Chapter 8: Three Empires, one City
The Orthodox successors to Constantinople's Empire
Following the disastrous Fourth Crusade, the very heart of the Orthodox church and Roman Empire was ripped out. Constantinople was given over to conquerers, first the boorish Franks, and then, in the ultimate irony, the very Venetians that Constantinople had sheltered for centuries. Such a military reversal was bad enough, but to make matters worse, there was uncertainty among the remaining Greeks about who was the true successor to the Roman Empire. The Laskarids claimed that their Nicene Roman Empire was, while the Komnenoi in Trebizond claimed the same, and the Komnenos-Doukids of Epirus asserted their own legitimacy. When Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria smashed aside the Latin Empire, he took the title "Emperor of the Bulgarians and Greeks," placing himself in a position equal to Emperor Ionnas III of the Nicene Roman Empire, Emperor Manuel I of the Trebizondian Empire, and Emperor Michael II Komnenos Doukas of the Despotate of Epirus.
Each Empire web through transition periods at the time, but none more so than the Second Bulgarian Empire, the rising star of the Balkans. Thus, it is to the Bulgarians that we turn to first.
Chapter 8.1 - The Second Bulgarian Empire
Under Kaliman Asen I and Simeon Asen I
*Even in 1241, when Ivan Asen II died, Bulgaria had a long history with the Roman Empire. The Bulgarian warlord Krum had killed the Roman Emperor Nicephorus I and used his skull as a cup, and in return the Roman Emperor Basil II blinded an entire Bulgarian army. The Roman brothers Cyril and Methodius supplied the Bulgarians with a written script and drew them in to the Orthodox world, and in return the Bulgarians defeated the Latins while the Romans had been shocked by the loss of their Queen of Cities, Constantinople.
Kaliman, however, was not given a pleasant start to his reign. Bath Khan invaded in 1242, decimating Wallachia and wrenching it from Bulgaria's grasp, rolling the Empire's borders back to the Danube. The Mongol threat was only dealt with when, annoyed, Kaliman bought them off with a significant bribe.With his prestige thus damaged, Kaliman faced an open revolt from his nobility, sensing weakness.
As it turned out, the nobility sensed pragmatism, not weakness. In 1243, Kaliman thrashed a rebel army in Moesia. Although it took four more years, by 1247 Kaliman had ruthlessly suppressed the rebellion, killing or deporting any nobles that hadn't supported him. During that period, the Serbians and Epirotes, sensing weakness, had invaded. Kaliman, ignoring the Epirotes, surrounded and destroyed the main Serbian force, eliciting a peace from their terrified King. Turning south, Kaliman then bested the Epirotes, restoring his borders and plundering as far west as the Adriatic.
Finally secure on his throne, Kaliman took stock of his Empire. Under his father, Tuvorno had become the capital and most splendid Bulgarian city, but even the ravages of the Fourth Crusade couldn't entirely destroy the illustrious histories of Thesselonika and Adrianople. While his Bulgarian territory was larger, it was also more sparsely populated, while the Greek south was smaller yet more densely populated.
Luckily for Kaliman, the Orthodox church tied the Empire together. The Bulgarians and Greeks alike had suffered at the hands of Catholicism, and this became the epicenter for national unity.*Under Kaliman, a building program, the largest yet in Bulgaria's history, was started, with mixed Greek and Bulgarian influences. The Orthodox Wallachians fled south, across the Danube, which provided Kaliman with yet another opportunity. Settling them along the southern bank of the Danube, Kaliman began the creation of fortified cities along the river, providing a buffer against future attacks. Finally, Thesselonika and Addianople were revitalized, giving them the reconstruction necessary to return the cities to their rightful positions.
Only Constantinople lay outside of Kaliman's ambitions. In 1255, he attempted to attack the Queen of Cities, but upon seeing the restored Theodosian Walls [1], he thought better of it and retreated. The next year, however, Kaliman launched a blistering offensive against the Epirotes, distracted as they were by a campaign against the Duchy of Achia. Conquering all the way to Dyrrachium, Kaliman stretched his empire across the Balkans, making it the most powerful state in the region, with only Hungary and Venice in close proximity.
After Kaliman's death in 1258, his son, Simeon Asen II [2] took the throne. Simeon, at this point, was a mere 12 years old, overshadowed by his older sisters [3]. In response to the "feminine influence" of the sisters, no less than three Bulgarian generals took Simeon under their wing, only to be murdered, presumably by either the sisters or other generals. During that time, the army of the Bulgarian Empire was strengthened, with a band Crimean Goths becoming the first of the Sarmatian Guard, the elite guards of the Bulgarian Emperors. However, the period also saw the weakening of the Asen dynasty, which had been in power since the days of the Komnenos dynasty in the Roman Empire.
When Simeon finally came of age in 1264, he was faced with a Croat invasion of his western territories. The Kingdom of Croatia, which had wrenched freeing self free from the Hungarians after a brief succession crisis [4], was under the leadership of the aging Durak Zaninović. Having set his sights on the rich ports of the Adriatic, Durak set out with the intention of conquering Dyrrachium and the surrounding area.
Simeon panicked, having little experience in combat, but quickly picked up on the style of diplomacy that the later Roman Emperors used so well [5]. Pointing out the danger of a united Adriatic coast to the Venetians, Simeon thus prompted Venetian raids on the Croat army. By the time Durad's force had approached Dyrrachium, it was easy pickings for the larger Bulgarian force, sharply ending the threat to the Empire.
The victory over the Croats also marked Simeon's victory over his overbearing sisters and generals. Having freed himself from their influence, Simeon continued the word that his father had begun. Primarily, this was repopulating the Danube frontier and turning it into a strong defensive line against future Mongol attacks, while also repopulating the Greek portions of his Empire. The Greeks, largely left to govern themselves, experienced a rebirth of the arts, with wealthy merchants patronizing the arts and organizing the construction of public works. Most significant was the reconstruction of Thesselonika, which rapidly arose to become the largest city in the Bulgarian Empire, and a major seaport to boot.
In the interest of defending his newfound port, Simeon began the construction of a Bulgarian navy. He had completed nearly fifty ships when disaster struck. His young wife, the beautiful Francisca Hohenstaufen, who had fled from her uncle's domain in Sicily. Starting in 1280, Francisca started to construct an anti-Alfons coalition, including the Pope, the Holy Roman Emperor, and the Most Serene Republic of Venice. Unfortunately for Simeon, Alfons struck first, wrecking his fledgling fleet and threatening Thesselonika in 1285. Hoping to avoid further bloodshed, Simeon agreed to drop Francisca's claim to the Kingdom of Sicily [6].
Simeon lived for two more years, but in 1287, he was dead. He had a single legitimate child, a 3-year old daughter, but his bastard son Krum [7], a 17-year old officer in the army, was wildly popular. A brief civil war led to the downfall of Francisca, who couldn't shake the army's faith in Krum with her charms alone. Thus, in 1289, Emperor Krum Asen I was crowned.
Chapter 8.2 - The Great Komnenoi
The Empire of Trebizond
Ironically, the greatest patron of Trebizondian power was the horde thy leveled civilizations, the Mongols. At Kose Dag, they devastated the Sultanate of Rum, giving the Pontic state breathing room among hostile powers. In 1258, the destruction of Baghdad led to Trebizond growing in importance as the western terminus of the Silk Road, increasing trade in the area. Finally, the crippling of the Geonese presence in the Black Sea allowed Trebizond to secure the Crimean peninsula, giving the nation control over Black Sea waterways.
The Emperors of Trebizond used two great advantages to prop up their Empire. Alexios I of Trebizond (died 1222), his son Ionnas I [8] (1222-1246), and his son Basilios I all used their wealth and beautiful daughters/sisters to their advantage. In 1239, the 17-year old beauty Kommenke, daughter of the Emperor Ionnas I, was married to a Nestorian Mongol chieftain, who in return brought 4,000 Mongol horsemen to fight with the Emperor, beginning the long relationship between Trebizond and the Mongols.
Their acceptance of Nestorians shows the changing attitude of Orthodoxy toward heresies. Before, the church had stomped out any signs of dissent, often creating splinter groups due to their self-assurance. However, following the Fourth Crusade, that self-assurance had vanished with the fall of Constantinople. Instead, Orthodoxy began to welcome many long-lost splinters of their religion, most notably the Armenian and Nestorian churches.
In 1241, Baselios Ionnas I made use of his newfound allies. Launching an offensive into the largely lawless Anatolian plains, he managed to conquer his way to Sinope, which he incorporated into his Empire. Following his victories, he had the south-eastern coast of the Black Sea entirely under his control.
The most consequential action of any of the emperors in the time period, however, was the marriage of Baselios Basilios I to the daughter of the King of Georgia. The two nations were very similar - both had Orthodox populations and had been savaged in the past by the Muslims to the south. Although Basilios would never control both Treizbond and Georgia, he would plant the seed that would go on to change the shape of the region.
The only other even of note was a trade that occurred in 1260, under Basilios I. He traded a vast sum of money to the Mongol lords of Persia for ten men, all from China. These men were unique, because they were experienced cannoniers from the Mongol army. They would forge the first cannons for a Christian leader in history, making Trebizond the first Christian nation to have access to gunpowder. Such a change would soon shake all of Europe.
Overall, Trebizond saw a period of moderate expansion, although very little of note happened. Part of the problem is that many of the records of Trebizond were lost over the years, leading to a lack of primary sources. Thus, most of the information on the period comes from outside sources, which merely emphasize that the city of Trebizond was known for its wealth, women, and seafarers.
Chapter 8.3 - The Purple Phoenix
The Nicene Roman Empire under the Palaeologus dynasty
In 1254, Ionnas III Vatatzes died, allowing his son, Theodoros II Laskaris take the throne. In Nicaea, the Empire's stability appeared to have recovered. The Thematic armies had recovered, the Scholai [9] had been refounded, and the Imperial Navy was once again in existence. Trade had resumed, and the countryside had been largely repopulated. In the minds of most, only one thing remained: to retake Constantinople.
Constantinople always looked closer to the Nicene Roman Empire than to the other successor states. Only Nicaeans could claim to be able to see the Queen of Cities from within their borders [10], and the dream of reclaiming the great capital had never quite died. However, Theodoros Laskaris had a number of issues with the idea of reclaiming Constantinople. It was guarded by the formidable Venetian fleet, an obstacle that not even the restored Imperial fleet, Greek Fire and all, hoped to beat.*
The more pressing issue, however, was that of the resurgent nobility. The Anatolian aristocracy of Roman society had plagued the Empire for years, and only the degradation of the Fourth Crusade seemed capable of ending their constant schemes. Even that, however, had been undone in half a century, and in 1260 a pretender attempted to usurp the throne. After a brief civil war, Theodoros restored order, but his worst fears had been confirmed. As he wrote, "I cannot return to the city, for when I leave with my army, I will return to find that the empire I conquered for will no longer be mine."
Luckily, Theodoros did not have to wait long for his enemies to reveal themselves. In 1263, a massive uprising occurred, led by one Michael Palaeologus. Theodoros attempted to raise A force to fight back, but at the Battle of Smyrna, his forces betrayed him, leaving Theodoros dead on the field and Michael Palaeologus the Emperor of the Nicene Roman Empire.
Having come to power with the support of the nobility, Michael quickly moved to ensure that he wouldn't be deposed in the same way. A master of diplomacy, he coerced the major aristocrats of the Empire to come to Nicaea, where he promptly sat them down and made them sign a document committing them to total support of Michael and his family, under the watchful gaze of the Scholai and Ecumenical Patriarch. With that taken care of, Michael could look outward.
The conquest of Constantinople remained out of the question. It was unlikely that the Empire could have defeated Venice, and even if they did, the rest of the Catholic world would likely turn on the Romans immediately, creating an unwinnable situation. Instead, Michael focused on the Mediterranean. When a Muslim force destroyed the Kingdom of Cyprus, Michael promptly attacked, recapturing the island in a matter of months.*
Michael spent much of his reign carefully rebuilding his nation. Although Cyprus was his last major conquest, he did put the Nicene Roman Empire back on its feet. The countryside, which had been devastated by Christians and Muslims alike, was repopulated, and the burgeoning Roman merchant class, often on cooperation with merchants from Trebizond and Bulgaria, was growing steadily. When Alfons Hohenstaufen thrashed the Venetian navy in 1268, the Venetian stranglehold on Aegean trade faltered, giving the Greek merchants a chance to retake the sea for their own trade.
Michael ruled until 1292, when he died of an unknown disease. He left the throne to his son, Andronikos II. Michael had strengthened the Nicene Roman Empire internally, and given the state a fighting chance in the future. But it was a small state, surrounded by larger and greater powers. Such an obstacle was not to be overlooked.
Chapter 8.4: The Queen in Captivity
Constantinople under the Venetians
The Venetian acquisition of Constantinople in 1230 is an example of incredible irony. The capital that had sheltered the lagoon in its infancy had become a slave to the Venetians. However, all was not as bleak as it appeared. Unlike the Latin Empire, whose only interest had been plunder, the city captured the imagination of the doges. Merchants seeking a door to the east flocked to Constantinople, reviving business in the region. Those businesses patronized the city, replacing shattered roads, restoring great churches and forums, and creating new public works. Although the city remained one of only 60,000 people [11] in 1260, it had regained much of its grandeur. Again, statues and fountains decorated the streets, and merchants sailed regularly in and out of the Golden Horn.
Of course, this prosperity was watched with constant vigilance by the Venetian fleet. After all, two states with clear ambitions to take the city - Bulgaria and Nicaea - directly bordered the city (right across the Sea of Marmara, in Nicaea's case) made the area inherently unstable.
Constantinople occupied a unique spot in the Venetian Republic. Out of respect for the city, a junior doge was appointed for Constantinople. Such a position was usually given to younger politicians in Venice, where they would essentially be groomed for a future as the Doge of Venice. While the Doges of Constantinople and Venice technically worked together, they rarely acted as equals, with the Doge of Venice taking the lead in the majority of situations.*
However, the existence of this political office drew attention to Constantinople. The Doges of Constantinople patronized massive building projects in the city, including the reconstruction of the Theodosian Walls, as well as the restoration of the Hippodrome, which was used for horse races instead of the traditional chariot races. Even the Forum of Constantine was renovated, with a great clock tower rising above the streets. Everywhere, the city seemed revitalized.
However, this revitalization was largely carried out with the immigration of Italians to the city. Ironically, the city that had replaced the Roman culture with Greek was now being flooded with the culture of the Italian peninsula. While Constantinople flourished once again, it was not without losing the Greek brilliance that had characterized it under the Macedonians and the Komnenoi.
[1] - During their ownership of the city, the Venetians had rebuilt the famous defenses.
[2] - Assuming that Simeon I was Simeon the Great of the First Bulgarian Empire.
[3] - A biological change from OTL, with Kaliman producing more daughters than sons.
[4] - Croatia and Hungary were joined in a personal union in 1102, so by the mid-1200s, resentment would have had time to build and a crisis could have given the opportunity for independence.
[5] - The OTL word for which would be "Byzantine."
[6] - The agreement was made without Francisca's consent. Tellingly of their relationship, Simeon's daughter Eudoxia (born 1284) would be the only child the two would have.
[7] - His birth name was Ivan Asen, but it seems that Francisca took to calling him the barbaric name Krum in an attempt to further damage his credibility. Krum seems to have embraced this, and is know to posterity as Krum Asen I.
[8] - A minor succession change - OTL Alexios's son-in-law, Anikondrios, became emperor. Here, Anikondrios died in 1219.*
[9] - Elite Imperial bodyguards, 1,500 strong. Restarted by Ionnas in 1252.
[10] - The Venetian hinterland around the city prevented the Bulgarians from making the same boast.
[11] - This would rank Constantinople among the larger cities in Europe, but compared to the half-million mark of Justinian, it is a pale shadow.