Rise of the Hafsids and the Banu Hilal revolt
In studying history of sunset land exploration, Maghreb is an often overlooked part. Despite that, modern historians now agree that events in Maghreb played a pivotal role in shaping the age of exploration and influenced events that are almost centuries apart.
Hafsids were an old dynasty based in Tunis who were originally Hintata Berbers who claimed descent from Rashidun Caliph Umar (ra) for their legitimacy. The current ruler, Caliph Usman steered Hafsids to a period of growth never seen before. Increased contact with Venetians and Aragon resulted in revolutionary transformation of naval and merchant ships, an area neglected by most Islamic states of Maghreb. In Jumada Awwal 850 (August 1446), Hafsid forces attacked and took control of Tlemcen, undermining the tenuous Marinid rule in the region. The Moroccans were about to respond but instead c aught up in a renewed Hintata Berber revolt who were invigorated by their settler cousin's success to the east. But instead of helping the rebels which would have surely toppled the Marinids, the Caliph's officials turned away the Berber envoy citing 'Brashness of desert Bedouins '. The Hintata revolt was finally suppressed for good in 852 (1448) and many were chased south. In the meantime, the Marinids asked their Portuguese allies to help them in taking back control of Tlemcen. In Dhul Qadh 850 (February 1447), the Portuguese oblieged and sent Alfonso de Sequira with a fleet of 30 carracks. The Portuguese assaulted the cities of Tlemcen and Oran, successfully storming the latter.
Image: Portuguese assault of Oran which would remain in their hands for more than a century
The Hafsids were able to give stiff resistance to Portuguese surprise assault and even repelled a relief fleet by their own, led by Venetian Lugilo Guistinian. The Portuguese were unable to stave off a combined assault of their camp in Tlemcen and surrendered. Venetians were increasingly wary of Portuguese attempts to break their monopoly in spice and salt trade. In the end a truce was called and Portuguese retained control of Oran whilst Tlemcen as well as rest of the former Zayyanid lands upto Rif were in the hands of Hafsids.
Emboldened by the display of military valor, the Caliph Usman sent a letter to Sultan of Grenada Muhammad IX to submit to him. The Hafsids envoys were humiliated by Andalusians who mocked the claim of Hafsid lineage from Umar (ra). Hafsids were looking for loophole in order to invade Grenada and it presented itself in the form of a wayward relative, Musa. He was on his way from Al Qahira after completing Hajj but ran out of luck and his ship was captured by Venetian allied pirates near Balearics. After they presented him along with his family to Hafsid court, they were perplexed at his claim of having both Nasrid and Marinid lineage with his wife belonging to Saadians, another noble house in Morocco. Usman was skeptical of his claims at first, attributing it to an attempt to save himself and family from being sold into slavery. But after sending spies and informants into Morocco, Usman was sure of his guest's unique status. But his plans came to a blow in Dhul Hajj 852 ( January 1449) when Musa died from plague. But his two sons, Ibrahim aged 10 and Yusuf aged 6 were still alive. But further problems would throw all the plans of Hafsids into fray.
The Banu Hilal were originally Arab tribes who came to Maghreb centuries ago. Since then they were under various dynasties with hafsids being the latest. But unlike urban Muslims, these hardy desert dwellers were staunchly conservative and deeply critical of increasing friendship with 'infidels'. Following the new conquests of Hafsids, the Banu Hilal were forced to settle in the new areas with promises which were not fulfilled, so there were a lot of resentment against central authority. In 851(1448), an Easter procession outside city of Tunis caused an uproar by a nearby group. It was originally intended that the procession would be carried outside the city and enter through a gate which was adjacent to a Nazarene quarter, as the Islamic law ordered. But all hell broke loose as unruly Banu Hilal men chased the Nazarenes into the city and plundered not only their houses and churches but also those of local Muslims, resulting in the burning of a masjid as well. This event, known as 'riots of Tunis' was romanticized by later Salimiyya thinkers as 'The revolt of rural meek against urbanite privileged'.
Image: Banu Hilal tribesman being interned by Hafsid enforcers after riot
The Hafsids have had enough. soon under Wali Tamim bin Akil, the Caliph's armies chased the unruly tribes and their allies far into Sahara. The Banu Hilal was scattered and would have been erased as an ethnicity if it weren't for a charismatic man going by the name of Abu Hasan Ibn Ismail. He gathered his followers and some other 3000 men and marched south into unknown. Known by Chroniclers as 'Masirat Al E'twash' or 'March of the thirst', this sort of death march continued until they reached Tadmekka, a town in the declining Trans Sahara route. Hasan was surprised to find their previous Hintata adversaries stationed there. But instead of rivalry, he opted peace and soon reconciled with the Berbers through a marriage alliance between his son and two daughters of two Berber chieftains. Now a band of 6000 strong, Hasan began eyeing the nearby towns of the declining Mali empire. The 'Emirate of Kubri' or 'emirate of bridge' referring to the newfound ties between two distinct groups lasted for a century until the Fulani migration from east. The new arrival would fundamentally change the situation of the Mandinka people and other west African polities which were already going through decline and were hard pressed by Portuguese colonial activity.
Image: Abu Hasan Ibn Ismail
(From
'Journey to the sunset lands' by T.S Lewis)
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Aqbars invasion of Tibet
In 850 (1446) death of Drakpa Jungne caused a civil war to break out between the deceased king's father Sangye Gyaltsen and other nobles. For a while it seemed as if Sangye would prevail. Norzang, a Ringpunga aristocrat sent out envoys to the Aqbars Khan Saad Waqqas Al Abu Qaisar. Sangye was defeated but Abu Qaisar was eager to get his hands upon the vast treasuries of Tibetan monasteries. He promised nobles loots and the exotic beauties of Tibetan plateau. He gathered 23,000 troops which was mostly cavalry and some thousand gunners and 20 cannons. He sent a letter to Norzong whilst setting out in 4 Rabiul Awwal 852 ( 16 May 1448) from Lanzhou.
By the time Norzong received his letter, the invading force already crossed southern Gansu and was traversing along Qilan Shan. With gifts and threats, the Turkic army gained some local collaborators who aided them. After a month, the invaders reached Yushu. The armies of Tibet were still nowhere to be seen and so Abu Qaisar ordered a contingent of 2,000 horsemen under Kasim Turgesh to scout the nearby area. Meanwhile Norzong sent 10,000 troops which were bulk of Tibetan army to confront the Turkic invaders. The armies clashed near present day Mainda where the Turkic cannons wreaked havoc upon the Tibetan lines, though the sharp shooter mountain folks did considerable damage to manpower of Aqbars army.
Image: Aqbars khanate troops entering Tibet
Even before the battle Abu Qaisar concluded that Norzong betrayed him owing to his silence over his last letter and no warm reception upon entering Tibet. But he was determined to get something out of this campaign. So he ordered his troops to march south, knowing Tibetans would eventually overrun his supplies. In a rather quick campaign, Turkic forces raided upto Qamdo where they looted the famous Jampaling monastery as described by a Buddhist chronicler:
"They (The Turks) plundered all that was seen and opened up treasuries as well. In a twist they left all statues intact and gathered their spoils over the pulpits. Before leaving they would praise the Buddha and thank him for amassing the treasures, in a mockery of the devotees. The nuns, the chaste and celibate women devoted to the monastery were not left alone as many were picked up by the invaders. Perhaps it is better than to be defiled and then left alone, for we have to think of every optimism there is in this dark hour."
Nozrong was having trouble amassing troops as the succession crisis was still going on. He managed to gaather a few thousands and waged guerilla war against the numerically superior Turkic troops. This time, the invaders were in a dire situation. Only one month left until winter would arrive in thre mountain plateu which will cut off the escape routes for the Aaqbars Khan's army. Abu Qaisar devised a plan and divided his troops into 3 columns who would take separate exits out of Tibet. This was to ensure that the numerically inferior Tibetean forces would not be able to pursue properly. The Khan himself took a smaller contingent with him to confuse the defenders who consequently chased after the larger column. Although this was motivated by religious zeal as this column under Kasim Turghesh had many looted valuable relics with him to take back to Mwarennahar. This force was ambushed near modern day Daikong when 5,000 Tibetean warriors unleashed volleys of arrows upon the Turkic forces. The cannons were useless and Turghesh was forced to abandon many of his loots to get his troops to safety. A final charge by trained Tibetean cavalry troops dealt the finishing blow as Aqbars forces lost 3,000 and more than a thousand were taken captive.
Image: Captured Muslim troops in Tibetan custody
Nozrong meanwhile chased after the third column which was led by Khaydar Makmut, a mercenary commander. For 2 weeks the pursuing forces chased the invaders upto Giyza, a small village on the Tibetan plateau eastern edge. One day Nozrong was surprised to see most loots and prisoners left near the village. He and his retinue gathered them inside the village and celebrated for 3 days straight as a messenger was sent asking for more troops. But on the third night, Khaydar and his forces jumped the unsuspecting Tibetans and masscred them. Nozrong was reportedly chased off a cliff where he fell down to his death. Once again, Khaydar picked up the loot and started north and didn't pause until he reached the Kunlun mountains. This campaign was a disastar for Abu Qaiser. But it also tipped the political balance Tibet. The absconding Sangye Gyaltsen returned and seized power, interning his son Kunga Lekpa and exiling most nobles opposing him. This was not the end of the Tibetan interregnum.
(From
'Tarikh Ul Fars Wal Mashreq' by Ali Adnani)
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The Burgundian 'Crusade' and rise of Iskandar Pasha
Ever since Muhammad II took the Ottoman throne at a young age, various European powers began eyeing the Ottomans thinking they became week for an inexperienced Monarch. The idea of a crusade have been floating sometime around 1430 AD but never materialised due to many other things. The situation in Hungary changed rapidly after Tatar invasion and death of Sigismund. Increased Polish meddling in the internal affair and the still unresolved Hussite problem made any attempt for a crusade against Ottomans a vanity project. Yet again, when Albert of Habsburg dynasty took the mantle of Holy Roman emperor, he did so under pope Nicholas V's promise to conduct a crusade. But it was not only a papal initiative. Phillip the good, the Burgundian monarch was eager to test and prove himself against a non European power that would show his military valor and will not create further inter-European rivalry all the same.
Image: Phillip the good, Duke of Burgundy
So on Jumada Sani 10, 853 ( 8 August 1449), A Burgundian force arrived in Vienna under the Duke and combined his forces with that of Albert Magnanimous. Their entry into Hungary, however was marred by Protests from Hungarian nobles who refused to support a 'foreign' army in their households for a long time. It had more to do with Ladilaus Hunyadi, son of the deceased Janos Hunyadi who was stirring up the nobility who resented a German being king of Hungary. at last King Thomas of Bosnia agreed to house and supply the crusader army for a definite period. This Hungarian refusal is what made Modern historians discredit the 854 campaign as a crusade, it was more like a personal endeavour on part of the monarchs involved.
On 18 Shaban 853 ( 14 October 1449), the allied army finally fell upon an Ottoman garrison in the town of Ras near Morava river. the army of 35,000 easily overran the defenders and massacred not only the Turks but also its Orthodox inhabitants. Sultan Muhammad was at that time besieging Morea, one of the few remaining Byzantine successor states. Half of the army was in Anatolia in case of a Turkmen revolt. So primary response was by Iskandar Pasha, governor of Rumelia. He sent a force of 9,000 under Ali bey Mihaloglu. The Ottoman forces were ambushed by an advance guard and caught unprepared near Kosovo resulting in the death of 3,000 of their troops. Ali bey escaped with a few cannons. Iskandar pasha was also on his way and he sent some supply caravan ahead of him. The vanguard of the caravan was captured by the Nazarene forces and the rearguard was able to retreat in time sensing trouble up ahead. But this was important as the rearguard of the caravan contained explosives.
Image: Ottoman forces in a charge
Iskandar Pasha reached the beleaguered Ali bey with his 1200 horsemen and occupied an elevated forest expanse near the modern town of Radovac. South of the Ottoman position was secured by a river and the east was relatively plain. The Ottomans were alerted when the large Nazarene column marched into the vicinity ot heir east. But all caution was thrown into air as King albert thought the main Ottoman army was defeated and the unopposed capture of a large amount of provisions supported this theory. Seeing an enemy that was aloof of its surroundings, Iskandar carefully sent two cavalry detachments north and south who were ordered to fall upon the enemy when the cannons roared. The Ottomans aimed their 2 dozen remaining cannons at the camping Europeans and fired. On 23 Shaban 853 (19 October 1449), the large Nazarene army was surprised by artillery fire from the west. Soon Janissaries descended upon the unsuspecting troops from the forested plateau. But this was not the end, soon the personal sipahi cavalry of Iskandar pasha emerged from both sides and completed the trap. In the ensuing fray, King Albert was unhorsed and a Janissary proceeded to finish him off.
Image: Decapacitation of Albert II (drawn circa 1300 AH)
This caused the Nazarene army to panic and soon the large army was in rout. A final cannon salvo killed more soldiers than the actual battle itself. On total 4000 Nazarenes were killed compared to only 370 Turks. This marked the end of the so called Burgundian crusade as Phillip barely escaped with a few loyal followers and traveled through Hungary in disguise. The death of King albert would add to the growing strife in Hungary and soon Ladislaus Hunyadi would emerge with Polish support and contend with his German namesake, Ladislaus the son of Albert II for the Hungarian throne. This battle is amongst the decisive wins in Ottoman history and would mark the rise of Iskandar Pasha Kastrioti.
(From
'History of Ottoman empire' by Hayat Arghiros)
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EID MUBARAK to my readers!
Man Things are really getting messy in Maghreb, eh? And Khaydar showed he is indeed of Jochid blood as he reincarnated the battle of Terek river in Tibet. I needed to weaken Tibet a bit as someone from the south will make their appearance in this chaos much later. And the Ottomans face their alt Varna rather smoothly with an increasingly confident Skanderbeg as their best general. Stay tuned for next time we shall return to the steppes.
And how's my new style of battle writing? I think this is more simple and easier to comprehend instead of the boring 'left wing of A crashes on the right wing of B' which marked my initial updates. But of course, large and complex battles will have their due description. Please let me know.
