An Overview of the Growth Period:
The Transformation of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy
The
Growth Period (1880s-1940s), also known as Sagonaquade’s Reformation, known refers to a roughly 60-year period where the Haudenosaunee government both loosened immigration standards and adopted various programs to encourage the growth of the native population of the realm. In addition, the period was marked by a push toward "modernization" by the Haudenosaunee government, including a push toward industrialization and urbanization - issues the confederacy tackled in a unique way. Abortion became not just formally outlawed, but punitive measures were adopted. Additionally, non-native families were restricted in how many children they could have during this period. Realm-sponsored segregation was also enforced in order to promote native communities. The period coincided with major institutional reforms for the confederacy, including the adoption of a "borderless nation" policy, which radically shifted Haudenosaunee society. The period and the reforms associated with it were controversial at the time of their adoption and remain controversial to this day. Regardless of whether one stands in support or opposition of the
Growth Period, it is unquestionable that the period was truly transformative. High Chief Sagonaquade, whose tenure spanned the years 1879 through 1909, would initiate the era
I. Background Information
The Haudenosaunee Confederacy was admitted into the Union of American Realms as one of the original 18 realms on March 26, 1790, after allying with the colonists in their efforts against the British Empire. As a result of the alliance, the then 648-year-old confederacy became the first native realm in the Union. It's inclusion in the Union set the groundwork for the latter admittance of native realms. The inclusion of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy also established hard border protections for the Haudenosaunee along with the greatest guarantees of autonomy afford to any of the other realms in the Union. These protections came at a cost; namely, the Haudenosaunee were only granted representation in the Council of Executives by way of their High Chief, yet were not granted seats in the Confederal Assembly. This would later be remedied following the Erie Conflict with New York and the adoption of a confederal amendment granting all native realms delegations at the Confederal Assembly. Of course, the greater autonomy given to the Haudenosaunee Confederacy also caused great animosity between the non-native realms and the native realms.
Despite this, the autonomy was widely supported in the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. Though the final treaty admitting them into the Union saw the loss of sizable portions of land (mostly affecting the Mohawk) the move was ultimately supported as the best way of ensuring protection of remaining land from further loss. This proved rather true - New York failed to force the Haudenosaunee to cede land for the construction of an Erie Canal, and the strict immigration standards the confederacy was able to adopt also ensured limited non-native settlement in the territory of the confederacy. In fact, settlement by non-native citizens of the Union was the biggest concern of the confederacy in the early half of the 19th century. This resulted in extremely strict standards that saw very few non-native individuals being allowed to settle within the confederacies borders - at least legally. In this fashion, the confederacy was able to maintain its society, particularly its government and culture, much as it was prior to joining the Union.
Of course, these strict policies had their drawbacks. By the middle of the 19th century, the confederacy's population had fallen behind all of the other realms save the Mayaimi Confederacy, also a native realm. The confederacy's economy was also stalled behind all of its neighbors, which had begun to industrialize and urbanize. With non-native investors beginning to lobby the Haudenosaunee leadership, the realm began loosening its immigration restrictions significantly. Additionally, the realm had taken a hard stance at the confederal level against slavery, a growing issue throughout the 19th century. As a result, the confederacy had opened its borders to a small number of freedmen a year. By 1850, a railway was being constructed to connect the center of Haudenosaunee government and of the Onondaga nation, to the growing border town of Tonawanda in the southwest, and the Saint Lawrence River to the north. The opening up of the Haudenosaunee, however, presented real concerns for the Confederacy on a number of fronts from the lack of industrialization and urbanization in the realm to the low population of Native Americans as opposed to the possibility of non-native immigrants, and even to issues of governmental structure the confederacy had maintained since its inception.
In 1879, Sagonaquade (also known as Albert Cusick) managed to become Chief Todaharo (High Chief) of the Confederacy. Having portrayed himself as a small reformer in his bid to become High Chief, Sagonaquade would instead pursue radical reforms during his tenure as the head of the Confederacy. It would be under Sagonaquade that the
Growth Period would formally begin.
II. General Note on Population
Sagonaquade was an astute politician, oftentimes proclaiming moderate convictions, yet executing radical reforms. One of the major planks of Sagonaquade's tenure as High Chief revolved around growing concerns over the immigration easements. Sagonaquade related with those that feared the erosion of the confederacy. The way the confederacy was organized, non-native members would have no representation whatsoever in the Grand Council. The fear was that if the non-native population grew in numbers, it would agitate for the creation of their own separate government that would – given time – overtake the realm. Those who feared this outcome the most agitated for a reversal of the immigration easements and a return to the initial confederacy policy of restricting entry into the realm by non-natives.
But Sagonaquade also saw the growth that the easements had allowed to occur. The seat of power, what is now known as the city of Onondaga, outside investment had spurred growth. The railway had also spurred economic activity within the confederacy, and it had much to do with non-native investors. It was true, whether ideal or not, that keeping the confederacy closed and secluded, like a recluse, would harm it in the long run.
So Sagonaquade argued for and maintained the immigration easements, but anticipating rebuke from hardliners, he announced his
Plan for Haudenosaunee Growth. It would outline an official policy, to be adopted by all six nations, of supporting to the highest degree possible, the expansion of the native population. The plan included the establishment of an official, confederacy-wide school system, where pro-growth propaganda could be disseminated for future generations. The confederacy was to adopt stricter taxes on non-native populations, particularly investors, in order to fund stipends to be given to families who had more children. This entire process, in fact, led to the formalization of the bureaucracy of Haudenosaunee government.
It is estimated that by 1890, the average native Haudenosaunee couple had 6.7 children. By the end of Sagonaquade’s 30-year tenure, the native population of the confederacy had increased to 204,385 from ~88,500 at the start of his tenure, an increase of 235% in three decades. Nonetheless, the non-native population had grown considerably as well due to immigration into the realm. Sagonaquade’s successor maintained and expanded the programs, but as Onondaga grew and urbanized, the efforts were less successful. Still, the programs are considered a success by many in the realm. By the end of the Growth Period in the 1950s, the native population of Haudenosaunee numbered over three times what it did in 1910.
The programs adopted by the Grand Council drew considerable criticism from various sectors of Haudenosaunee society, and those criticisms continue to this day. The Growth Period is considered to have worsened the social role of women by putting an emphasis on larger families and more children. The confederacy also took a hardline against abortion in the 20thcentury that continues to be prevalent in Haudenosaunee culture. In conjunction with other reforms during the period, detractors consider the era a dark one for Haudenosaunee traditionalism.
Nonetheless, the native population did, in fact, grow considerably during the period. The native population grew seven times over during the Growth Period. In the most recent census (2020), the population of native residents of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy stood at 893,840. This total includes individuals who claim full and mixed-native ancestry.
III. The Reform Crisis
The structure of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy meant that most of the realm was divided into six distinct nations. The nations were organized under the Grand Council of Chiefs, with 49 chiefs (traditionally) and one High Chief. The 49 chiefs that sat at the Grand Council were divided in unequal portions amongst five of the six nations: the Onondaga, the Mohawk and the Seneca are considered the
Elder Brothers and had the most chiefs, while the Oneida and the Cayuga are considered the
Younger Brothers. The sixth nation, the Tuscarora, did not have chiefs at the Grand Council and could only speak on matters that benefitted all the nations for most of the confederacy’s history. This was the result of the Tuscarora joining the confederacy in the late 17th century after immigrating from their homeland in the southeast.
There were inherent issues with this system as the nation modernized during the period. Onondaga was becoming the center of the population, regardless of tribal descent. Plus, with growing numbers of non-native residents, a clearer legal system to govern over them was necessary. Moreover, the Tuscarora members of the confederacy had been agitating for greater representation. Sagonaquade knew that the current situation was rather untenable. Additionally, the growing non-native business interests were vital to the growing economy of the realm, but wanted greater protections.
So Sagonaquade proposed the reformation of the Haudenosaunee government by recognizing two new nations: the Tuscarora Nation and a miscellaneous Non-Native Nation. Moreover, the nations would have no real boundary, but would rather be determined by ancestry and lineage through the mother's line. The Grand Council would be expanded to 98 chiefs, not including the High Chief, to be divided according to each Nation's population with one major caveat. The Non-Native Nation would be restricted to 1 representative to the Grand Council, who would not be considered a chief, but who would have equal voice.
The resulting proposal by Sagonaquade in 1898 nearly tore the realm apart. Large segments of Haudenosaunee government felt that these changes were far too radical, and deviated from the intentions of the founders of the confederacy. In particular, the existing Clan Mothers who selected the various chiefs of each Nation, voiced the largest concern. The opposition seemed to reach a fever point by the Winter of 1898 and there were many indications that Sagonaquade's reforms would either not pass or cause a civil conflict.
Then Sagonaquade made a grand tour of the confederacy, stopping in nearly every settlement and making his case over the course of the next year. The High Chief was deliberate and did not rush the process, and when he finished, a great portion of the populace had come to back his reform efforts. He had also succeeded in convincing a number of chiefs on the proposals, which in turn caused a number of Clan Mothers to warn and even
remove the antlers of certain chiefs. If a Clan Mother issues an edict removing the antlers of a chief, that chief loses his title.
The practice was considered a traditional check on unruly chiefs. However, it had never been used on such a scale as in 1899. The Clan Mothers in opposition to the reforms saw nearly 17 chiefs stripped of their power. In their pursuit to maintain tradition, they had actually weaponized and changed it themselves. And they may have bit far too much than they could chew. The 17 chiefs removed by the Clan Mothers in 1899 amounted to 35% of the Grand Council - and certainly all 17 were not truly unruly individuals, at least not in the eyes of many residents of Haudenosaunee.
The remaining chiefs either opposed Sagonaquade's proposals from the start or did so now under fear of removal. The actions of the Clan Mothers only ostracized the political and social climate further. As the selection of new chiefs to replace those removed neared, talks began circulating of the potential ouster of Sagonaquade. His selection as High Chief had been unprecedented considering he was just 33 years old in 1879, and to his detractors, he had soured the atmosphere of the confederacy. Then, as spring broke over the region in March of 1900, Sagonaquade called for the Grand Council and the Clan Mothers, then promptly had them detained.
IV. The Constitution of 1900
Sagonaquade's detainment of the Grand Council and the Clan Mother's on March 17th, 1900, was hardly popular. The High Chief knew he had to act quickly and decisively. With a cult of personality following his year long tour of the realm and support from an array of interests (including non-native business interests) Sagonaquade began disseminating his plans to the realm en masse. The young members of the confederacy, now having been a whole generation under the public school system, drew to the appeal of the proposals Sagonaquade laid out.
He kept the Grand Council and the Clan Mother's for a week, during which he attended them near constantly claiming it was an extended session on the crisis of government. The Tuscarora came out in support of the High Chief, though they had no chiefs on the council themselves. After a week, the High Chief called his "meeting" to a close, asking the chiefs and Clan Mother's to put his proposals to a vote. The Clan Mother's intended to orchestrate the removal of Sagonaquade, and yet...
Throughout the towns and settlements of the Haudenosaunee, support for the High Chief's proposals had risen exponentially. Protests began occurring, the tide of public opinion turning in favor of the High Chief. Some chiefs and Clan Mothers began wavering. That summer, a Seneca chief held a vote asking his constituents whether they wished to proceed with reforms under the High Chief and the results were an overwhelming vote in favor. As cracks began to form, Sagonaquade called forth a new council to meet in Onondaga and delegates arrived in the late summer.
With many Clan Mothers and chiefs remaining in opposition, the Reform Council was composed largely of loyalists to the High Chief. Over the month of August, the High Chief and the Reform Council drafted what is known as the
Constitution of 1900. It radically reformed the Haudenosaunee government in more ways than the High Chief's original proposal in 1898, though it did adopt those positions as well. The Constitution recognized the creation of a Non-Native Nation, to be represented by a delegate
not a chief, and also assigned chiefs to the Tuscarora. The Constitution restructured the Grand Council into 98 hayoneh (chiefs), one non-native delegate, and the High Chief. Moreover, the hayoneh would be divided into those selected by Clan Mothers and popularly elected Pine Tree Chiefs for each incorporated town. The Constitution also implemented Sagonaquade's
borderless nation idea by eliminating the official recognition of the borders of the Six Nations. Together, the new Constitution divided the chiefs into two classes - those selected and delegated to the Clan Mothers, and those elected by settlements themselves.
A short struggle occurred in implementing the new Constitution, known as the Haudenosaunee Civil War (1900-1902), but Sagonaquade came out victorious. Detractors called the Constitution the Angry Story, in contrast to their traditional basis for organization, the Peacemaker's Story. The new Constitution was widely supported in other parts of the Union of American Realms.
V. Land Reform & Urbanization
By way of the borderless nations policy, Sagonaquade's new Constitution also adopted a system for incorporating settlements and delegating hayoneh seats to them. It radically shifted land rights in the realm towards a western tilt which was heavily criticized at the time and to this day. The document created a allotments of land to be distributed to family groups in equal portions throughout incorporated communities. The majority of the agricultural land would be held by the confederacy as a whole, though other industries were largely opened to privatization. Land that was unused was assorted into either wilderness area or unincorporated areas which could be sold or developed by the realm on a supermajority vote of the Grand Council.
The land reforms were a significant driver in the resulting Haudenosaunee Civil War and radically changed Haudenosaunee society. Nonetheless, the land reforms and town system coincided with the boom in population the realm was experiencing during the Growth Period. By Sagonaquade's death eight years later, the settlements across the nation began seeing urbanization and factories existed across certain areas. The capital, Onondaga, had grown more so than any other city.
Before his death, Sagonaquade supported the opening of gambling operations in Tonawanda as a means of increasing revenue. Though this didn't come to pass by the time Sagonaquade passed, his successor, Deganawidah, oversaw such measures. Becoming the first gambling town in the Midwest, Tonawanda would go on to attract large numbers of tourists. It's location near Niagara Falls made it a prime tourist location.
Under the Constitution, non-native residents of the confederacy could buy allotments in the incorporated communities, but they need the approval of the Grand Council to purchase or development land outside of them. Since the 1900 Constitution gives non-native residents only a single voice, the odds were stacked against non-native proposals. Moreover, under Deganawidah, strict segregation was enforced everywhere, but in towns with the highest non-native populations. This wouldn't change until the end of the Growth Period.
As populations surpassed 1M people towards the end of the 1950s, many of the incorporated communities largely resembled towns and cities across the nation. The drop in population growth by the time of Deganawidah's death coincided with large scale moves to urban areas from unincorporated agricultural communities. With the mechanization of agricultural maintenance, many people moved to the cities - Onondaga in particular.
VI. Cultural Impact
The Growth Period caused as many cultural changes as structural ones. It's two faces, High Chiefs Sagonaquade and Deganawidah, came to adopt cults of personalities all their own. The policies and programs they implemented throughout their tenures changed Haudenosaunee traditions dating back to the founding of the confederacy. Both leaders heavy handed approach to governance has been compared in modern times to Western authoritarians.
The role of women became a subject of controversy during the period. With a heightened focus on expanding the native population, women were delegated to a more customarily European position in society, which flew in the face of Haudenosaunee tradition. The mandatory public schooling was meant to alleviate this by relieving mothers of their children for most of the day, but the policies and heavy handed push toward women having children is a dark moment in the confederacy's history. By the end of the period, the government's efforts to encourage population growth had largely come to a halt. The rise of urbanization in the 20th century led to more women living in cities and having less children.
By way of the public school system, Sagonaquade began the development of a common language for all the nations to use (alongside English). Under Deganawidah, the teaching of this
Haudenosaunee language became mandatory at primary schools across the nation alongside English and the native dialect of their respective Nation. In the modern day, this Haudenosaunee language is spoken by nearly all residents, along with English. The loss of native dialects amongst the youth has been associated with the creation of the common Haudenosaunee language.
The Growth Period also saw heightened racial tensions. The enforced segregation of non-natives caused lasting impressions on the confederacy's society. Nonetheless, in many occasions, these segregated non-natives tended to have a decent amount of wealth. Non-native residents of the confederacy quickly began bringing native residents onto boards for development projects, and in this way could get their plans through the Grand Council. The growth of Tonawanda and non-native settlements along the Saint Lawrence and in Onondaga also led to the easing of segregationist support. The segregationist policies created minor degrees animosity towards mixed-native residents of the confederacy, which can occasionally be seen today. By Deganawidah's 80th birthday shortly before his death, segregation was largely condemned across the realm.