil. American General Robert E. Lee, Jr announces that he sees no need to drive into northern Argentina to cut off their supplies, stating “Let us occupy Buenos Aires, and then let them decide if they can still see such a panorama.â€
16 October
Battle of Santa Fe Do Sul ends the Argentine advance into Brazil. Argentine forces retreat to Panorama and adopt a defensive position.
18 October
Brazilian forces occupy Artigas, Uruguay.
19 October
Chilean forces occupy Antofagasta, Chacras.
26 October
The planned naval assault on Buenos Aires is postponed since some of the American and Brazilian troops are to be diverted to Europe. Generals Gomes and Lee prepare a new strategy to push the Argentines out of the rest of Uruguay.
6 November
Battle of Iquique Bay fought between Chilean Navy and Chacrian Navy [6] ends with decisive Chilean victory.
14 November
Paraguayan forces cross Brazilian border in a fresh assault driving on Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul Province, Brazil.
November-June
Desert war between Chacras and Chile sees gradual Chilean occupation of the Chacrian coast, helped by Chilean naval supremacy.
9 December
Second Battle of Cardona between Brazilian-American and Argentine-Uruguayan forces ends in decisive Brazilian-American victory. The surviving Argentine forces withdraw toward Mercedes, Uruguay.
16 December
Brazilian forces occupy Bella Union, Uruguay, and then begin a push south along the Rio Uruguay toward Salto.
1885
2 January
Brazilians occupy Salto, Uruguay.
8 January
Brazilian-American forces defeat Argentines at Battle of Mercedes, and the Argentines withdraw toward Paysandu, the last major unoccupied city in Uruguay.
28 January
Paysandu captured after joint Brazilian attacks from north and south. All of Uruguay is occupied.
2 February
Uruguayan government-in-exile established in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
3 February
Brazil offers peace to Argentina and Paraguay (but not Chacras) on status quo ante bellum borders, except for their recognition of Brazil’s annexation of Uruguay. The peace terms are rejected three days later.
February-April
Large-scale fighting ceases along the Uruguayan-Argentine border, with Brazilian forces seeking to drive the Argentines out of Panorama and thus to counter the Paraguayan offensive toward Campo Grande.
3 April
Argentine forces withdraw from Panorama.
Paraguayan forces capture Campo Grande, Brazil.
16 April
Brazilian counterattack pushes the Paraguayans back toward Ponta Pora. Brazilians announce a “drive on Asunciónâ€.
2 May
Brazilian forces occupy Ponta Pora and begin advance into Paraguay.
5 May
Planned small-scale Brazilian raid into Chacras becomes a major advance because the border has been largely stripped to defend against Chile.
8 May
American-Brazilian forces capture Gualeguaychú, Argentina, and prepare for a drive south toward Buenos Aires, with naval support and transportation along the Rio de la Plata.
10 June
Brazilian forces reach outskirts of Asunción, Paraguay, and halt there rather than stage an assault.
* * *
16 June 1885
Rio de Janeiro
Empire of Brazil
“Ambassador Fox, I have invited you here to request British mediation between Brazil and Chile on the one hand, and Argentina, Paraguay and Chacras on the other hand,†Empress Maria said, allowing herself a smile.
“Not with the government-in-exile of Uruguay?†Fox said warily.
“Uruguay is a historic province of Brazil, and has now been restored,†Maria answered. She savoured the moment; this almost made up for what Britain had done to Brazil during her youth. Uruguay would be Brazilian, along with substantial border territories of Paraguay and Chacras. The Chileans would get the guano coast they craved so much too, although that was of less concern to Maria.
“I will relay your request to London, although I suspect the Foreign Secretary will have too many commitments in Europe to mediate personally,†Fox said.
Maria nodded. “That is unfortunate, but understandable.†For that matter, Brazil had commitments in Europe too, even if the number of soldiers had been kept small with the more pressing war closer to home. “I am sure the negotiations will go well.â€
If not, she could always return to war. The conflict so far had demonstrated for all to see which nations in South America had well-organised and well-equipped armies, and which did not.
Fox said, “I hope that the negotiations bring peace.â€
Which was not quite the same thing, but Maria let him depart without contradicting him. Let him have the last word here; Brazil would have the last word at the negotiating table.
* * *
[1] USS Iowa is the third ship of the Jefferson-class, a four-gun mastless ironclad roughly equivalent to the OTL British Colossus-class, although with slightly better engines.
[2] See
http://flagspot.net/flags/br_emp.html for an image of the Brazilian imperial flag.
[3] OTL Bolivia.
[4] Machine gun. The name arose from the first Hoovers (*Gatling guns), and machine guns are often colloquially called Hoovers in North America, but usually cylinder guns in South America and Europe.
[5] Self-acting machine gun similar in principle to the OTL Maxim gun.
[6] Not a large navy, consisting of a few obsolete ships bought off Peru and New England.
* * *
Thoughts?
Kaiser Wilhelm III
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