Un Dios, Un Imperio, Un Rey | Alternate TL.

[Paladín Wulfen]

By the end of 1776, it was apparent to many in England that the pacification of New England was very difficult due to the high concentration of Patriots. London decided to isolate New England and concentrate on the central and southern regions where Loyalists were supposed to gather. In December 1776, TG John Burgoyne met with Lord Germain, the British secretary of state for the colonies and the government official responsible for administering the war, to establish a strategy for 1777. There were two main armies in North America to operate the General Guy with Carleton's army in Quebec and the army of General William Howe, who had driven George Washington's army out of New York City. It was decided to split the rebel territories with an attack from the north and another from the south and both forces would meet at Albany, cutting off the rebels. Lieutenant General Burgoyne, seeking to command a major force, proposed to isolate New England by invading from Quebec to New York. This had already been attempted by General Carleton in 1776, although he had stopped due to the lateness of the season. Carleton had been heavily criticized in London for failing to take advantage of the American withdrawal from Quebec. This, combined with General Henry Clinton's failed attempt to capture Charleston, South Carolina, put Burgoyne in a good position to gain command of the 1777 northern campaign. Burgoyne's invasion plan from Quebec had two components: would lead the main force of about 8,000 men south of Montreal along Lake Champlain and the Hudson River Valley, while a second column of about 2,000 men (which Barry Saint Leger was chosen to lead), would move from Lake Ontario east up the Mohawk River Valley on a strategic bypass. Both expeditions would converge at Albany, where they would be joined by troops from Howe's army, advancing up the Hudson River.

Control of the Lake Champlain–Lake George–Hudson River route from Canada to New York City would isolate New England from the rest of the American colonies. The last part of Burgoyne's proposal, Howe's advance up the Hudson River from New York City, proved to be the most controversial part of the campaign. Germain approved of Burgoyne's plan after receiving Howe's letter detailing his proposed offense against Philadelphia. It is also unclear whether Germain, Howe, and Burgoyne had the same expectations about the degree to which Howe should support the invasion of Quebec. What is clear is that Germain left his generals too free or without a clearly defined general strategy. In March 1777, Germain had approved Howe's expedition to Philadelphia and included no express orders for Howe to go to Albany. However, Howe did not receive this last letter until after he had left New York for the Chesapeake. To attack Philadelphia Howe could move overland through New Jersey or by sea through Delaware Bay, both options would have kept him in a position to assist Burgoyne if needed. The final route he would take would be across the Chesapeake Bay, which would be very time consuming and left him totally unable to help Burgoyne as Germain had envisioned. The decision was so difficult to understand that Howe's most hostile critics accused him of deliberate treason. Burgoyne returned to Quebec on May 6, 1777, with a letter from Lord Germain that laid out the plan but lacked some details. This produced another of the command conflicts that plagued the British during the war. Lieutenant General Burgoyne was technically superior to Major General Carleton, but Carleton was still the governor of Quebec. Germain's instructions to Burgoyne and Carleton had specifically limited Carleton's role in the operations in Quebec.
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This slight against Carleton, combined with Carleton's failure to obtain an expedition from command, led to his resignation later in 1777, and his refusal to supply troops from the Quebec RIs to garrison the forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga after being captured. George Washington, whose army was encamped in Morristown, New Jersey, did not have a good idea of British plans for 1777. The main question on the minds of Washington and his generals Horatio Gates and Philip Schuyler, who were both in turn responsible of the Northern Department of the Continental Army and its defense of the Hudson River, was of Howe's army movements in New York. They had no significant knowledge of what was being planned for the British forces in Quebec, despite Burgoyne's complaints that everyone in Montreal knew what he was planning, even though the plan had been published in a local newspaper. . The three generals disagreed on what Burgoyne's most likely move would be, with Congress also expressing the opinion that Burgoyne's army would probably move to New York by sea. Partly as a result of this indecision, and the fact that he would be cut off from his supply lines if Howe headed north, garrisons at Fort Ticonderoga and elsewhere in the Mohawk and Hudson river valleys did not increase significantly. Schuyler took the step in April 1777 to send a large Regiment under Colonel Peter Gansevoort to rehabilitate Fort Stanwix in the upper Mohawk Valley as a step in the defense against British moves in that area. Washington also ordered 4 Regiments to be raised at Peekskill, New York, which could head north or south in response to British moves. American troops were stationed throughout the New York theater in June 1777.

About 1,500 troops (including Colonel Gansevoort's) were at outposts along the Mohawk River; some 3,000 troops were in the Hudson River uplands under General Israel Putnam, and Schuyler commanded about 4,000 troops (including local militia and troops at Ticonderoga under Saint-Clair). The bulk of Burgoyne's army had arrived in Quebec in the spring of 1776. In addition to the British regulars, the troops in Quebec included several RIs from the German principalities of Hesse-Kassel, Hesse-Hanau, and Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel under the command of the Baron Friedrich Adolph Riedesel, comprised the Prinz Ludwig Regiment and the RIs of Specht, Rhetz, Riedesel, Prinz Frederich, Erbprinz and Breyman's jäger. Of these regular forces, 200 British and about 400 German regulars were assigned to the San Leger Mohawk Valley Expedition, and about 3,500 men remained in Quebec to protect the province. The remaining forces were assigned to Burgoyne for the campaign to Albany. The regular forces were supposed to be reinforced by up to 2,000 militia raised in Quebec. In June, Carleton had managed to raise only three companies. Burgoyne had also expected as many as 1,000 Indians to support the expedition. About 500 joined between Montreal and Crown Point. Burgoyne's army was beset by transportation difficulties before leaving Quebec, something neither Burgoyne nor Carleton apparently anticipated. As the expedition expected to travel primarily over water, there were few wagons, horses, and other draft animals available to move the large amount of equipment and supplies on the land portions of the route. Only in early June did Carleton issue orders to procure enough wagons to move the army. Consequently, the carts were poorly constructed of green wood, and the teams were driven by civilians who were at high risk of desertion.

As for the navy, it had the frigates Royal George (26) and Inflexible (22), the schooners Maria (14) and Carleton (12), and the Thunderer bombard, and the Loyal Convert gondola (7), various redeaux o floating platforms, the captured gunboats Washington, Lee, and Jersey, as well as more than 100 single-masted ships capable of carrying 35 soldiers; they were carried by the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain. On June 13, 1777, Burgoyne and Carleton reviewed the assembled forces at Fort Saint-John on the Richelieu River, just north of Lake Champlain, and Burgoyne was ceremonially given command. In addition to the five sailing ships built the previous year, a sixth had been built and three had been captured after the Battle of Valcour Island. These provided some transportation as well as military cover for the large fleet of transport ships that moved the army south on the lake. Burgoyne's army consisted of 3,016 regulars in the 7th Regiment (9th, 20th, 21st, 24th, 47th, 53rd and 62nd), Grenadiers and Light Infantry of the 29th, 31st and 34th; 3,724 Germans framed in 5 Regiments, 357 artillerymen, 147 recruits, 148 loyalists of the King and rangers of the Queen and 500 Indians, in total 7,899 that with the commands reached 8,200. It had 38 field artillery pieces, 2x24s and 4 mortars. His forces were organized into an advanced force under Brigadier General Simon Fraser, and two Divisions, one British and one Hessian. Major General William Phillips led the British Regular Division which normally deployed to the right, while the Hessian Division under Riedel deployed to the left. Colonel Saint Leger's expedition also assembled in mid-June. His force, comprising British regulars, Loyalists, Hessians, and Rangers from the Indian Department, numbering about 750 men, set out from Lachine, near Montreal, on June 23.

By June 20, everything was ready and the British navy and transports left San Juan for Lake Champlain. Colonel Simon Fraser commanded the forward detachment with his 24th Regiment, 3 Light Companies, 3 Grenadier Companies, 2 Ranger Companies, Canadian Lumberjacks and Indians. He sent ahead parties of Indians, Native Americans, and Canadian Rangers to investigate the American lines and take prisoners. They advanced south to Fort Ticonderoga and ambushed a group of workers. Luckily, one of the captives was an ex-British soldier who had spent the winter working to repair the fort's defences. Under cross-examination, James MacIntosh voluntarily explained every detail of the fort's design, the improvements made by the Americans, and the layout of the land surrounding the fort, including strengths and weaknesses and the ships that had 2 galleys (2×12), 1 gondola (2×9), and more than 30 usable boats. Burgoyne's army traveled across the lake and occupied the defenseless Crown Point Fort by 30 June. The cover activities of Burgoyne's allied Indians were very effective in preventing the details of their movements from being learned by the Americans. Brigadier General Arthur Saint-Clair, who had been left in command of Fort Ticonderoga and its surrounding defenses with a garrison of some 3,000 Continentals and militia, had no idea on July 1 of the total strength of Burgoyne's army, of which large elements were then only 6.5 away. Schuyler had ordered Saint-Clair to hold out as long as possible, and he had planned two routes of retreat. Ticonderaga Fort had been known as the English Gibraltar of America, it had facilities to house 10,000 people, but it was in a state of abandonment when the North Americans conquered the fort in 1775 to seize its cannons.

During the winter of 1776-77, MG Arthur Saint-Clair, the congressionally appointed officer to command Fort Ticonderoga and surrounding forts, strove to bring the fort into a state of adequate defense. Saint-Clair and his men faced considerable difficulties. Ticonderoga, originally Fort Carillon, had been built by the French to keep the British at bay and was therefore facing south, the wrong direction to resist the British incursion. With the end of the French and Indian War, Ticonderoga had lost its purpose and been left to fall into disrepair. In the summer of 1776, an American officer, Lt. Col. John Trumbull, prepared a report on Ticonderoga's defenses. Trumbull recommended that the axis of defense be moved from the existing fort to a mountain on the opposite side of the lake, then known locally as Mount Rattlesnake. The recommendation was accepted, and in keeping with the spirit of the times, Mount Rattlesnake became Mount Independence. Unfortunately, Trumbull's additional recommendation, that a rise called Sugar Hill or Mount Defiance that dominated the entire area should also be fortified, was ignored. It seemed enough to change the name to Mount Independence. Saint-Clair's engineering officer, Colonel Jeduthan Baldwin, worked tirelessly in the face of shortages and disease to prepare Ticonderoga for attack by the British. By July 1777, Baldwin had built batteries, storehouses, and blockhouses, and to link the old Fort Ticonderoga with the fortifications on Mount Independence, a bridge and boom barrier (made of chain-linked logs to keep out traffic) were built. the British fleet. On Mount Independence, the Polish military engineer, Colonel Thaddeus Kosciuszko, built batteries and fortifications. Kosciuszko again advised the fortification of Sugar Hill, but the work was not carried out because there were too few American troops to carry carry out the additional work.​

The spirit of the American garrison was good. There were very few of them, but they were ready to fight. Parties of the New England militia arrived at the camp, stayed long enough to exhaust the garrison stores, and returned home. The garrison numbered at least 2,300, from Hale's, Cilley's, and Scammell's New Hampshire mainland RIs from Francis and Marshall's Massachusetts militia, and various other units; these forces were largely inadequate for the defense of a fort of that size. Consequently, plans were made for withdrawal along two routes. The first was by water to Skenesboro, the southernmost navigable point on the lake. The second was overland on a road in poor condition leading east toward Hubbardton in the New Hampshire (present-day Vermont) concessions. On July 1, Saint-Clair was still unaware of the full strength of Burgoyne's army, which was only 6.5 km away, the vanguard composed of Indians and light infantry already watching the fort to report. Burgoyne landed his forces, Phillips's British Division on the right was composed of the 1st Brigade under Brigadier General Henry Watson Powell with the 9th, 47th and 53rd Regiments; and the 3rd Brigade commanded by Brigadier General James Inglis Hamilton composed of the 20th, 21st, and 62nd Regiments. Riedesel's Hessian Division Johann Specht's 1st Brigade with Rhetz, Riedesel, and Specht RIs; von Gall's 2nd Brigade, with the Prinz Friedrich and Hesse-Hanau Regiments; plus an advanced detachment under Tcol Heinrich Breymann, made up of jägers under Major von Barner, dismounted dragoons under Lt. Colonel Baum, and grenadiers also under Breymann. On July 2, open skirmishing began at the outer defense works of Fort Ticonderoga.
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Burgoyne quickly recognized the importance of Mount Defiance and placed artillery there. Arthur St. Clair, commander of the garrison at Ticonderoga, had prepared two escape routes, knowing that his outnumbered force had little chance of defending the fort against a concentrated British attack, but he was ordered to hold the fort as long as possible. possible time. However, when he learned of the guns at Mount Defiance and a British attempt to cut off his escape, St. Clair decided, risking his reputation, to abandon the fort. In the early hours of July 6, 1777, the American garrison evacuated Ticonderoga with the British advance guard hot on their heels. The political and public outcry after the withdrawal was significant. Congress was horrified and criticized Schuyler and Saint-Clair for the loss, even rumors circulating that Saint-Clair and Schuyler were traitors who had accepted bribes in return for withdrawal. Schuyler was eventually removed as commander of the Northern Department, and replaced by General Gates. Saint-Clair was removed from his command and sent to headquarters for investigation. He maintained that his conduct had been honorable and demanded a court-martial review. The court-martial did not take place until September 1778 due to political intrigues against Washington, but he was eventually completely exonerated, although he was never given another command. Schuyler was also acquitted by a court-martial. The news made headlines in Europe. King George reportedly burst into the queen's chambers scantily clad, exclaiming, "I have beaten them! I have beaten all Americans!" The French and Spanish courts were less pleased with the news, as they had been supporting the Americans, allowing them to use their ports and trading with them. The action encouraged the British to demand that Spain and France close their ports to the Americans. This demand was rejected, which increased tensions between the European powers and would have negative consequences for England.
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The British general, a Scotsman named Simon Fraser, discovered early on July 6 that the Americans had abandoned Ticonderoga. Leaving a message for General Burgoyne, he summoned the Grenadier Companies and Light Infantry Companies, as well as 2 Companies of the 24th and about 100 Indian Rangers and Scouts, and began pursuit, leaving a message for General Burgoyne to send reinforcements. as fast as possible. Burgoyne ordered Riedesel to follow him. Tcol Breymann initiated the pursuit with a company of jägers and 80 grenadiers, with the rest of the detachment following, he set off with a few companies of Brunswick jägers and grenadiers, leaving orders for the rest of his troops to come as quickly as possible. Fraser was hot on the heels of the retreating Americans, having some clashes with the two alternating rear Regiments. Sait-Clair paused at Hubbardton about 25 miles from Ticonderoga to give the tired and hungry troops of the main army time to rest while he waited for the rear guard to join. When he failed to arrive on time, he left behind Colonel Seth Warner with the Green Mountain Boys, along with the 2nd New Hampshire under Colonel Nathan Hale, at Hubbardton to await the rear while the main army marched on Castleton. When Francis Ebenezer arrived with the 11th Massachusetts, he along with Hale and Warner decided, against Saint-Clair's orders, that they would spend the night there, rather than march on Castleton. Warner, who had experience in rearguard actions while serving in the invasion of Quebec, organized the camps in a defensive position on Monument Hill and established patrols to guard the road to Ticonderoga. Baron Riedesel caught up with Fraser around 4:00 p.m., insisting that his men go no farther before making camp.
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Fraser agreed, as Riedesel was superior, but noted that he was authorized to attack the enemy and would leave his camp at 03:00 the following day. He then advanced until he found a place about 5 km from Hubbardton, where his troops camped for the night. Riedesel waited for most of his men, some 1,500 soldiers, and Fraser also camped with the British 24th, with the grenadiers and light infantry, resumed the advance at 3 a.m. the next day and, meeting the Americans over breakfast , quickly attacked. The first Americans to be mugged, Hale's 2nd New Hampshire, gave way in disarray. The Warner and Francis Regiments formed quickly and resisted strongly. The fighting was intense and Major Grant, in command of the 24th, was killed. The Americans formed a line that stretched across the forested country, with hills on each flank. Brigadier General Simon Fraser sent his grenadiers up the hill on the American left and outflanked them. The hill was steep and the encircling movement of the grenadiers took longer than expected. Meanwhile, Colonel Francis advanced around Fraser's left flank, reinforced by some of Hale's Regiment returning to the battlefield. Fraser, whose force was outnumbered by the Americans, found himself in some difficulty. The sound of battle was heard by General Sait-Clair, the American commander, who was to the south. He ordered Henry Brockholst Livingston and Isaac Dunn to send the militia camped closer to Hubbardtonque to support the stragglers, but the militia refused. To the northwest, the German officer, Baron Riedesel, also heard the shots and rushed to support General Fraser. Riedesel sent Brunswick's jägers ahead, and when they reached the battlefield they attacked the American right flank.


Riedesel's grenadiers were a disciplined force who entered the fray singing hymns to the accompaniment of a military band to make them appear more numerous than they really were. The American flanks gave way and they were forced to make a desperate run across an open field to avoid being enveloped. Colonel Francis fell to a round of musket fire as the troops turned away from the advancing British and scattered across the field. The gunfire was heavy and the balance of the battle shifted in favor of the British, as the Grenadiers finally cleared the hill on the American left and Fraser attacked their center. Colonel Francis was killed and the American line began to break down. The scattered remnants of the American rear guard laboriously made their way toward Rutland to join the main army. Beset by scouts and Fraser Indians, and without food or shelter, it took some of them five days to reach the army, which was closing in on Fort Edward. Others, including Colonel Hale and a 230-man detachment, were captured by the British while clearing the area. Colonel Francis, as a mark of respect on the part of his opponents, was buried with the Brunswick dead. Baron Riedesel and the Brunswickers left for Skenesboro the next day, much to General Fraser's annoyance. His departure left him in "the most disaffected part of America, every person a spy", with 600 tired men, a sizeable contingent of prisoners and wounded, and no significant supplies. On July 9 he sent the 300 prisoners, under light guard but with threats of reprisal if they attempted to escape, to Ticonderoga while he marched his depleted forces to Castleton and then Skenesboro. Livingston and Dunn, the two men sent into battle by Sait-Clair, met the retreating Americans on the Castleton road after the battle was over.


They returned to Castleton with the bad news, and the army departed, finally reaching the American camp at Fort Edward on July 12. The British lost for a total of 50 killed and 143 wounded, while the Americans lost 41 killed, 96 wounded and 230 captured, losing 12 guns. The American forces withdrawing from Ticonderoga were divided: one force followed a route from the lake to Skenesborough; the other followed an overland route to Hubbardton. British naval gunners shelled and destroyed the American ships Enterprise, Gates, and Liberty at the Battle of Skenesborough, two ships, Trumbull and Revenge, were forced to surrender on Lake Champlain, American supplies were destroyed or abandoned to the British. After the battle, the Americans fled as best they could in the direction of Fort Anne in total confusion; heading south through a maze of difficult trails and dense forest, closely pursued by Lt. Col. John Hill's British RI-9, with orders to pursue and defeat any retreating forces and take control of Fort Anne. British pursuers under Hill captured more American supplies, as well as sick, wounded, and camp followers left behind. When they were within a mile of Fort Anne, Captain James Gray with a force of 220 men, took in the fugitives, and engaged the British. In the ensuing skirmish, one American was killed and three others wounded before the Americans withdrew to the fort. On the morning of July 8, Hill was informed by a suspected American deserter, who was really a spy, that the fort was occupied by nearly 1,000 demoralized troops. Choosing not to attack a numerically superior force, Hill sent a message to Burgoyne explaining the situation.
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Burgoyne ordered the 20th and 21st to march quickly to Fort Anne in support, but bad weather hampered their movement and they would not arrive until after the battle. The 'deserter' returned to Fort Anne and reported on the British position and his strength of 200. The prospect of Colonel Pierse Long, commander of the fort who had 200 militiamen to successfully defend the fort, seemed dire until Colonel Henry K. Van Rensselaer unexpectedly arrived at the fort with 400 militiamen, raising the number of troops to about 1,000 and reinvigorating the moral. Long, seeing the few British soldiers following him, decided to attack his position. Moving as stealthily as possible, his force attempted to encircle the British while they were still in the way. However, Hill's men heard rebel movements on their flanks and withdrew to a higher position, abandoning some wounded men, who were eventually captured by the Americans. When the Americans opened fire, it was "heavy, well-aimed fire," according to a British officer. The battle lasted more than 2 hours, until both sides ran out of ammunition and the British were practically surrounded by Americans. The sound of North Indian war cries prompted the Americans to retreat, and they retreated to the fort with their wounded, including Colonel Van Rensselaer, who had been shot in the hip. As it turned out, there were no Indians, but only a British officer, John Money of the 9th, who had led a group of Indians, but when they seemed reluctant to fight the Americans, Money grew impatient and ran ahead of them. It was his war cries that ended the battle. Back at the fort, the Americans held a brief council of war. From a woman the British had freed, he reported that 2,000 or more British troops under General Phillips were advancing rapidly.

Long's men, nearly out of ammunition, retreated towards Fort Edward, burning the fort to the ground. Both sides claimed victory in the battle, as the British had successfully held out and the Americans had nearly forced them to surrender. British casualties were 13 killed, 22 wounded and 3 missing; US casualties were about 50 dead and wounded. Brigadier Barry Saint-Leger left Montreal on June 23, he had 300 regulars reinforced by 650 Canadians and loyalist militiamen. Two days later he arrived at Fort Oswego, where he was joined by John Johnson and Joseph Brant with almost 1,000 Iroquois, the next day, they crossed Oneida Lake and, the warriors selected by Brant, headed up Wood Creek, doing 16 km per day. , despite the terrain and frequent enemy obstacles. His first objective was Fort Stanwix, situated between Wood Creek and the Mohawk River, which Saint-Leger believed to be a ruin guarded by 60 men. In fact, it had been garrisoned since April by 550 men of the 3rd New York under Colonel Peter Gansevoort, who had largely rebuilt it (despite the fact that a French engineer, Captain de Marquisie, had wasted several weeks trying to design a brand new fort). On August 2, an advance detachment from Saint-Leger, had been detached to intercept a supply convoy headed for the fort, arrived too late to stop the 200 men escorting ships full of six weeks' worth of ammunition and provisions to the fort. The next day, Saint-Leger arrived with his main body and, seeing that his artillery was too weak in number and caliber, decided to invest the fort and send a parliamentarian requesting his surrender. Seeing the scarcity of white troops and the preponderance of Indians, Gansevoort rejected the proposal. Later that day, a flag made from a soldier's shirt and a woman's petticoat was raised at the fort.
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As the majority of Saint-Leger's force began building trenches, clearing Wood Creek and cutting off the supply road through the woods, Indian jägers and marksmen began to fire on the garrison, with some success. However, on the night of August 5, Saint-Leger heard that a relief force had left Fort Dayton the day before and was some distance from his camp. Unwilling to risk a battle where the garrison might intervene, he sent Johnson and Brant, with 150 Loyalists and 400 Mohawks, to ambush the approaching column. Four Regiments of the Tryon County militia, each 200 strong, had been meeting since July 30, when its commander, Brigadier General Nicholas Herkimer, had called all men between the ages of 16 and 60. They set out from Fort Dayton on August 4, covering 12 miles before camping at Stirling Creek. The next day they crossed the Mohawk River and by nightfall were within 8 miles of Fort Stanwix. However, Herkimer was concerned, his route was dangerous, and defeat would leave Gansevoort isolated and the valley defenseless. He then sent four men to warn Gansevoort of his approach and ask him to make a sortie. The arrival of the four men was to be acknowledged by three cannon shots. In the middle of the morning of August 6, he still didn't know anything. His colonels demanded action, accusing him of cowardice and reminding him that he had at least a force like Saint-Leger. Stung by his insubordination, and marginally reassured by the arrival of 60 Oneidas and 50 Rangers, he gave the marching order. By 0900 hours, they had already reached a point where the road was crossed by two steep ravines, the first 300 meters wide and 16 meters deep, the second smaller, but enough to hide men from view. Both ravines were heavily shaded by trees, which grew a few meters from the road.
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The convoy marched with 3 Regiments in front behind the wagons with provisions and in the rear another RI, Herkimer began to leave the second ravine, three whistles were heard. Johnson had laid an ambush, bringing the loyalists forward to block the road, and the rangers and Indians to attack both flanks of the force trapped in the ravine and then have the natives rush in to decimate the column trapped in the ravine. ravine. Unfortunately, the Mohawks attacked too early, failing to close the rear and leaving an escape route. As a result, the portion of Herkimer's men outside the ambush zone quickly fled, pursued by Mohawks for several miles. Herkimer himself was hit in the leg. His men laid him down against a tree, but when they suggested that he retreat to the rear, he replied, "I will fight the enemy" and sat quietly leading the battle. When the smoke cleared after the initial attack, Herkimer had lost roughly half his men killed, wounded, or fled. An electrical storm halted the fighting for nearly an hour, allowing Herkimer to rally his shattered forces. Herkimer ordered his men to fight in relays, with one charging while the other fired, greatly lessening the American's vulnerability to armed natives for close quarters. Loyalists tried to break into the American lines by posing as a reinforcement of the fort, turning their green coats inside out to try to pass themselves off as patriots. Captain Gardenier saw through the ruse and turned on them. By 11:00, Herkimer's messengers had reached the fort, and the requested sortie was finally arranged. When the storm passed, US Lt. Col. Marinus Willett came out with 250 men and proceeded to storm the unoccupied British camp, seizing 21 wagons of material and supplies without a single casualty.
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A nearby scout informed Johnson's forces. When their native allies realized that their camps were being raided, they immediately abandoned the battle to protect their families and possessions. With the loss of his native allies, Johnson was also forced to withdraw. Herkimer and his men retreated to Fort Dayton, where his shattered leg was amputated. He died of his injuries on August 16. American losses were 385 killed and another 80 wounded and captured. The British lost 7 killed and 21 wounded, while their native allies suffered 65 casualties. General Philip Schuyler learned of Oriskany's withdrawal and immediately organized an additional relief force to be sent to the area. Arnold's relief column reached Fort Stanwix on August 21, sending messengers into the British camp who convinced the besieging British and Indians that their force was much larger than it really was. They abandoned their siege and withdrew. Ultimately, the British forces in the Mohawk Valley had achieved very little. Burgoyne's progress toward Albany had initially met with some success, including the dispersal of Seth Warner's men at the Battle of Hubbardton, where the American rear guard was defeated. However, his advance had slowed by the end of July, due to logistical difficulties, exacerbated by the American destruction of key roads, and army supplies began to dwindle. Burgoyne's concern for supplies increased in early August when he received word that Howe was going to Philadelphia and that, in fact, he would not be advancing up the Hudson River Valley. In response to a proposal first made on July 22 by the commander of his German troops; Baron Riedesel, decided to send a detachment of some 800 soldiers under the command of Lt. Col. Friedrich Baum from Fort Miller on a mission to forage and purchase horses for the German dragoons, requisition animals to help move the army, and harass the enemy.
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Burgoyne's circumstances were far from promising. His army fought through the heavy forest from Ticonderoga, building a road to transport artillery and chariots. The Americans systematically devastated the country, leaving Burgoyne's army without supplies or reliable transport. Burgoyne's troops had so few horses that the Brunswick dragoons followed on foot. The difficulties proved yet another reminder of the problems of campaigning in the vast forests of North America, experienced by every British general since General Braddock in 1755. The final blow was a letter from General Howe in New York, informing Burgoyne of that the main British army would set out to invade Pennsylvania; instead of advancing down the Hudson River to meet him at Albany, as envisioned in the original plan for Burgoyne's campaign devised by Lord Germaine, Prime Minister in London. Burgoyne ordered Colonel Baum to take a force to Manchester in Vermont, east of Fort Edward, to find horses for his dragoons and for army transport, to gather food supplies and to overwhelm rebellious settlers in the area. At the last moment, Baum's target was changed to the town of Bennington, based on reports of supplies available there. The withdrawal of the US Continental Army from Fort Ticonderoga and the advancing British Army were causing considerable alarm in Vermont and New Hampshire. Distrusting the aristocratic New Yorker, General Schuyler, who with General Saint-Clair was suspected of treason upon leaving Fort Ticonderoga, the New Hampshire Council formed a Militia Brigade commanded by Colonel John Stark. Stark, a veteran of the French and Indian War and the New Jersey campaign, was highly regarded in the region, and settlers flocked to join his force.
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His brigade was at his camp in Bennington. Warner's Green Mountain Boys, licking their wounds after the Battle of Hubbardton, were in Manchester. Baum's detachment consisted mainly of Brunswick dismounted dragoons from the Prinz Ludwig Regiment. Along the way they were joined by local Loyalist companies, some Canadians and about 100 Indians, and a Company of British sharpshooters led by Captain Alexander Ferser of the 34th. Baum was originally ordered to proceed to the Connecticut River valley where they believed horses could be procured for the dragoons. However, as Baum prepared to leave, Burgoyne verbally changed the target to a supply depot at Bennington, which was supposed to be guarded by the remnants of Warner's Brigade, some 400 Colonial militia. On August 11, Baum undertook the 40-mile journey to Bennington, but the dismounted dragoons in their cumbersome uniforms, plus their strict adherence to European military formalities, delayed the march. As they advanced, their Indians ravaged the countryside. On August 13, en route to Bennington, after a skirmish with a small force under Colonel Gregg, Baum learned of the arrival in the area of 1,500 New Hampshire militiamen under Stark's command. Baum ordered his forces to stop at the Walloomsac River, about 5 miles west of Bennington. After sending a request for reinforcements to Fort Miller, Baum took advantage of the terrain and deployed his forces on a hill overlooking the river. In the rain, Baum's men built a small redoubt on top of the hill and hoped that the weather would prevent the Americans from attacking before reinforcements arrived. With a small force of 1,500 men, Stark learned of Baum's presence, and sent messengers to summon militia from the area.
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Stark's men and a smaller force of Vermont militia under Colonel Seth Warner were near Bennington, as Baum's expedition prepared to attack. On August 14, the American attackers met and encountered a British scouting party at Sancoicks Mills. After sending out a request for reinforcements, Baum advanced 6.5 km to a hill overlooking the Walloomsac River. Just 5 miles from Bennington, Baum's men dug in and around that hill, expecting more American resistance. It became clear to Baum that he was substantially outnumbered by Stark's force. Baum sent further urgent messages to Burgoyne, requesting support, and Burgoyne ordered Colonel Breyman with his Regiment (550 strong) to march to Baum's aid. Late at night on August 15, Stark was awakened by the arrival of Parson Thomas Allen with the RI of militiamen from Berkshirey County in Massachusetts who insisted on joining his force. Stark's forces were again increased the next day by the arrival of some Stockbridge Indians, bringing his strength to almost 2,100: right flank with 550 from Nichols's Regiment; left flank 500 (300 Herrick's Regiment and 200 Vermont Rangers); center-right 550 militiamen under Starck, and center-left 500 militiamen under Hobart. Stark was not the only beneficiary of unexpected reinforcements. Baum's force increased by nearly 100 when a group of local loyalists arrived at his camp on the morning of August 16; bringing his total force to 800 strong (205 dragoons, 24 grenadiers, 57 light infantry, 37 line infantry, 13 artillerymen, 150 Queen's Rangers, 48 British sharpshooters, 150 Loyalists, 56 Canadians and 100 Indians). On the evening of August 16, the weather cleared and Stark ordered his men to stand ready to attack. He is reputed to have rallied his troops saying they were there to “fight for their natural born English rights and there are your enemies, the Redcoats and the Tories. They are ours, or tonight Molly Stark will sleep a widow."
​

Learning that the militia had disappeared into the woods, Baum assumed that the Americans were withdrawing or redeploying. However, Stark had decided to capitalize on weaknesses in the German's widely distributed position; and he had sent sizeable flanking parties on either side of his lines, under Colonels Nichols on the right (550) and Herrick on the left (500) to attack from the flanks and rear. These moves were supported by a ruse employed by the men of Stark (550) and Hobbart (500), who made a frontal assault to attract the attention of the German and British troops, allowing the flanks to approach safely without alarming. to enemy forces. The Germans, most of whom did not speak English, had been told that soldiers with pieces of white paper in their hats were loyal, and should not be shot. Stark's men had also heard this and many of them had appropriately adorned their hats. Around 3:00 p.m., when fighting broke out, the German position was immediately surrounded by gunfire, which Stark described as "the most fiery engagement I have ever witnessed, resembling continuous thunder." Loyalist and Indian positions were overrun, causing many of them to flee or surrender. This left Baum and his Brunswick dragoons trapped on the high ground alone. The Germans fought valiantly even after running out of powder and the destruction of their ammunition cart. In their desperation, the dragons led a saber-wielding charge in an attempt to break through the encircling forces. The charge failed horribly, inflicting heavy German casualties and failing to gain ground for the rebels.
​

Baum was mortally wounded in this final charge, and the remaining Germans surrendered. After the battle was over, while the Stark militiamen were busy disarming the prisoners and looting their supplies, Breymann arrived with his reinforcements. Seeing the Americans in disarray, he immediately went on the attack. After hastily regrouping, Stark's forces attempted to hold their own against the new German attack, but began to fall back. Before their lines collapsed, Warner with the Green Mountain Boys arrived on the scene to reinforce Stark's troops. The pitched battle continued until nightfall, when both sides withdrew. Breymann began a hasty retreat; he had lost a quarter of his strength and all of his artillery pieces. The total German and British losses at Bennington that were recorded were 207 killed and 700 captured. American losses included 30 killed and 40 seriously wounded. The battle was at times particularly brutal especially when loyalists met patriots, as in some cases they came from the same communities. The prisoners, who were first held in Bennington, were eventually taken to Boston. Burgoyne's army was preparing to cross the Hudson River at Fort Edward on August 17 when news of the battle first arrived. Believing that reinforcements might be needed, Burgoyne marched the army towards Bennington until news arrived that Breymann and the remnants of his force were returning. Stragglers continued to arrive throughout the day and night, as word of the disaster spread through the camp. The effect on Burgoyne's campaign was significant. Not only had he lost nearly 1,000 men, half of whom were regulars, but he also lost crucial Indian support. In a council following the battle, many of the Indians (who had traveled with him from Quebec) decided to return home.
​

This loss severely hampered Burgoyne's reconnaissance efforts for days to come. American patriots reacted to news of the battle with optimism. Especially after Burgoyne's Indian screen deserted him, small groups of local patriots began to emerge to harass British positions. A significant portion of Stark's force returned home and did not again become influential in the campaign until they appeared at Saratoga on October 13 to complete the encirclement of Burgoyne's army. On October 4, Stark's reward from the New Hampshire General Assembly for "the memorable battle of Bennington" was "a full suit of clothing which became his rank." One reward Stark probably valued most was a message of thanks from John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress, which included a commission as "Brigadier General of the United States Army." The American victory at Bennington also galvanized the Americans and was a catalyst for French participation in the war.​

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«Victoria o Muerte ».
«Victory or Death».
— Attributed to Benedict Arnold on Battles of Saratoga.​

The American forces were not particularly well organized or prepared for a pitched battle. Major General Horace Gates had just taken command of the Department of the North, after Burgoyne captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 6. George Washington sent help north in the form of Major General Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive field commander, and Major General Benjamin Lincoln, a Massachusetts man known for his influence in the New England military. He ordered 750 men of Israel Putnam's forces defending the New York highlands to join Gates's army in August, before he was sure Howe had sailed south. He also sent in some of the best forces of his own army: Colonel Daniel Morgan and the newly formed corps of marksmen, comprising some 500 specially selected riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, chosen for their accuracy. This unit came to be known as Morgan's sharpshooters. By September 8, Gates had reoccupied Schuyler's old position at Stillwater, but seeing that his right flank rested on a flat plain by the Hudson River, offering his better-trained enemy an obvious advantage, he moved 3 miles (5 km) north. to the Bemis heights, whose slopes of about 100 meters high, reached up to 200 meters from the river. Inland, heights reached 300 meters, forming an irregular, heavily forested plateau crossed from east to west by ravines, with isolated farms linked by dark roads. The only route that could carry an army was the main road to Albany, some 30 km to the south, which paralleled the river. Gates's position was an inverted 'U' with sides 1 km long, shrouded in trees (except for the river) that would block the view of enemy scouts. His engineer, the Pole Tadeusz Kosciuszko, proposed to protect his right with two lines of trenches through the low ground by the river, dominated by a flanking battery, with the other three sides resting on the slopes; the center was covered by a ravine north of the Neilson farm; the left flank was not fortified or garrisoned because there were high hills and a lack of men.

A floating bridge was built in front of Bemis's tavern, and Neilson's barn was converted into a fort, with a battery on each side linked by a chest of felled trees (although it would not be completed until October). To defend this position, Gates had 5,600 Continentals and 1,500 militia from New York and Connecticut, with more militia flocking. He also recalled Lincoln, who had 700 men, leaving Warner in Manchester and patrols around Forts Anne and Edward and the Stark forces, effectively suppressing the left flank threat to Burgoyne, which had been carefully created by Schuyler. Stark refused, saying his men had measles, but then later sent 800 men, who arrived on September 12, six days before their enlistments were due to expire. Stark arrived three days later, and made no attempt to persuade them to stay. Meanwhile, the British armies closed in. On September 12 Burgoyne crossed the Hudson River, and on September 15 advanced along the road parallel to the river, while Fraser's advanced detachment continued through the highlands to the west. However, progress was slow, only 5 km a day, as the Americans had blocked the road and destroyed the bridges. The following day (September 16) he advanced another 5 km to reach Sword's house, where Burgoyne stopped for 48 hours while the road was cleared. That same day, Arnold attempted to ambush him, but was unable to find a suitable position, although he captured some foragers and disturbed the men repairing the road.

More worrisome were the militias that had massed on the east bank of the Hudson since 9 September and had moved to both sides of Lake George and three attacks in three directions against the British rear. A column under Colonel Benjamin Woodbridge after leaving Skenesboro attacked Fort Anne, another led by Colonel John Brown attacked the wharf at Fort Ticonderoga on September 18, capturing 4 Companies (156 men) of the 53rd, 119 Canadians, 63 gunners, a brigantine, several cannon boats, and more than 200 ships, as well as freeing more than 100 prisoners. A third column, under Colonel Samuel Johnson, called for the surrender of Fort Ticonderoga, but Powell refused to surrender. Johnson and Brown withdrew from Lake George to attack Dyamon Island. The garrison (two companies of the 47th) were alerted and resisted, so the militia burned the captured ships and returned via Skenesboro. On September 17, the British camped near Sword's Ford, just 4 miles (6.5 km) north of the American position on Bemis Heights. The Americans occupied a bluff overlooking the Hudson River, near Bemis's tavern. On the right flank, Gates had 3,000 troops and most of his artillery. A little to the west, near a farm, Gates had placed his center, commanded by Brig. General Ebenezer found out. On the left flank, he placed several Regiments commanded by Arnold and Colonel Daniel Morgan's men. By September 18, the vanguard of Burgoyne's army had reached a position just north of Saratoga, some 4 miles from the American defensive line, and skirmishes broke out between American covering detachments and Army reconnaissance elements. British. The American camp had become a hotbed of festering intrigue since Arnold's return from Fort Stanwix.

While Schuyler and Gates had been on reasonably good terms, Arnold managed to turn Gates against him by dragging their officers into contention. Those conditions had not yet reached a boiling point on September 19, but the events of the day contributed to the situation. Gates had assigned the left wing of the defenses to Arnold, and he assumed command of the right, which was nominally assigned to General Lincoln, whom Gates had detached in August with some troops to harass British positions behind Burgoyne's army. Both Burgoyne and Arnold understood the importance of the American left and the need to control the heights there. At 10:00 a.m., after the morning fog had lifted, Burgoyne ordered the British Army to advance in three columns. General Baron Riedesel led the left column on the river road, leading the main artillery and guarding the supplies and ships on the river. General James Inglis Hamilton commanded the central column, which would attack the heights; and General Simon Fraser led the right wing, to attack the American left flank by moving through the wooded terrain north and west of Bemis Heights. Arnold had realized that such a flanking maneuver was likely, and requested Gates' permission to move his forces from above to control possible moves, where American skill in woods fighting would be an advantage. Gates, whose preferred strategy was to sit back and wait for the expected frontal assault, reluctantly allowed a reconnaissance in force consisting of Daniel Morgan's men and Henry Dearborn's light infantry. When Morgan's men reached an open field northwest of Bemis Heights belonging to Loyalist John Freeman, they saw advancing British troops in the field.

Fraser's column was slightly delayed and had not yet reached the field, while Hamilton's column also made its way through a ravine and was approaching the field from the east through dense woods and difficult terrain. Riedesel's force, meanwhile on the way, was delayed by obstacles put up by the Americans. The sound of gunfire to the west prompted Riedesel to send some of his artillery down a track in that direction. The troops Morgan's men saw were an advanced company from Hamilton's column. The early morning of September 19 was cool and foggy, but around 11:00 a.m., it cleared, the sun had turned it into a good September day. A signal shot rang out and the British columns began to move. By around 1:00 p.m., the head of Riedesel's columns had slowly advanced south to a point 1.5 miles (2.5 km) east of the Freeman farm. As Ridesel moved south, Fraser led the right column briskly west. His column passed the head of the Great Ravine, continuing for another 1.5 miles to a T-junction heading south toward Bemis Heights. Fraser sent a column to the left at the junction, marched south, then stopped on high ground about 0.5 miles west of the Freeman farm. There he waited, apparently for the center's arrival or order from Burgoyne. Hamilton's column in the center followed the tracks of Fraser's column for a little over a mile, then moved left, south, on a path that eventually turned west to cross the bottom of the Gran Barranco over a bridge that, miraculously, was still intact. American scouts and patrols watched throughout the morning as the British, in their scarlet uniforms, moved through the woods. All of which, Gates, who remained seated, was informed wanted Burgoyne to come to him.

Benedict Arnold, however, did not agree with Gates' plan. He was a man of action and daring, and he called on Gates to take action, if not on all fronts, then at least against the threat to the army's left flank. He finally got permission to send out Morgan's sharpshooters and Dearborn's light infantry. He sent James Wilkinson to inform him of the situation. Gate's intelligence was also better than Burgoyne's, as some of his Indian scouts had left after the Battle of Bennington. Gates's intelligence on Burgoyne's moves was so good that he quickly knew when they were making important moves. Wisdom favored General Gates' decision to bide his time. He was heavily entrenched. His troops were ready to take advantage, his morale never better. He kept a watchful eye and a listening ear on his headquarters. Once he was in position, the Fraser sent a detachment of Loyalists, Canadians, and Indians to establish outposts in the area south of Freeman's farm. Around 12:30 p.m., after they arrived at Freeman's cabin, beginning to wander through the open areas of the farm. Suddenly, the woods near the farm erupted with fire from Daniel Morgan's sharpshooters, who had placed his men in strategic positions, and given them the order to shoot preferably at the officers. All the officers of the Advanced Company were killed, as were many of the men in the unit. The survivors fled in panic pursued by Dearborn's light infantry. As they managed to put the advance company to flight, Fraser's vanguard arrived just in time to attack Morgan's left, scattering his men back into the woods.

James Wilkinson, who had ridden to watch the fire, returned to the American line for reinforcements. As the British company fell back towards the main column, the leading edge of that column opened fire, killing several of their own men by mistaking them for the enemy. Then there was a lull in the fighting around 1:00 p.m., when Hamilton's men began to form up on the north side of the field, and American reinforcements began to arrive from the south. Hearing that Morgan was in trouble, Arnold, whose favorite phrase was "Come on boys," ordered Brigadier General Enoch Poor's Brigade (1,292) with the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd New Hampshires in front, and the 2nd and 4th New Hampshires behind. New York; 1st and 2nd Connecticut Militia, and ordered the Enoch Poor's Brigade to follow them. Burgoyne positioned Hamilton's men with the 21st on the right, the 20th on the left, and the 62nd in the center, with the 9th in reserve, in the clearing of Freeman's farm he had placed his artillery in the center of the edge of the forest on the north side. Benedict Arnold, a fearless commander, quickly assessed the situation and saw that a wide gap still existed between Phillips's force and Burgoyne's center at Freeman's farm. He quickly decided to attack the British center and then, if he could muster enough forces, split the enemy in two and crush each part separately. He began to form his line of attack as fast as he could rush his Regiments into his position. The battle then went through phases alternating between intense fighting and lulls in the action. Morgan's men had regrouped in the woods and fired at British officers and gunners. Arnold's Regiments advanced to hit Hamilton's center and right flank. Then began the fiercest fighting of the battle, which lasted about four hours.

An American penetration of Hamilton's position created a gap in the British line forcing individual units to fight, sometimes in three directions: to the front and to each flank. Fraser sent 8 British Companies, reinforced by riflemen, to support Hamilton. The American assaults failed to break through around Hamilton's right, and the battle became an exchange of frontal attacks and counterattacks that surged back and forth: south to north, north to south, the men moved by Freeman's farm glade. The fire on both sides was so continuous and intense that British officers, who had seen and served in the greatest battles of the Seven Years' War, declared that they had never experienced such intense fire. They were so effective in reducing the latter that the Americans several times gained brief control of the British field pieces, only to lose them on the next British charge. At one point Burgoyne himself was believed to have been shot down by a marksman, but it was one of Burgoyne's assistants, riding a similar horse. The center of the British line was nearly broken at one point, and it was only the intervention of General Phillips, leading the 20th, that made it possible for the 62nd to regroup. In the memoirs of Roger Lamb, (a British soldier present at the battle), he wrote: "In this battle fell an unusual number of officers, for our army abounded with respectable young men at the time, who after several years of general peace Prior to the American Revolution, they were drawn to the profession of arms. Three subalterns of the 20th on this occasion, the oldest of whom was no more than the tender age of 17 like my brother in England, were buried together." The final blow of the battle belonged to the British. Around 3:00 p.m. Riedesel sent a messenger to Burgoyne for instructions.

He returned two hours later with orders to guard the baggage train, but also to send as many men as possible to the American right flank. In a calculated risk, Riedesel left 500 men to protect the vital supply train and marched into action with the rest of his column. Two of his companies advanced in double column and opened fire on the American right, and Fraser's force threatened to envelop the American left flank. In response to the latter threat, Arnold requested more forces, and Gates allowed him to send in Ebenezer Learned's Brigade, but instead of supporting Arnold at the Freeman farm, where he was so badly needed, Learned made a half-hearted attack on the Fraser's wing and was rebuffed. Fortunately for the American right, darkness settled in and ended the battle. The Americans withdrew to their defenses, leaving the British on the battlefield. Burgoyne had won the battlefield but suffered nearly 600 casualties. Most of these were from the central column at Hamilton, where the 62nd was reduced to a single company, and three-quarters of the gunners were killed or wounded. American losses were nearly 65 killed, 218 wounded, and 36 missing. Although it would be widely said in the stories of this battle that General Arnold was in the field, directing some of the action. However, the truth is that Arnold played an active role on Freeman's farm by leading Patriot troops to his position and possibly leading some charges before Gates ordered them to return. Burgoyne's council discussed whether to attack the next day, and a decision was made to delay further action for at least a day, until 21 September. The army moved to consolidate the position closer to the American line while some men collected their dead.

The attack on the 21st was called off when Burgoyne received two pieces of news, a letter dated September 12 from Henry Clinton, who was in command of the British garrison in New York City. Clinton suggested that he could "put pressure on Fort Montgomery in about ten days." (Fort Montgomery was an American post on the Hudson River in the New York Highlands south of West Point.) If Clinton left New York on September 22, "about ten days" after he wrote the letter, he still could not expect to reach the vicinity of Saratoga before the end of the month. The other news was that General Lincoln had surprised and captured the Sugar Hill at Ticonderoga, seizing most of the bulk of the supply fleet on Lake Champlain, which meant that his lines of communication had been severed. . Burgoyne, running low on men and food, was still in a very difficult position, but he decided to wait in the hope that Clinton would arrive to save the army from him. Burgoyne wrote to Clinton on September 23, requesting some kind of assistance or diversion to draw the army away from Gates. In the American field, the mutual resentment between Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold finally exploded into open hostility. Gates quickly reported the September 19 action to Congress and the Governor of New York, but did not mention Arnold at all. Field commanders and men universally credited Arnold for his success. Almost all the troops involved were under Arnold's command and it was he who led the battle while Gates sat in his tent. Arnold protested, and the dispute escalated into a shouting match that ended with Gates relieving Arnold of command, causing morale to deteriorate among the troops. During this period there were almost daily clashes between pickets and patrols of the two armies. Morgan's snipers, familiar with the strategy and tactics of forest warfare, constantly harassed British patrols on the western flank.

As September turned into October, it became clear that Clinton was not coming to help Burgoyne, who put the army on short rations on October 3. The good news was that Clinton had received 3,000 reinforcements from England and his strength numbered 7,000. He set out at once with 3,000 troops and was at Peekskill on October 5, where he received a message from Burgoyne that he only had provisions until October 29. On October 6 he captured Forts Montgomery and Fort Clinton. The next day, Burgoyne called a council of war in which various options were discussed, but inconclusive. When the council reconvened the following day, Riedesel proposed withdrawal, in which Fraser supported him. Burgoyne refused to consider it, insisting that withdrawal would be shameful. They finally agreed to carry out an attack on the American left flank with 2,000 troops, more than a third of the army, on October 7 in order to discover a vulnerable point to attack, if they found none, they would withdraw on October 19. The US Army had increased, in addition to the return of Lincoln and Stark's detachment, militiamen and supplies continued to pour into the American camp, including ammunition, which had been severely depleted in the first battle. The army Burgoyne faced on October 7 was over 12,000 strong and led by a man who knew the trouble Burgoyne was in. Gates had received constant intelligence on the stream of deserters leaving the British lines and had also intercepted Clinton's response to Burgoyne's request for help. After the First Battle of Saratoga or Freemans Farm, Burgoyne strengthened his defensive lines in positions that stretched from Freeman's farm in the west to the Hudson River in the east. To the south, the American force, commanded by Gates, was still in the fortifications on Bemis Heights.

Gates used that same time to strengthen his defensive lines against an anticipated British attack. Also, additional reinforcements arrived during this same time. Gates kept his force within his entrenchments along the high ground west of the Hudson River. About 3,000 soldiers and most of his artillery took up positions overlooking the river. In the north-northwest position of the line was the 3,800-man division of the Benjamin Lincoln. Lincoln had another 1,200 militiamen from New York, commanded by Brigadier General Abraham T. Broeck, behind him ready to lend immediate support. That area was built around the critical piece of land known as Nielson's farm. If the British captured that area, their artillery could force the Americans off Bemis Heights. On the American left (west) were 600 light infantrymen, commanded by Colonels Daniel Morgan and Henry Dearborn leading the skirmishers and light infantry. On October 7, Burgoyne, whose strength had been reduced to 6,600, decided to launch the reconnaissance attack against the American positions in Bemis Heights. He started this plan with an advance divided into 3 columns, commanded by Brigadier Simon Fraser: Major Lord Balcarres commanded light infantry with 2×6 guns in the right column, Riedsel's Hessian and Brunswick infantry in the central column with 300 men. selected from 4 Regiments with 2×12 and 4×6 guns, and the Grenadiers commanded by Major John Dyke Acland in the left column with 2×6 guns. Major Fraser's rangers and 600 Loyalists and Indians would lead an encircling attack in a wide arc to the west and south. But they would end up marching too far west and not play much of a role in the battle.

Burgoyne decided to maneuver his columns depending on how the Americans deployed and how Gates would react to this move. Fraser pulled his three columns out of the entrenchments and advanced about a mile to the edge of Barber's wheat field, where they fanned out behind Mill Creek. they were forming in the wheat field. Gates sent two officers from his staff to report and ordered 700 of Morgan's corps to attack on the left, 1,323 of Poor's Brigade on the right, and 1,801 of Learned's Brigade in the center to advance and engage the British. The 1,260 of Ten's Brigade of the New York militia stayed in the rear. The battle began when Acland's artillery and grenadiers on the British left spotted Enoch Poor's Brigade in the woods below them and opened fire. Poor's men had formed up at the base of a slight rise. Firing down the slope, artillery fire flew overhead. Acland then ordered a bayonet charge, but before they could begin, Poor's men fired a deadly volley at them and launched their own counterattack. Acland's men were ripped apart, and Acland was shot in both legs and captured. At the same time that Poor's Brigade and Acland's Brigade were fighting each other, Morgan's and Dearborn's men advanced through the woods and attacked Balcarre's light infantry from the flank and rear. One of Burgoyne's couriers was sent to Balcarre with orders to withdraw, but he was killed. Balcarre was never ordered to back down. Balcarre's force quickly collapsed and he fled to the rear. Both British flanks gave way, exposing Riedesel's column to Ebenezer Learned's brigade advance.

Hearing the sounds of battle, Benedict Arnold, relieved of command and confined to his tent, could not contain himself and, turning to his aide, said: “No one will get me to stay in the tent on a day like today! command I will fight as a soldier, but the men will follow me.” He rode onto the battlefield just as Learned's Brigade began their assault, telling the soldiers "come on boys, victory or death." Arnold took the lead and led the men in their assault. Riedelsel's flanks were exposed and they eventually had to fall back. Fraser tried to rally his men and form a second line of defense. At a critical point in the battle, Timothy Murphy (one of Morgan's sharpshooters) was ordered to shoot and kill Fraser. Murphy's first two shots missed but his third shot found his target, mortally wounding Fraser. Pressure from both flanks and from the front forced the British and Hessian troops back on Freeman's farm. On the farm, there were two entrenchments known as Balcarre's Redoubt and Breymann's Redoubt, and two fortified huts in between. The fighting near Mill Creek had lasted about an hour. Arnold realized that an opportunity now existed to follow up the British defeat with a decisive victory on the battlefield. The second part of the battle began with American troops storming the British parapets. At the Balcarres redoubt, the Americans forced their way through the abatis but were repulsed. At this time Learned's Brigade arrived on the scene and Arnold ordered them to clear the reinforced huts between the redoubts. This exposed the southern (left) flank of Breymann's Redoubt. They soon made their way around the British flanks and attacked Breymann's redoubt from the rear. When Arnold was staging an assault, he was shot in the leg and his horse was shot from under him. The Hessians held out as long as they could.

The redoubt was not built to withstand repeated and overwhelming assaults from various directions. The Hessians were eventually forced to surrender as darkness fell. Burgoyne withdrew the force from him, leaving the sick and wounded on the field. Major Armstrong finally caught up with Arnold to officially order him back to headquarters, being taken back in a litter after relieving him of his command for insubordination and telling him that he should not have been on the battlefield. Burgoyne suffered 720 casualties, of whom 270 were killed, 250 wounded, and 200 taken prisoner, and Gates had 50 killed and 150 wounded. During the battle Gates did nothing (something that would be frowned upon by the troops who would give voice later) and remained in the entrenchments talking to a wounded English officer, Francis Clarke. On October 8, overnight and in heavy rain, Burgoyne ordered a withdrawal and began moving north. Finally, they returned to the fortified British camp at Saratoga, on the Hudson River. The darkness had saved Burgoyne from complete defeat. At 10:00 p.m., he arrived at the Schuyler farm and at dawn crossed Fishkill Creek and occupied high ground. On October 10, Gates reached Burgoyne's fortified camp and surrounded it on 3 sides. On October 12, Burgoyne held a council of war in which it was agreed to distribute food to each soldier for three days and to withdraw at night, abandoning cannons and wagons, but it was too late, the Americans had completely surrounded them. On October 13 Burgoyne held another council of war in which it was agreed to send parliamentarians to Gates. The answer was unconditional surrender. On October 17, Burgoyne was forced to formally surrender to Gates and accepted Burgoyne's surrender from the British Army.

The formalized surrender became known as the articles of the Saratoga Convention. Gates agreed that if the British laid down their arms and returned to England, they could keep their colors and go home free men. Burgoyne was allowed to march out of the camp "with the honors of war", and he began his march west. However, when they arrived in New England, Gates's terms were not honored by the Continental Congress. Instead, the British soldiers were sent to prison camps where they would endure hardship and abuse while the officers would be exchanged or kept in a more comfortable prison. Burgoyne's failed campaign, as can be seen from the titles of some of the books that cover him in detail, marked a major turning point in the war. After the battle, he withdrew his men 10 to 15 miles north, near present-day Schuylerville, New York. Burgoyne returned to England and was never given another command post in the British Army. In recognition of his contribution to the battles at Saratoga, Arnold was restored to his position. His injury to his leg left him bedridden for five months. Later, although unfit for field service, he served as military governor of Philadelphia, where he would unknowingly begin contacting and sharing information with Major John Andre who was acting as a British spy, who was later discovered and Arnold was charged with treason due to meeting evidence. Being persecuted by his enemies who were friends of Horatio Gates, Arnold would end up fleeing to the British lines where he would arrive in New York and enter the service of the British Army. Although he left the direction of the battle to his subordinates, Gates would go on to great credit as the general commanding the greatest American victory of the war to date. This would motivate Gates to conspire with others to replace General George Washington as Commander-in-Chief. But while commanding the main American army in the South, Gates would lead the army to a disastrous defeat at the 1780 Battle of Camden, where he led a retreat.

Gates never sent troops into the field again. In response to Burgoyne's surrender, Congress declared December 18, 1777, a national day "with solemn thanksgiving and praise." Once news of Burgoyne's surrender reached France, King Louis XVI decided to enter into negotiations with the Americans which resulted in a formal Franco-American alliance and French entry into the war. This brought the conflict to a global stage. As a consequence, Britain was forced to divert the resources used to fight the war from North America to the West Indian and European theaters, and rely on what turned out to be the chimera of loyal support in its North American operations. The effect of the American victory at Saratoga was enormous. Gates was known as the "Hero of Saratoga." The victory also gave the fledgling country a much-needed boost. With France and Spain joining the war, the American effort was galvanized. The British loss also further weakened the British government under Lord North. The victory at Bemis Heights and the subsequent surrender at Saratoga are generally considered a major turning point in the US War of Independence.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«Mi intención es Pensilvania, donde espero encontrarme con Washington, pero si él va al norte en contra de mis expectativas, y puedes detenerlo, ten por seguro que pronto iré tras él para relevarte».
«My intention is Pennsylvania, where I hope to meet Washington, but if he goes north contrary to my expectations, and you can hold him off, rest assured I will soon be after him to relieve you».
— Attributed to William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe.

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Following Howe's successful capture of New York City in the New York and New Jersey campaign, and Washington's successful actions at the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, the two armies were at an uneasy stalemate in the months of winter of early 1777. Although this time was marked by numerous skirmishes, the British Army continued to hold outposts in New Brunswick and Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Howe had proposed to Lord George Germain, the British civil servant responsible for conducting the war, an expedition in 1777 to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Second Continental Congress. Germain approved of his plan, albeit with fewer troops than Howe had requested. He also approved of Burgoyne's plans for an expedition to force his way to Albany from Montreal. Germain's approval of Howe's expedition included the expectation that Howe might help Burgoyne by holding a meeting in Albany between Burgoyne's forces and troops that Howe would send north from New York City. Howe decided in early April not to take his army overland to Philadelphia through New Jersey, as this would involve a difficult crossing of the wide Delaware River in hostile conditions, and would probably require the transportation or construction of the necessary boats. . Howe's plan, sent to Germain on April 2, also effectively insulated Burgoyne from any chance of significant support, since Howe would be taking his army by sea to Philadelphia, and the New York garrison was too small for any offensive operations. significant in the Hudson River to help Burgoyne. Washington realized that Howe "certainly ought in good policy to endeavor to cooperate with General Burgoyne" and was puzzled why he did not. Washington at the time puzzled over why Howe was not in place to help Burgoyne, whose invasion army from Canada would be surrounded and captured by the Americans in October.

Historians agree that Lord Germain did a lousy job of coordinating the two campaigns. Howe on December 20, 1776 wrote to Germain, proposing an elaborate set of campaigns for 1777. These included operations to gain control of the Hudson River, expanding operations from the base at Newport, Rhode Island, and seizing the seat of Congress. Continental in Philadelphia. The latter was attractive to Howe, since Washington was just north of the city: Howe wrote that he was "persuaded that the main army should move offensively [against Philadelphia], where the enemy's main force resides." Germain acknowledged that this plan was particularly "well digested," but required more men than Germain was willing to provide. In mid-January 1777, after setbacks in New Jersey, Howe proposed operations against Philadelphia that included an expedition by land and an attack by sea, thinking that this might lead to a decisive victory over the Continental Army. This plan developed to the extent that Howe's army was seen building pontoon bridges in April; Washington, staying at his winter quarters in Morristown, New Jersey, thought they would be for his eventual use on the Delaware River. By mid-May, however, Howe had apparently abandoned the idea of an overland expedition: "I propose to invade Pennsylvania by sea ... we must probably abandon the Jersies." Howe's decision not to help Burgoyne may have been rooted in Howe's perception that Burgoyne would receive credit for a successful campaign, even if he required Howe's help; This would not help Howe's reputation, as would the Philadelphia expedition if he were successful. There was jealousy among various British leaders. Howe himself wrote to Burgoyne on July 17: "My intention is Pennsylvania, where I hope to meet Washington, but if he goes north contrary to my expectations, and you can hold him off, rest assured I will soon be after him to relieve you ”. He sailed from New York shortly after.

Washington's Continental Army had been encamped primarily at Morristown, New Jersey, although there was a forward base at Bound Brook, only a few miles from the nearest British outposts. Partly in retaliation against ongoing skirmishes, General Charles Cornwallis raided the position in April 1777, in which he nearly captured the outpost's commander, Brigadier General Benjamin Lincoln. In response to this incursion, Washington advanced his army to a heavily fortified position at Middlebrook in the Watchung Mountains that commanded probable British land routes to Philadelphia. On June 9, Howe began moving troops from Staten Island to Perth Amboy. By June 11, almost all of Howe's army had moved up the roads along the Raritan River to New Brunswick. Intelligence reports from Washington indicated that Howe had left behind equipment needed to cross the Delaware River and it was unlikely that he was headed for Philadelphia. Washington, as a precaution, called in the militia in southern New Jersey. On June 14, Howe's army marched again, their destination Somerset Court House. Seemingly seeking to draw Washington into battle on open ground, Howe remained there for five days. Washington refused to leave the hills. On June 19, Howe began the march back to Perth Amboy, which he arrived at three days later, having fully evacuated New Brunswick. After refusing to fall into Howe's trap, Washington followed the British in retreat, driving their army from Middlebrook to Quibbletown, and dispatched a strong forward detachment, under Major General William Alexander, Lord Stirling, to the area of the Scotch Plains north of New Brunswick; to cover his left flank and to harass the British. Stirling's forces numbered about 2,500 men.

Alerted to these moves by an American deserter, Howe reversed his march at the end of the day on June 25. Moving quickly with about 11,000 men, he tried to overwhelm Stirling and prevent Washington from regaining a foothold in the mountains. Howe launched a sudden attack on Lord Stirling's position, intending to devastate Stirling's forces, cut off Washington's retreat back to Middlebrook, and engage the Americans in a pitched battle on relatively open ground. On June 26, at 0100 hours, Howe set out in two columns of troops for Perth Amboy. The first column was under the command of Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis. The second column was under Major General John Vaughan, where Howe would go. Cornwallis's column marched on Woodbridge, while Vaughan's men marched on Bonhamton. As the two columns moved along roughly parallel paths through the Short Hills area, they came into contact with Lord Stirling's guards, and a skirmish began with 150 riflemen from Colonel Daniel Morgan's Provisional Rifle Corps. Fighting broke out near Strawberry Hill, where Captain Patrick Ferguson's men, armed with new rifles, were able to force the Americans to retreat down Oak Tree Road, with the Americans firing at the British from the brush as they fell back. Alerted to the threat, Stirling ordered reinforcements led by Brigadier General Thomas Conway. Hearing the shots from these early encounters, Washington ordered most of the army back to Middlebrook while he relied on Stirling's men to stem the British advance. At around 0830 hours, Conway's men engaged the enemy near the intersection of Oak Tree and Plainfield Roads. Although they offered stubborn resistance that amounted to hand-to-hand fighting, Conway's troops were repulsed.

The Americans withdrew approximately 1.5 km into the Short Hills, Cornwallis pressing on and joining up with Vaughan and Howe at the Oak Tree Junction. To the north, Stirling formed a defensive line near Ash Marsh. Backed by artillery, his 1,798 men held off the British advance for about two hours, allowing Washington to regain the heights. Fighting swirled around the American guns and 3 were captured by the British. As the battle raged, Stirling's horse was killed and his men were driven back to the line at Ash Marsh. Finally the artillery fire and the numerical superiority of the British forced Stirling to withdraw towards Westfield. Moving quickly to avoid British pursuit, Stirling led his troops back into the mountains to meet with Washington. The British stopped at Westfield due to the heat of the day, and abandoned the pursuit, dedicating themselves to looting the town and desecrating the Westfield Meeting House. Later in the day, Howe reconnoitered Washington's lines and concluded that they were too strong to attack. After spending the night at Westfield, he moved his army back to Perth Amboy and by June 30 he had left New Jersey entirely. In the fighting at the Battle of Short Hills, the British admitted 5 killed and 30 wounded. American losses are not precisely known, but the British claimed 100 killed and wounded, as well as 70 captured. Although it was a tactical defeat for the Continental Army, the battle was a strategic victory for Washington. Because Lord Stirling's resistance may have provided Washington with enough time to withdraw him to safer ground, the battle is considered a strategic victory for the Americans. The British, after spending the night at Westfield, returned to their post at Perth Amboy.

Howe then withdrew his troops to Perth Amboy, loaded them onto transports, and sailed out of New York Harbor, bound for Philadelphia. Washington did not know where Howe was going. Considering the possibility that Howe would return to a diversionary maneuver, and in fact sail his army up the Hudson to join Burgoyne, he stayed close to New York. Only when he received word that Howe's fleet had reached the mouth of the Delaware did he have to consider defending Philadelphia. However, the fleet did not enter Delaware, instead continuing south. Not knowing what Howe's objective was, which might be Charleston, South Carolina, he considered going north to help defend the Hudson River when he learned that the fleet had entered the Chesapeake Bay. Sullivan learned that Howe's British Army departure had left Staten Island vulnerable, and he planned and executed a raid against British targets there. Sullivan had learned that although most of the British regulars were near the northern tip of the island, about 700 loyal New Jersey militiamen were scattered along the western shore, facing the mainland. Sullivan's plan was to cross two groups onto the island from points in Elizabethtown, capture prisoners from isolated militia outposts, and destroy supplies. They would then go to the Old Blazing Star ferry to return to the mainland.

The British defenses on the island, under the overall command of Brigadier General John Campbell, consisted of regular elements of the Army of the 52nd, Hessian Regiments, and the loyal New Jersey militia known as Skinner's Brigade, under the command of Cortlandt Skinner. Campbell's men numbered about 900, and were stationed near the northeastern tip of the island. Skinner's men, numbering about 400 according to Campbell's report, were stationed at outposts along the western coast between Dexter's Ferry and Cape Ward. On August 20, Sullivan, at his base in Hanover, New Jersey, ordered his commanders to prepare their troops for a march the next day. The sources do not describe the precise composition of the chosen troops, but most of them were drawn from Sullivan's Division, which consisted of the 1st Brigade and the 2nd Maryland Brigade. Additional troops chosen for the operation included companies of the 2nd Canadian and a company of the New Jersey militia. On the afternoon of August 21, two columns totaling about 1,000 troops left the camp. One column was led by Brigadier General William Smallwood, and the other, led by Sullivan, consisted of troops led by a French officer who had received a brigade commission from the Continental Army, Sir Philippe Hubert Preudhomme de Borre. After reaching Elizabethtown in the late afternoon, they rested for a few hours and began the early crossing the next morning. A detachment, led by Colonel Matthias Ogden, crossed in front of the Fresh Kills and rowed to the Dead, to approach their target, Elisha Lawrence's militia brigade, from their rear. The remaining troops crossed near Palmer Run on the north side of the island, where they divided into three groups. Smallwood and Sullivan took most of their columns to attack specific targets, each leaving a regiment to cover their line of retreat.

Ogden attacked Colonel Lawrence's outpost at dawn, surprising and driving off the militia company. After a few minutes of battle, he had taken 80 prisoners, and moved to the advance guard of Lt. Col Edward Vaughan Dongan, commanding the 3rd Battalion of Skinner's brigade. Dongan's men resisted strongly, despite the fact that he was mortally wounded. This prompted Ogden to retreat to Old Blazing Star. After waiting there to think prudently, Ogden crossed his men back to the mainland before Sullivan and Smallwood arrived. Sullivan moved to attack Skinner's 5th Battalion, under Lt. Col. Joseph Barton, on the New Bazing Star, but these troops were alert and fled as Sullivan's forces advanced on them. Although Sullivan had posted troops to intercept men trying to escape, many of Barton's men escaped, crossing to the Jersey shore or hiding in the area's woods and swamps. Sullivan took 40 prisoners, including Barton. Some of his men advanced to Skinner's headquarters, but the force there was too strong and the Americans withdrew. Smallwood's column was led by his guidance at the head of Abraham van Buskirk's Loyalist Battalion, rather than its rear. He ordered the attack anyway, and Buskirk's men fled until Skinner rallied them, and the tables were turned on the Americans. They began a hasty retreat, though they had time to destroy the camp's supplies and equipment, and managed to seize a banner. Smallwood and Sullivan joined forces near Richmond, a town in the center of the island, and headed for the Old Blazing Star. Sullivan sent the boats to speed up the crossing, but they never arrived, so he began crossing the troops and prisoners using the three boats Ogden had ordered across earlier.

As they did so, Skinner and his company closed in, accompanied by forces from Campbell, the 52nd, and the Waldeck and Anspach Regiments. Sullivan ordered Major Stewart's and Major Tillard's companies to cover the retreat. With about 80 men, they successfully held off the British forces, while all other American troops crossed to the mainland, repulsing several determined attempts to break through their line. Although part of this cover line managed to escape, several men were killed, and a considerable number surrendered after they ran out of ammunition and the British began canister fire on them. Sullivan's forces marched south after the battle, and were able to join General George Washington's defensive arrangements south of Philadelphia in time to participate in the Battle of Brandywine on September 11. In late August 1777, after a harrowing 34-day voyage from Sandy Hook on the New Jersey shore; a Royal Navy fleet of more than 260 ships carrying some 17,000 British troops under British General William Howe, who had left some 3,000 British troops in reserve in New York under General Clinton in case he needed aid. During the voyage, supplies spoiling and dwindling at a rapid rate, he landed at the head of the Elk River, at the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay then known as Elk's Head, approximately 60-80 km southwest of Philadelphia. . Unloading the ships proved to be a logistical problem because the narrow neck of the river was shallow and muddy. The British were forced to forage for nearly three weeks before coming to a decision. This gave Washington enough time to move his forces to his place with the claim that Howe was after Philadelphia.

General George Washington had positioned his force of some 12,000 Continentals and 3,000 militiamen between the head of Elk and Philadelphia. His forces were able to reconnoiter the British landing from Iron Hill near Newark, Delaware, about 9 miles to the northeast. Due to the delay in landing the ships, Howe did not set up a typical camp, but quickly moved forward with the troops. As a result, Washington was unable to obtain accurate information from the British forces. After a skirmish at Cooch's Bridge south of Newark, British troops moved north, and Washington abandoned a defensive camp along Red Clay Creek near Newport, Delaware; to deploy against the British at Chadds Ford. This location was important as it was the most direct passage across the Brandywine River on the way from Baltimore to Philadelphia. On September 9, Washington posted detachments to guard other fords above and below Chadds Ford, hoping to force the battle there. Washington was confident that with this deployment, the area was safe. The British Army, moving into Chester County, Pennsylvania in two columns, mustered in the small hamlet of Kennett Square on September 10. Howe, who had better information about the area Washington occupied, had no intention of launching a full-scale frontal attack against the prepared American defenses. Instead, he employed a flanking maneuver, similar to the one used in the Battle of Long Island. Some 6,800 men under TG Wilhelm von Knyphausen advanced to meet Washington's troops at Chadds Ford. The remainder of Howe's troops, some 9,000 men, under the command of Charles, Lord Cornwallis, marched north to Trimble's Ford via the western tributary of Brandywine Creek, then east to Jefferies Ford (two fords that Washington had overlooked); and then south to outflank US forces.

September 11 began with a heavy fog, which covered the British troops. Washington received conflicting reports of British troop movements and continued to believe that the main force was moving to attack Chadds Ford. At 0530 hours, British and Hessian troops began to march east along the "Great Road" from Kennett Square, advancing towards the American troops located where the road crossed Brandywine Creek. The first shots of the battle were fired about 4 miles west of Chadds Ford, at Welch's Tavern. Some 300 of Maxwell's Continental Light Infantry clashed with the British vanguard (mainly the Queen's Rangers, and a Loyalist Battalion). After firing a minimal number of volleys, the Americans quickly fell back to a second line at an elevated position approximately 700 meters east of their starting position around the small town of Hamerton. Flanking on both sides of the single-lane highway and hidden by dense trees, fences and other obstacles, the Americans waited for the British to close in before firing another short series of volleys and falling back where they continued to join the British forces. additional light infantry. This convinced the British that a cautious approach had to be taken because they formed up into a vulnerable marching column. The British continued to advance and found a larger force of Continentals behind the stone walls in the gardens of the Old Kennett meeting house. The battle was fought at mid-morning around the meeting house, while the anti-war Quakers continued to hold their mid-week service. Later, one of the Quakers wrote: "While there was much noise and confusion, all was quiet and peaceful." From the meeting house grounds, the battle continued for 5 km to Brandywine Creek, at Chadds Ford.

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Eventually the British drove the Americans back, but not before taking heavy losses. Knyphausen deployed along the Brandywine the 2 British Battalions in the front line on the immediate heights, and the Hessian Brigade in the second line. By 10:30 a.m., Knyphausen was in a position to launch a coordinated attack between Brinton and Chadd fords. The main British column under General Cornwallis (accompanied by General Howe) left Kennett Square at 05:00. Loyal local sources had provided Howe with knowledge of two unguarded fords above the forks of the Brandywine. The 27 km flank march took him about 9 hours to complete. The British appeared on the Americans' right flank around 2:00 p.m. and took a much-needed rest on Osbourne Hill, a commanding north of the Continental Army. Having received information from Colonel Bland's scouts, Washington ordered Sullivan (1,100) to take command of Stirling's (1,500) and Stephen's (1,500) Divisions and to march rapidly north to meet the British flank attack. As they formed their lines north of Dilworth, Howe launched the attack on him. Having taken overall command of the army's right, Sullivan left his Division to consult with the other generals. His own Division was left under the command of Preudhomme de Borre, with orders to move to the right to link up with the Stirling and Stephen Divisions (from left to right, the Divisions were organized as Sullivan, Stirling and Stephen). As the British lines advanced, Hessian Jägers threatened to outflank the American right, forcing Stephen and Stirling to shift to the right. Howe was slow to attack, giving the Americans time to locate some of his men on high ground near the Birmingham Meetinghouse, about a mile north of Chadds Ford.

At 4:00 p.m., the British attacked. In second line in supporting the first line the British 3rd and 4th Brigades and the Hessian Brigade. The British Guards Brigade took Borre, commanding the 2nd Maryland Brigade, by surprise on the American left. Before Borre had time to finish forming up, the British charged and the Americans fled in disorder, causing the entire Division to would fall Initially, Stephen's and Stirling's Divisions held their ground, aided by a battery on a knoll between their Divisions. However, the British Battalions, aided by the Jägers, eventually drove Stephen's Division back. A bayonet charge by British Grenadier Brigades in the center similarly forced Stirling to withdraw. Lafayette had just arrived, joining Stirling's Division, when he received a wound while trying to rally the retreating troops. Around 6:00 p.m., Washington and Greene arrived with reinforcements to try to stop the British, who were then occupying Meeting House Hill. Washington conversed with Greene and Knox, the latter of whom was chief of artillery, in the courtyard of William Brinton's house. The 2nd Grenadier Brigade was closing in on his position, and was joined by the 4th Brigade. It was determined that Knox would deploy artillery to slow the British advance. Greene's reinforcements, combined with the remnants of Sullivan's, Stephen's and Stirling's Divisions, formed up south of Dilworth and held off the pursuing British for almost an hour, leaving the rest of the army to withdraw. As darkness fell, Greene's Division finally began the march on Chester along with the rest of the army. The British Army was unable to pursue him due to the start of the night. The Americans were also forced to leave behind many of their guns on Meeting House Hill because nearly all of their horse artillery had been killed.

Location of the Stirling Division on Birmingham Hill west of the Birmingham Road (looking west). British Grenadier Battalions attacked from right to left, forcing Stirling back with a bayonet charge. Hearing the attack from Cornwallis's column, Knyphausen launched an attack on the weakened American center across Chadds Ford, breaking up the divisions commanded by Wayne and William Maxwell and forcing them to withdraw and leave most of their guns behind. Armstrong's militia, who had not participated in the fighting, also decided to withdraw from their positions. Further north, Greene sent Brigadier General George Weedon's troops to cover the road outside the town of Dilworth to hold off the British long enough for the rest of the Continental Army to withdraw. Darkness halted the British pursuit, allowing Weedon's force to withdraw. The defeated Americans withdrew to Chester where most of them arrived by midnight, with stragglers arriving until morning. The American withdrawal was well organized, largely due to the efforts of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, who, though wounded, created a foothold that allowed for a more orderly withdrawal before being treated for his wound. The official list of British casualties details 587 casualties: 93 dead (8 officers, 7 sergeants and 78 enlisted men); 488 wounded (49 officers, 40 sergeants, 4 drummers and 395 troops); and 6 disappeared. Only 40 of the British Army casualties were Hessians. An initial report by a British officer recorded US casualties of more than 200 killed, around 750 wounded, and 400 taken prisoner, many of them wounded. A member of General Howe's staff claimed that the rebels buried 400 rebels in the field.

There would be no record of US casualties at Brandywine and figures, official or otherwise, were never released. But Major General Nathanael Greene, who estimated that Washington's army had lost between 1,200 and 1,300 men. On September 14, some 350 wounded Americans were transferred from the British camp at Dilworth to a newly established hospital in Wilmington, Delaware. General Greene's estimate of the Americans' total loss was accurate, so they had between 1,160 and 1,260 killed, wounded, or marooned during the battle. The British also captured 11 of the 14 American artillery pieces. Among the American wounded was the Marquis de Lafayette. In addition to losses in battle, 315 men were sent as deserters from Washington's camp during this stage of the campaign. Although Howe had defeated the American army, his lack of cavalry prevented his total destruction. Washington had made a grave mistake in leaving his right flank wide open and had nearly annihilated his army had it not been for Sullivan's, Stirling's and Stephen's Divisions fighting for time. Night was approaching, and despite the early start Cornwallis had made to the outflanking maneuver, most of the US Army was able to break out. In his report to the Continental Congress detailing the battle, Washington stated: "Despite the misfortune of the day, I am pleased to report that most of my men are in good spirits and still have the courage to fight the enemy another day." ”. The Continental Congress left Philadelphia, moving first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, for a day and then to York, Pennsylvania. Military supplies were moved from the city to Reading, Pennsylvania. Washington withdrew across the Schuylkill River, marched through Philadelphia, and headed northwest. Since the Schuylkill River could be forded upriver, beginning at Matson's Ford.

Washington could protect the capital and vital supply areas to the west from behind the river barrier. However, he reconsidered and recrossed the river to face the British, who had moved little from Brandywine, due to a shortage of wagons to transport both their wounded and his baggage. On the morning of September 16, Washington's 10,000-man army moved west through the Great Valley, hemmed in by the hills to the north and south. Informed by his cavalry commanded by Brigadier Casimir Pulaski, that the British were advancing on him from the south, a few miles away. Although moving to the northern foothills of the valley would have given Washington more time to deploy and possibly fortify, he ordered the army to drive south directly toward the British to take up a defensive position in the southern foothills of the valley. The position was 5 km long and strong, especially in the center. Washington sent an advance force under Brigadier Anthony Wayne to check the British progress. At about 2:00 p.m., his men encountered advanced units of Hessian jägers on a road. These forces began to skirmish, and the Americans nearly captured Colonel Carl von Donop when he had broken away from his main column with a company of jägers. The main British column, led by Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis, encountered Wayne's militia in Pennsylvania on another road at about 3:00 p.m., who gave in and retreated in a panic. While this was going on, Washington, who was trying to organize the line of battle, had a change of heart about the position and ended up withdrawing the army north of the White Horse Tavern. He barely started moving, when it started pouring rain. Captain Johann Ewald of the jägers described it as “an extraordinary storm, […] combined with the strongest downpour in this world”.

The British Army stopped its advance, although General Wilhelm von Knyphausen ordered the Jägers to attack the enemy. Ewald and his men rushed forward, swords drawn from wet powder, and captured 34 men. The storm continued into the next day. The British were forced to build a makeshift camp (having left their tents behind that day), and Washington managed to form a battle line, but much of his ammunition was spoiled by the rain and the crates poorly constructed cartridges. On September 19, Washington withdrew once beyond the Schuylkill River to cover both the capital and its supply zone, but left behind Wayne's 1,500-man, four-gun Division of Pennsylvania with orders to harass the British rear. Howe's army found it nearly impossible to follow Washington over the bumpy roads. The decision was made to wait out the storm and then move on to their objective. Both armies had about 100 casualties each in the skirmishes. After the Battle of the Clouds was aborted by bad weather, Washington again withdrew across the Schuylkill River, leaving Wayne's Pennsylvania Division in Chester, Pennsylvania. When the British columns arrived, Wayne followed them to harass the British and try to capture all or part of his baggage train. Wayne assumed his presence had gone undetected and he camped near the British lines at Paoli. His Pennsylvania Division consisted of the 1st Brigade under Colonel Thomas Hartley (1st, 2nd, 7th, and 10th), the 2nd Brigade under Colonel Richard Humpton (4th, 5th, 8th, and 11th), Hartley's Continental Regiment, a Company attached artillery and a corps of light dragoons (1st and 2nd) under Polish Count Kazimierz Pulaski. Altogether some 1,600 strong, encamped less than a mile away was William Smallwood's militia in Maryland, with about 2,100 relatively inexperienced strongmen.

The British heard rumors that Wayne was in the area. Howe sent out spies who reported his location near the Paoli Tavern on September 19. As his position was only four miles from the British camp at Tredyffrin, Howe immediately planned an attack on Wayne's relatively exposed camp. There was a strong loyalist presence in Pennsylvania and the British had good intelligence during the campaign. Furthermore, 18th century warfare was, in many respects, an informal business and it seems likely that soldiers from both sides frequented the taverns, particularly Paoli's, which was located midway between the two camps. Howe was fully aware of Wayne's presence and had a precise understanding of his strength. On September 20, during the night, Howe sent Gray to deal with Wayne's Division. Major General Charles Gray left with his force at 10:00 p.m., he had 1,200 troops (42nd, 44th, 1 Light Company, Ferguson's sharpshooters, and 16th dragoons), 3 km away was the detachment of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Musgrave with 600 troops (40th and 50th). By Grey's order, flintlocks had been removed from his men's muskets to ensure that no shots gave the Americans advance notice. The attack was to be with a fixed bayonet. Thus he acquired the nickname "No Flints" from Gray. The British, led by a local blacksmith forced to act as a guide, marched down the road from Moores Hall to Admiral Warren's Junction, approached Wayne's camp near General Paoli's tavern from a wood, and achieved a complete surprise. They stormed the camp in three groups: the light infantry, skirmishers and dragoons in the lead, the 44th in the second line, and the 42nd highlander in the third line.

As the main British light infantry approached the junction, an American picket fired. These shots are said to have alerted the Pennsylvania camp behind the woods south of the crossing. Completely unprepared, Wayne's troops fled the field and were pursued. Near the White Horse tavern, the British encountered Smallwood's force and routed it as well. The British had defeated an entire American Division. In the face of the British charge, the Pennsylvania troops were scattered and driven westward from the camp, many through a breach in a fence along the edge of the camp. The groups of British soldiers mixed with the Americans and the confused fight continued until the White Horse tavern. Smallwood's force approached from the west as the attack was drawing to a close and was attacked passing the White Horse public house. The inexperienced and poorly organized Maryland militia dissolved in confusion. The accusation was made against Wayne that he allowed his camp to be surprised. At his request, he was court-martialed which cleared him of this charge. Whether caught by surprise or not, the attack was well executed and highly successful, allowing Howe to take Philadelphia in a few days with little further resistance from the main US army under Washington. After the battle, the Americans vowed revenge on the British light infantry. To show their defiance, the 46th and 49th Light Companies, which were part of the Light Infantry, dyed their hat feathers red so that the Americans could identify them. An official investigation found that Wayne had made a tactical error. He was enraged and demanded a full court-martial.

The Battle of Paoli was a severe humiliation for the Pennsylvania Continental troops, but probably little else. The fight is known as the "Paoli Massacre" to Americans. But it's hard to see how that label can be justified in light of the small number of US fatalities, just 53 dead, 113 wounded of which 40 were serious, and 71 captured. The British had 4 killed and 7 wounded. Although it is said that the British did not take prisoners. This accusation was frequently made in the War of Independence and is made against both sides. In Wayne's Division 272 were lost including those who deserted. On September 26, Howe finally got past Washington and marched on Philadelphia unopposed. The capture of the rebel capital did not end the rebellion as the British thought. In 18th century warfare, it was normal for the side that captured the enemy's capital to win the war. But the war would continue for another six years, given the unconventional warfare tactics of the Patriots at the time.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«La vista era horrible. La noche era muy oscura. Las llamas ardientes se extendieron con toda rapidez y el viento soplaba violentamente. Los gritos de las voces humanas de jóvenes y viejos, que habían visto sus pertenencias consumidas por las llamas sin salvar nada, pusieron a todos en una melancolía».

«The sight was horrible. The night was very dark. The burning flames spread rapidly and the wind blew violently. The cries of the human voices of young and old, who had seen their belongings consumed by the flames without saving anything, put everyone in a melancholy».
— Attributed to Johann Ewald, a German officer serving with the British.

Following Charles Cornwallis's capture of Philadelphia on September 26, William Howe left 3,462 men behind for its defense by dispatching 9,728 troops to Germantown, 5 miles north, determined to locate and destroy the American forces. Howe established his headquarters at Stenton, the former residence of James Logan. As the British army split up, Washington now saw an opportunity for victory. He decided to attack the English garrison at Germantown in a last effort before winter. His plan was to attack the English at night with four columns from different directions, thus creating a double envelope, surprising the English and Hessian armies in the same way that he had surprised the Hessians at Trenton. Germantown was a small town of stone houses that stretched from Mount Airy in the north to Market Square in the south. Southwest of Market Square was Schoolhouse Lane, which ran 1.5 miles (2.4 km) to where the Wissahickon Creek empties into the Schuylkill River by way of a waterfall. William Howe had established base camp on the high ground above Schoolhouse and Church roads. The western sector of the camp was led by the Hessian General Wilhelm von Knyphausen, with two Jäger battalions on his left flank just above the mouth of the Wissahickon. A Hessian Brigade and two British Brigades camped along Market Square, and to the east of there another two British Brigades led by General James Grant, as well as the 1st Battalion. Covering the right flank was the New York loyalist unit known as the Queen's Rangers. At dusk on October 3, the US Army began a 16-mile march south toward Germantown in complete darkness. Since the attack was to take place at dawn, the soldiers were instructed to put a piece of white paper in their hats to distinguish themselves from the enemy.

They were not detected by either the Hessian jägers or the British light infantry, and the American troops were advancing on them. It seemed that the Continentals were going to repeat their success at the Battle of Trenton; however, the darkness made communication between columns difficult, and progress was slower than expected. By dawn, most of the US forces had not yet reached their positions, and the element of surprise had been lost. General Armstrong's column with the Pennsylvania militia, advancing along Ridge Road on the enemy's left, managed to position itself at the appointed time. However, instead of advancing to fall upon the enemy and attack their rear, he halted near the mouth of the Wissahickon, where he had a brief engagement with the jäger troops, shelling Knyphausen's camp before withdrawing. The only thing General Armstrong accomplished was to keep a sizable Hessian force initially out of the battle for the first part of the day. The Maryland militia under General William Smallwood and the New Jersey militia under General David Forman did much worse on the British right. They were lost during the night and arrived in time to join the retreat. Nathanael Greene's column, made up of Greene's and Adam Stephen's Divisions, and McDougall's Brigade, came down Limekiln Road. Sullivan and Greene's IDs did not reach Chestnut Hill, their original destination at dawn. As they descended the valley and approached Mount Airy, the sun was rising, but it was soon covered by a thick low-lying mist. Conway's BRI led the way with Sullivan's Division behind and Wayne's Division bringing up the rear. A Regiment from Conway's Brigade and a Regiment from Maryland advanced to the front. A detachment commanded by Captain Allen McLane of Delaware was sent to take the enemy's advanced picket line at Allen's house on Mt. His men killed the double sentinels with the loss of one man.

The outpost fired a 6lb cannon, alarming the entire British army and they fell back on the 2nd and 40th Battalions under Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Musgrave who were forming up in battle line on Mount Airy. Conway formed his brigade to attack the British head-on, while Sullivan deployed his division to the right of Allen Lane. The 2nd and 40th Battalions fought stubbornly, fighting behind every ditch, fence and wall. As they retreated, Howe hearing the shots rode forward, thinking they were being attacked by a scouting party or guerrillas, and gave orders to hold positions; At that moment, a canister shot scattered the leaves over his head, convincing him that it was not a small raid, but an attack in force. He immediately turned his horse and galloped back to the main British line and prepared to attack. Meanwhile, Musgrave's men encountered Conway's brigade and stopped him in his tracks. Sullivan deployed his men in a battle line west and to the right of the main road, but Musgrave refused to budge. Wayne's troops who attacked from the east to bayonet. The British fell back, vigorously contesting the ground as several fell prey to American bayonets. Due to heavy fog, Musgrave was able to withdraw with most of his forces, but ordered 6 companies of the 40th (about 120 men) to the Chief Justice's Chew House, located on the main road, and occupy it as a strong point. As Sullivan passed to the west of the house and Wayne to the east, Musgrave and his men fired at them. Sullivan, leaving Chew's house behind, sent word to Washington to take charge, and they continued their advance. General Washington with the reserve and stopped at the Chew House, which was fenced off. General Knox, as head of artillery and whose opinion was highly respected by Washington, insisted that a force could not be left in the rear.

He insisted that the garrison must be summoned to surrender and, if not, taken by force. Knox's opinion prevailed, and Lieutenant Colonel William Smith of Virginia volunteered to carry the Parliamentarian flag. As soon as he stepped out into the open, several shots rang out and he collapsed on the grass. He would die of his injuries 20 days later. Maxwell, with his brigade and 4 × 3 guns, attacked the house vigorously. A siege ensued that eventually lasted an hour, resulting in the deaths of more than 50 Americans and countless injuries. Every effort was made to dislodge those inside. By the time the front door was opened, the defenders had stacked furniture and formed a barricade, pushing back the attackers. Two regiments from New Jersey had attacked again and again receiving 46 casualties. Bodies littered the lawn when John Laurens of South Carolina and Sir Duplessis attempted to burn down the house. They reached a window, Duplessis jumped inside (the only American soldier to do so), however he was unsuccessful. Both officers withdrew; Laurens slightly injured in the arm. During this continued attack on the house by reserve forces, Sullivan and Wayne pressed the attack. Meanwhile, the rest of Greene's division launched a savage attack on the British line as planned and broke through, capturing several British troops. Sullivan and Wayne continued past Chew's house and began their attack. In the fog, Wayne's brigade met Stephen's brigade and the two American brigades exchanged fire. Both brigades broke and fled. Sullivan's brigade was attacked on both flanks, on his left by Grant with the 5th and 55th British, and on his right by Brigadier Gray. Sullivan's brigade was broken. The British then turned on Greene's isolated division, capturing Colonel Matthews and his 9th Virginia.

Attacked by the British 25th and 27th Guards, Greene withdrew up the main road to the northwest, assisted by efforts from Muhlenberg's brigade. Around 0830 hours, a general withdrawal was ordered. Washington was able to take all the guns and the wounded. Lt. Col Musgrave and his 6 companies of the 40th remained at Chew House until rescued by General Grant's forces. The Americans were chased north by the British who kept a respectable distance, occasionally lobbing cannon fire, which were answered by the Americans. They followed the Americans for about 15 km before withdrawing to their camp. Washington led his army back to Penneybacker's Mill, where, after 24 hours of continuous and strenuous efforts, he made quarters for the wounded and resumed his camp. When conditions deteriorated, Washington was forced to withdraw some 25 km, harassed by British light dragoons. Washington's casualties were 152 dead (30 officers and 122 men) and 521 wounded (117 officers and 404 men). More than 400 were captured including Colonel Mathews and the entire 9th Virginia. A cannonball amputated the left leg of General Francis Nash who died on October 8 at the home of Adam Gotwals. His body was buried with full military honors on October 9 at the Mennonite meetinghouse in Towamencin, Pennsylvania. Major John White, wounded at Cliveden, died on 10 October. Lieutenant Colonel William Smith, wounded while carrying the flag of truce to Chew's house, also died of his injuries. In all, 57 Americans were killed in the attack on Chew's house. Major General Stephen was court-martialed and demoted after it was discovered that he was drunk during the battle. Command of his division was handed over to the Marquis de Lafayette.

The English had a total of 70 dead (4 officers and 66 soldiers) and 450 wounded (30 officers and 420 soldiers). Among the dead English officers are General James Agnew and Lieutenant Colonel John Bird. Lieutenant Colonel Walcott of the 5th was mortally wounded. After his defeat at the Battle of Germantown, Washington's army withdrew along Skippack Pike to Pawling's Mill beyond Perkiomen Creek, where they camped until October 8. They then marched east on Skippack Pike, turned left on Forty-Foot Road, and marched up Sumneytown Pike, where they camped on Frederick Wampole's property near Kulpsville in Towamencin Township. On October 16, Washington's forces marched on Methacton, one group across the Forty-Foot Road and Skippack Pike, the other up the Sumneytown Pike and North Wales Road. On October 20, they marched down Skippack Pike to Whitpain. On November 2, Washington marched his forces, one column across Skippack Pike and the other on Morris Road and present-day Pennsylvania Avenue, to White Marsh, approximately 12 miles (20 km) northwest of Philadelphia. In early December, Howe decided to make one last attempt to destroy Washington's army before the onset of winter, and began preparations for the attack on American forces rumored to be in the process of moving to a new camp. The Washington intelligence network, led by Major John Clark, became aware of British plans to surprise Americans, through a Quaker housewife named Lydia Darragh. The Continental Army was ready when Howe left Philadelphia, with a force of approximately 14,000 men, at midnight on December 4. The advanced column, led by Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis, headed up Germantown Pike. A second column, led by Major General Wilhelm von Knyphausen, marched to the American left. Washington and his men are itching to fight.

Washington, hearing complaints from Congress after losing two major battles and the city of Philadelphia in 3 months, would like nothing more than one more showdown with Howe. Washington's soldiers would love nothing more than the opportunity to take out their frustrations on Howe's redcoats. In the first week of December. The Continental Army, camped for the past month at Whitemarsh, 12 miles northwest of Philadelphia, was awaiting an attack that Washington spies assured them would come. Entrenched in heavily wooded hills, the continental troops were in a bad mood. They were cold, hungry and tired. And they hadn't been paid since late summer. They occupy fortified high ground, a circumstance that fosters feelings of invulnerability. The night sky had convinced some American soldiers that a big battle was coming. Howe had a bloody battle in mind, as he set out with nearly his entire army, some 12,000 British and German troops, from Philadelphia late on the night of December 4, leaving only 3,000 troops behind. Hoping for a decisive victory (or at least to drive back Washington's army so that British troops could safely venture out of the city on foraging expeditions), Howe wanted to make one last attack on the Continental Army before the arrival of winter. Howe had two strategic objectives in 1777. He achieved one when his army occupied Philadelphia in late September. The other was to destroy Washington's army, which had eluded him, even though he defeated the Americans at the Battles of Brandywine and Germantown. Both Howe and Washington were operating in the shadow of the devastating British defeat at the Battle of Saratoga. Howe knew that he could be criticized for not having done more to help Lieutenant General John Burgoyne, the defeated British commander, invade New York from Canada.

Howe has already offered his resignation from the ministry in London, complaining that the ministry had not given him enough staff. Washington was also covering his back. Some in Congress and the military had begun whispering about his leadership, particularly Brigadier General Thomas Conway, an Irish-born French citizen serving in the Continental Army. Conway believed that Major General Horatio Gates, the victor at Saratoga, should replace Washington as commander-in-chief. While Washington was upset by the criticism, he hadn't let it affect his judgment. With his usual desire to see things for himself, he had left his headquarters to explore the British defenses of Philadelphia. Washington found that the British fortifications, which ran from Kensington on the Delaware River to Upper Ferry at Schuylkill, were much stronger than he had been told, and an attack on Philadelphia was out of the question. How lucky for Washington, then, that Howe had decided to go after him. Howe and his officers had done their best to keep the impending attack secret, but the British preparations had not escaped the notice of patriotic Philadelphians, who have passed on the information to Washington spies. On December 4, after taking out 6 days' rations, the British left Philadelphia at midnight. When they appeared just outside Chestnut Hill in the pre-dawn hours, the Americans, some 15,000 strong, including reinforcements from Gates's army, were awake and waiting for them. Washington ordered the Pennsylvania militia on his right flank to advance and skirmish with the advancing light parties. Irvine took 600 men and marched them up the Wissahickon Valley toward Chestnut Hill.

General James Potter's brigade of about 1,000 Pennsylvania militiamen and Webb's 200-man Connecticut Mainland moved to support Irvine's right. The fight was short and fierce; the militia commander, General William Irvine, was wounded and captured as he tried to rally the retreating Pennsylvania militiamen. Potter's brigade immediately fled, despite orders to advance and skirmish with the British light infantry. The 2nd Connecticut made a brief stop, killing three and wounding eleven, including British captain James Murray-Pulteney. British Lieutenant Colonel Robert Abercromby decided to take advantage of him after dispersing Irvine's troops. He advanced north and captured the Episcopal Church of St. Thomas, located on a hill. Howe arrived soon after, and climbed to the top of the church steeple in an attempt to see the American positions. Deciding that the American defenses were too strong to be attacked with his force, he opted to bombard their defenses with artillery fire; however, his guns did not have the range to reach Washington's defenses. His forces camped on Chestnut Hill that night and planned a new form of attack for the following day. The action opened three days of maneuvers, as Howe's troops moved back and forth across the American front, keeping a mile apart, looking for an opening. Behind his lines, the Americans followed the British feints, denying Howe any point of attack. As Howe's soldiers marched and countermarched, they took out their anger on the civilian population, burning houses as they went. On December 6, Howe decided on a flank move to the American left, towards Jenkintown and Cheltenham Township, while Maj. Gen. Charles Gray's forces would create a diversion by attacking the American center.

Washington did not move from his position, and then decided to burn towns to provoke him. Johann Ewald, a German officer serving with the British, described the scene of the night when the army burned houses in the villages of Cresheim and Beggarstown: “The sight was horrible. The night was very dark. The burning flames spread rapidly and the wind blew violently. The cries of the human voices of young and old, who had seen their belongings consumed by the flames without saving anything, put everyone in a melancholy”. Even American opponents of the war are horrified. Robert Morton, a teenage Quaker from Philadelphia, writes in his diary that the soldiers "committed great atrocities against the inhabitants ... as if the sole purpose of the expedition was to destroy and spread ruin and desolation, to set the inhabitants to rebellion." , stripping them of their property…”. On December 7, Howe makes a last-ditch effort to swing toward the American left flank through Abington and Edge Hill, a ridge that runs parallel to the American lines. Washington quickly responded with Colonel Daniel Morgan's marksmanship and the Maryland militia. The Americans withdrew after some heavy fighting, but the British withdrew as well. Small-scale fighting, collectively known as the Battle of Edge Hill, continued throughout the day in the thick woods, but did not develop into a full-scale battle. On the morning of December 8, British generals and engineers once again surveyed American positions, looking for any vulnerabilities in American defenses that could be exploited. To the astonishment of both the British and the Americans, Howe decided to withdraw and return to Philadelphia.

Despite having been successful in two major skirmishes in the previous days, his maneuver had not gone as far as he had hoped and his troops' supplies were running low. Also, the nights were getting colder and the troops had left their lead and equipment in Philadelphia. At 2:00 p.m., the British began their withdrawal, lighting numerous fires, in a tactic similar to one used by Washington three days earlier, to conceal their movements. An American reconnaissance party, led by Captain McLane, discovered that Howe was marching back up the Old York Highway toward Philadelphia and reported this information to Washington. Morgan's troops harassed the enemy's rear, particularly Grey's column, which was hampered by the weight of the artillery it was carrying. A contingent of Hessians formed up to oppose them with their field pieces, and Morgan's troops withdrew. The British arrived in Philadelphia that same day. After the British withdrawal to Philadelphia. George Washington held a council of war to choose the winter quarters to retire. Although several locations were proposed, he selected Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, 30 km northwest of the city of Philadelphia. The area was close enough to the British to keep up their raids and forage in the Pennsylvania interior, but far enough away to avoid British surprise attacks. The high ground of Mount Joy and the adjoining high ground of Mount Misery combined with the Schuylkill River to the north, made it easy to defend the area. Within days of reaching Valley Forge, the troops built 1,500 to 2,000 log cabins in parallel lines that would house 12,000 soldiers and 400 women and children throughout the winter. Washington ordered that each cabin measure approximately 4 by 5 meters. Sometimes the soldiers' families joined them in space as well.

The soldiers were instructed to find straw in the field to use as bedding, as there were not enough blankets to go around. In addition to the huts, the men built miles of trenches, military roads, and roads. The camp "had the appearance of a small town" when viewed from a distance. General Washington and his closest aides lived in a two-story stone house near Valley Forge Creek. Lack of organization, shortages of food and money plagued the Continental Army during the first half of the Revolutionary War. These problems exacerbated the harsh living conditions in Valley Forge during the third year of the war. While the winter of 1777-78 was not exceptionally cold, many soldiers lacked proper clothing, rendering them unable to serve. Some were even barefoot. As Washington described in a December 23, 1777 letter to Henry Laurens, “…when I return to the field this day, not less than 2,898 men are in the camp unfit for duty because they are barefoot and otherwise naked…” Malnourished and poorly dressed, living in cramped and damp quarters, the army was ravaged by disease and infirmity. Typhoid fever, jaundice, dysentery, and pneumonia were among the many diseases that killed 2,500 men that winter. Although Washington repeatedly requested relief, the Continental Congress was unable to provide it, and the soldiers continued to suffer. Army records suggest that each soldier received a daily ration of half a pound of beef during January 1778, but food shortages during February left men without meat for several days at a time. A group of people called the Camp Followers also helped boost the morale of the soldiers and provided much-needed support to the men.

The supporters of the camp consisted of families, wives, children, mothers and sisters of the soldiers. These female followers often served as laundresses, cleaning and sewing the soldiers' uniforms. Washington understood that a soldier would quickly die of disease if his uniform was dirty and frayed. These women and children also provide emotional support to a soldier, allowing them to remain in camp and continue to train and be soldiers during the winter months. These women received half of the soldiers' rations, half of a soldier's salary, as well as a half pension after the war, if they had done enough. The children would receive a quarter ration if they had done enough work. Despite the harsh conditions, the valley is called the birthplace of the American military because, in June 1778, weary troops emerged with a rejuvenated spirit and confidence as a well-trained fighting force. Much of the credit is due to former Prussian military officer Friedrich Wilhelm, Baron Steuben. At the time, the Prussian army was widely regarded as one of the best in Europe, and von Steuben had a keen military mind, and he tirelessly drilled the soldiers. In his role, von Steuben set standards for camp design, sanitation, and conduct. For example, he demanded that latrines be placed, facing downwards, on the opposite side of the camp as kitchens. He helped prepare a manual called "Regulations for the Order and Discipline of United States Troops," also called the "Blue Book," which remained the official Army instruction manual for decades.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

France bitterly resented Canada's loss in the French and Indian War and sought revenge. She also wanted to strategically weaken Britain. After the declaration of Independence, the American Revolution was welcomed by both the general population and the aristocracy in France. The Revolution was perceived as the incarnation of the Spirit of Enlightenment against "English tyranny." Benjamin Franklin traveled to France in December 1776 to rally the nation's support, and was received with great enthusiasm. At first, French support was covert: French agents sent Patriot military aid (predominantly gunpowder) through a company called Rodrigue Hortalez et Compagnie, beginning in the spring of 1776. Estimates place the percentage of arms supplied by the Patriots French to the Americans in the Saratoga campaign by up to 90%. By 1777, more than five million pounds of aid had been sent to the American rebels. Motivated by the prospect of glory in battle or buoyed by sincere ideals of freedom and republicanism, volunteers like Pierre Charles L'Enfant joined the US Army. The most famous was Lafayette, a charming young aristocrat who defied the king's order and enlisted in 1777 at age 20. He became an aide to George Washington and a combat general. More importantly, he solidified a favorable American view of France. Lafayette provided a legitimacy for the war and confidence that there was serious European support for independence. Lafayette's personal style was very attractive; the young man learned quickly, adapting to the patriot style, eschewed politics, and became a quick friend of General Washington. Fifty years later, after an important career in French politics, he returned as a beloved hero of the war.

Aid provided by France, much of which passed through the neutral Dutch West Indies port of Sint Eustatius, contributed to George Washington's army. The survival of the British against attack in 1776 and 1777. Aid was also a major factor in the defeat of General Burgoyne's expedition down the Champlain Corridor which ended in British disaster at the Battle of Saratoga. French ports accommodated American ships, including privateers and warships of the Continental Navy, operating against British merchant ships. France provided considerable financial aid, either in the form of donations or loans, and also offered technical assistance, giving some of its military strategists "vacations" so that they could assist US troops. A delegation consisting of Benjamin Franklin, Deane and Arthur Lee, was appointed to press for the participation of European nations. Franklin, 70 years old and known in French intellectual circles for his scientific discoveries, served as chief diplomat with the title of "minister" (the term ambassador was not used). He dressed in rough frontier clothing rather than formal court attire, and met many leading diplomats, aristocrats, intellectuals, scientists, and financiers. Franklin's image and writings caught the French imagination (there were many images of him sold on the market) and he became the image of the new American archetype and a hero of aspirations for a new order within France. When the international climate at the end of 1777 had become more tense, against Prussia in line with the Franco-Austrian Alliance. France refused, causing the relationship with Austria to turn sour. Under these conditions, asking Austria to help France in a war against the British was impossible. Attempts to reunite Spain also failed: Spain did not immediately recognize the US, and feared that the American revolutionary spirit threatened the legitimacy of the Spanish Crown in its own American colonial domains.

Public opinion in France was in favor of open warfare, but King Louis XVI and his advisers were reluctant due to the potential risks and large expense involved. The King's economic and military advisers were reluctant. The French Navy was rapidly rebuilding, but there were questions about its readiness for serious conflict. The financiers Turgot and Necker warned that the war would be too costly for France's shaky system of taxation and finance. The Americans argued that an alliance of the United States, France, and Spain would ensure a swift defeat of the British, but Vergennes, waiting until his navy was ready, hesitated. On July 23, 1777, Vergennes decided it was time to decide total assistance, with war, or abandonment of the new nation. The choice, ratified by the King, was war. The alliance was formally negotiated by Benjamin Franklin, but progressed slowly until news of the American victory at the Battle of Saratoga reached France. On February 6, 1778, two treaties were signed. The first, the Franco-American Treaty of Friendship and Commerce, recognized the independence of the United States and established trade relations between them. In the second treaty, the Treaty of Alliance of 1778 was a military alliance and was signed immediately afterwards, as insurance, if fighting with Great Britain erupted as a result of the signing of the commercial treaty. Hostilities soon followed after Britain declared war on France on March 17, 1778. The British naval force, the largest fleet at the time, and the French fleet were at odds from the start. The British avoided intercepting a French fleet that left Toulon under the Earl of Estaing in April for North America, fearing the French fleet at Brest might be used to launch an invasion of Britain. Major General Charles Lee rejoined the Continental Army.

Lee was a former British Army officer who had retired to Virginia before the revolution and had been touted as a possible army commander alongside Washington when the war broke out. He had been captured in December 1776 following Washington's defeat in New York, and had been released in April in a prisoner exchange. He had criticized Washington's indecisiveness in New York and was insubordinate during the withdrawal from the city. But Washington had regarded her as his most trusted adviser and the best officer in the Continental Army, and welcomed Lee as his second-in-command. Sixteen months in captivity hadn't softened Lee. He remained respectful to Washington's face, but continued to be critical of the Commander-in-Chief's skills with others, and it is likely that Washington's friends reported this to Washington. Lee dismissed the Continental Army, denigrated Steuben's efforts to improve it, and bypassed Washington's head to present to Congress a plan to reorganize it on a militia basis, causing Washington to rebuke him. However, Lee was respected by many of Washington's officers and held in high regard by Congress, and Washington gave him command of the Division that would soon drive the Continental Army out of Valley Forge. In April, before news of the French alliance reached him, Washington issued a memorandum to his generals seeking their views on three possible alternatives for the upcoming campaign: attack the British in Philadelphia, move operations to New York, or stay on the defensive in Valley Forge and continue building your army. Of the twelve responses, all agreed that it was vital that, whatever course was chosen, the army had to function well if public support for the revolution was to be maintained after the disappointments of the previous year.

Most of the generals supported one or the other of the offensive options, but Washington sided with the minority, including Steuben, who argued that the Continental Army still needed to improve at Valley Forge before it was ready to engage the Americans. British. After news of the Franco-American alliance broke and as British activity in and around Philadelphia increased; Washington met with ten of his generals on May 8 to discuss the plans further. This time they unanimously favored the defensive option and waited for British intentions to become clear. In May, it became clear that the British were preparing to evacuate Philadelphia, but Washington still did not have a detailed understanding of Clinton's intentions and was concerned that the British might escape overland through New Jersey. The 2nd New Jersey, which had been conducting operations against British collectors and sympathizers in New Jersey since March, was a valuable source of intelligence, and by the end of the month a British evacuation by land seemed increasingly likely. Washington reinforced the regiment with the rest of the New Jersey brigade, commanded by Brigadier General William Maxwell, with orders to obstruct and harass British activities. The Continentals were to cooperate with the experienced New Jersey militia, commanded by Major General Philemon Dickinson, one of the ablest militia commanders of the war and Washington's best source of intelligence on British activities. On May 18, Washington dispatched the inexperienced Major General Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, 20-year-old Marquis de Lafayette, with 2,200 men and 5 guns to set up an observation post on Barren Hill, 18 km from Philadelphia, (halfway between Valley Forge and Philadelphia).

Its mission was to reconnoiter British intentions, as well as to intercept British detachments searching for food and fodder in the surrounding countryside. On May 18, Lafayette left the Valley Forge camp with 2,100 soldiers, including Enach Poor's brigade, an experienced general, and 5 artillery pieces. After crossing the Schuylkill River and turning south, he took up a position on Barren Hill, which was near Matson's Ford. Poor's brigade (1,500) and guns were placed on the high ground, near a church, to the south. Another position was on the Ridge Road to the south under Major Allen McLane with 150 Rangers and 50 Oneida Indians, and the Pennsylvania Militia Brigade (600) under Brigadier James Potter was sent to guard the road leading west. from White Marsh. The British quickly discovered that the American force was close by and decided to attack and destroy it. On May 19, around 10:30 p.m., Major General James Grant and a 5,000-strong British force, including 15 guns, were sent towards Barren Hill. The plan was to take a winding route that would lead to the junction of White Marsh and Ridge Roads. This would cut off any avenue of retreat for the Americans. A corps of 2,000 grenadiers and dragoons would move along Lafayette's left flank, while another group would move to the American right flank. The plan would result in the American position being surrounded on three sides, trapping them against the river. The British force was to wait until morning to attack and destroy or capture the entire American force. General William Howe, commander of the British forces in Philadelphia, was so sure of a British victory that he planned a huge dinner for the night of May 20 to celebrate Grant's victory and to meet Lafayette in person.

On May 20, the British launched their attack. The militia dispersed upon seeing the British troops, offering no resistance and without warning Lafayette of the attack. At Ridge Road, the American group learned of the British attack. A small group was sent to combat a delaying action against the British while their commander sent word to Lafayette about developments. After Lafayette learned of the attack, another Patriot approached him and told him about the British advance down the White Marsh Road. Lafayette knew of another small road leading back to Matson's Ford that would bypass the British force. It ran along low ground that would hide the Americans from the British. The British did not know about this road. Lafayette ordered his men to retreat down this road while he ordered a rearguard to delay the British at the church. Some small patrols were sent to engage the British, leading them to think that the American force wanted to stay and fight. Lafayette calmed his retreating force and slipped away with relatively few casualties. General William Howe, commander of the British forces in Philadelphia, was so sure of a British victory that he had a big dinner planned for the night of May 20 to celebrate Grant's victory and to meet Lafayette in person. The British, having failed to capture Lafayette, resumed their retreat from Philadelphia to New York. In early June, Lieutenant General Howe returned to England, being relieved of his appointment to command in North America at his request, and replaced by Lieutenant Gen Henry Clinton. Due to the Franco-American alliance, Great Britain no longer considered the rebels as the main threat but the French. They decided to abandon Philadelphia and move further into a defensive position in the north.

So they gave Clinton orders to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate British forces in New York. Upon his arrival, he was to send 5,000 of his troops to the West Indies for offensive operations against the French, 3,000 men were sent to the Southern colonies and the rest were to stay in New York. Intelligence had reported that the French had sent a fleet and 4,000 men to the Americas under Admiral d'Estaing, but they did not know where he would land. At first Clinton planned to withdraw by sea, but since he did not have enough transport for the evacuation, he carried out the withdrawal by land. From June 14 to 18, Clinton crossed the Delaware River by Cooper's Ferry, and on June 18, Clinton's 20,000-strong British army, with artillery, supplies, and the city's loyalist population of 3,000, began the walk along a path parallel to the Delaware River. Washington learned that the British were evacuating Philadelphia on June 17. He immediately called a council of war, in which all but 2 of 17 generals believed that the Continental Army could not yet win a pitched battle against the British, and Lee argued that it would be criminal to try. Unsure of Clinton's exact intentions and with his officials urging caution, Washington decided to pursue the British and advance to a surprising distance. He first sent Major General Charles Lee with 5,540 troops in Scott's brigade (600 and 2 guns), Varnum's brigade (300 and 2 guns), Wayne's brigade (1,000 and 2 guns), Scott's brigade (1,440 and 4 guns), Jackson's Regiment (250), Maxwell's Brigade (1,000 and 2 guns), Jackson's Regiment (200 light horsemen), with the mission to advance and cut off the retreat. He also sent Colonel Daniel Morgan with 824 troops (gunners, light infantry, light dragoons and 25 woodcutters) to harass the British flank columns; and Major General Philemon Dickinson with 1,200 troops (of the Pennsylvania New Jersey militia) to attack the British columns from the rear.

On June 18, Clinton departed Cooper's ferry at dawn, arriving in Haddonfield at dusk, where the Billingsport garrison joined. At dawn they set out, but only covered 10 km, being forced to stop at Evesham by heavy rain. The next day they left and traveled 11 km, reaching Mount Holly, where Clinton stayed until June 21, when the first clashes between the Hessian jägers and Dickinson's militia took place. The British rear guard commanded by Cornwallis stayed one day at Maunt Holly, which was a good defensive position, while Clinton arrived at the Black Horse public house, where he established his headquarters. During the march they had been harassed by Morgan's forces, whose loggers were chopping down trees to bar their way while sharpshooters fired at those trying to remove them. Cornwallis rearranged the order of march, sending light troops and sappers forward to counter the militia's efforts to break the retreat. On June 23 in the open, Clinton organized his forces into two columns, Kniphausen on the right with the baggage train, and Cornwallis on the left led by Leslie's brigade. They left at 04:00, at Recklesstown they met 50 militiamen who retreated to Crosswick Creek where they fired again, destroyed the bridge, were driven out by British light infantry and repaired the bridge, pursuing the militia. The next day both British columns met at Bordentown. On June 25, Kniphausen with his division left Imlaystown at 04:00, being followed 4 hours later by the rest. Clinton decided not to continue to New York by land, but instead to target Sandy Hook, and trust the navy to transport him from there. Clinton arrived in Monmouth, New Jersey, on the afternoon of June 26, after a grueling 20-mile march in temperatures reaching 100°F.

The next day the British expected an attack, which did not come; so on the morning of the 28th the withdrawal continued. The American vanguard under General Charles Lee caught up with the British rear that morning. Meanwhile, on June 24, Dickinson reported to Washington that the efforts he and Maxwell were making to rein in Clinton were having little impact, and that he believed Clinton was deliberately in New Jersey to provoke a battle. Washington called another war council in which the 12 officers in attendance recommended varying degrees of caution. Lee argued that a victory would be of little benefit, while a defeat would do irrevocable damage to the revolutionary cause. He preferred not to risk the Continental Army against a professional and well-trained enemy until French intervention tipped the scales in favor of the Americans and proposed that Clinton be allowed to proceed to New York unmolested. Four other generals agreed. Even the most aggressive of the rest wanted to avoid a major confrontation. Brigadier General Anthony Wayne suggested sending an additional 2,500 to 3,000 troops to reinforce Morgan and Dickinson which would allow them, with a third of the army, to give the impression of a large force. In the end, a compromise was agreed upon in which 1,500 chosen men would reinforce the advance guard under Brigadier General Charles Scott with the 1st Brigade (429), 2nd Brigade (487), and 3rd Brigade (438) from Pennsylvania and various pickets. . Shortly after the council adjourned, Wayne, who had refused to put his name on the pledge, Lafayette and Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene contacted Washington individually with the same plea for stronger frontline action supported by the main body. , while avoiding a major battle. Lafayette assured Washington that Steuben and Brigadier General Louis Duportail were in agreement, telling Washington that "it would be shameful for the leaders and humiliating for the troops to allow the enemy to cross territory with impunity."

Greene emphasized the political aspect, warning Washington that the public expected him to attack and that even if a limited attack led to a major battle, he thought his chances of success were good. Washington, eager to erase the losses of the previous year and prove his critics wrong, needed to listen. In the early hours of June 25, he had ordered Wayne to follow Scott with 1,000 other chosen men. He wanted to do more than just harass Clinton, and while avoiding the risk of a major battle, he hoped to inflict a heavy blow on the British, one that would surpass his success at the Battle of Trenton in 1776. Washington offered Lee command of the vanguard, but Lee at first refused, stating that the force was too small for a man of his rank and position. Washington in response named Lafayette head of the vanguard. Washington grew increasingly concerned, and on the morning of June 26 he warned Lafayette not to "distress his men by too hasty a march." By that afternoon, Lafayette was at Robin's Tavern, where Clinton had been the night before. He was 5km from the British, too far from the main army for them to support, and his men were exhausted and hungry. He remained eager to fight and discussed with his officers a night march with the intention of attacking Clinton the next morning. That night, Washington ordered Lafayette to leave Morgan and the militia as a cover and move to Englishtown, where he could be supported with both supplies and the main army. At this point Lee, realizing that the vanguard force had been strengthened and that Lafayette had been appointed, changed his mind and had asked to remain in command. Washington ordered Lee to assemble the entire vanguard and meet with Lafayette at Englishtown and take command of all the vanguard forces.

By June 27, Lee's vanguard of some 4,500 troops was at Englishtown, 10 km from the British at Monmouth Court House. Washington was with the main body of just over 7,800 soldiers and most of the artillery at the Manalapan Bridge, 6 km behind Lee. Morgan's light infantry were at Richmond Mills, just over two miles south of Monmouth Court House. Dickinson's 1,200 militiamen were on Clinton's flanks, with a significant concentration about 2 miles west of the Monmouth courthouse. On the afternoon of June 27, Washington conferred with the senior officers of the advance guard at Englishtown, but did not offer a battle plan. Lee, Washington's second-in-command, advised waiting for events as he did not wish to commit the American force against British regulars. However, Washington determined that the British column was vulnerable to attack while traveling through New Jersey with its baggage train and moved from Valley Forge in pursuit. Washington was still undecided on how to attack the British column and held a council of war. The council, however, was divided on the issue; with a small group of officers, including Brigadier General Anthony Wayne, urging a partial attack on the British column while it was on the road. Lee remained cautious, only advising harassing attacks with light forces. On June 26, Washington decided to send 4,000 men as an advance force to attack the British rearguard as they emerged from the Monmouth Court House, in order to delay the British withdrawal until the main American force could give battle. On the morning of June 28, the British camped along Dutch Lane and Freehold-Mount Holly Road, while the main Continental Army was camped at Manalapan Bridge, four miles west of Englishtown.

At 8:00 am. , Lee's advance corps of 5,000 soldiers and 12 guns closed in on the British rear a few miles north of Monmouth Court House. They slowly advanced. Dickinson reported that he was engaged with the British and they seemed to be backing down. Wayne's division was confronted by a converging British group, but almost immediately Lee lost control of this situation. He gave various orders to move units from one place to another, never developed a clear plan of attack and his subordinates became confused. Lee had been unable to gather data on the terrain or the position of the British, and now he heard conflicting reports that the British were moving in and that they were preparing an attack. Lee was upset at the lack of intelligence on the British, which he had not ordered collected. The British were falling back, moving their baggage, and preparing a rear attack, but Lee could get no clear indication of this. Lee finally got a picture of the British locations in his head and ordered units to move left and right, to cut off the 1,500-man British rearguard and capture them. The units marched to the flanks, but then received no orders. Wayne, center, was instructed to fake an attack. Lee wanted to hold the rear while he surrounded the British, but his officers were unaware of the plan. Wayne's brigade was the first to make contact with the British, just north of Monmouth. The ensuing fighting alerted Clinton to the approach of a major American column to his rear. Brigadier General Wilhelm von Knyphausen was ordered to guard his left flank and march on. Meanwhile, Clinton turned Cornwallis's wing of 14 battalions and the 16th Light Dragoons to meet and crush Lee's vanguard before the rest of the US Army could reach the field.

The British move disrupted Lee's plan to isolate and destroy his rear and threatened the American right flank. Lee sent Lafayette to the right to support him. As they did, the British opened fire on the Americans with their cannon. Lee sent some of his men to Monmouth to avoid the fire. On the left, flank units saw what appeared to be a retreat in the center as Lee's men took cover. At the same time, Oswald's artillery unit in the area moved to the rear as they ran out of ammunition. The left flank units fell back, as they had no orders. They did not inform Lee of his movements or send a message for orders, although they did ask some of Lee's aides if they had any orders for them. Lee quickly lost control of the situation and his command began to retreat southwest and west along the causeway across Middle Ravine. Clinton's infantry quickly pursued the fleeing Americans. Some attempts were made to establish hasty defensive positions during the retreat, but much of Lee's command moved like a disorganized mob. Lee gave no orders, he had no rear, and no one understood why they retreated. Lafayette sent for Washington to appear. Lee thought that he was saving the advance corps by moving it out of harm's way. Washington sent a request to Lee for a report of the battle, and Lee sent word that he was "well enough." Not satisfied with this response, Washington advanced to find the roads full of retreating US troops. He sent helpers to find the cause of the withdrawal. The troops reported that Lee ordered them to withdraw. Riding down the road, he found Lee leading a retreat through Rhea Farm. Washington asked what this meant, and Lee thought that he had saved the army by retreating. Washington repeated the question and Lee stammered out some excuses about not following his orders, then said that the US military should not engage in a general confrontation with the British.

Washington returned to the rear of the retreating troops, where his aides reported that the British were within minutes of reaching the retreating column. Seeing that the corps was in danger, Washington assembled the disorganized elements of Lee's command in a new line behind a hedge, in blocking positions. Hopefully this would delay the British until the rest of his army could arrive. Washington ordered Lee to begin a delaying action while his main force regrouped. These units offered strong resistance and then, under pressure, withdrew to safety. Washington began to order the troops to form a strong defensive line. The artillery rushed forward and Greene dismounted at least 4 guns on prominent high ground below the creek known as Comb's Hill. Supported by an infantry brigade, Greene's artillery turned on the advancing British. This fire, combined with small arms and supported by other artillery fire from the front, temporarily stabilized the holding position. Clinton brought the artillery on him and started an artillery double. This was one of the most intense artillery duels of the war. A mounted attack on Washington's left, coupled with a final British push of mounted infantry and grenadiers, doubled and broke the line of contention. At 12:30 p.m. m ., the battle resumed as the British pushed through Dividing Brook. After brief fierce fighting in a wooden lot and along the hedgerow, the Americans, under Lee, fell back across Spotswood Middle Brook. When the British charged the bridge, they found the Americans holding a very strong position on the ridge of Perrine Farm behind a battery of 10 guns. Exhausted by a forced march and shelled with grapeshot, the British faltered and the attack collapsed.

To silence the American artillery commanding the bridge, the British placed 10 cannons and howitzers in front of the hedge. For hours, the largest ground artillery battle of the war raged. The Americans won the artillery duel in the late afternoon. As fighting continued in the north, Cornwallis mounted an attack in the south against Greene's front. In precise ranks, they advanced on the Americans. Greene's men fired at the British from the front and his flanks were torn by his artillery. The cannons raked through the hedge, forcing the British artillery to withdraw and their infantry to change position. Unable to break through and having suffered heavy losses, Cornwallis surrendered. A series of heavy attacks were launched on Wayne's men in the center of the American line before Cornwallis finished, but these too were repulsed. When the British artillery fell silent, Washington cautiously counterattacked. First, two New England battalions advanced along the Spotswood North Brook to skirmish with the retreating Royal Highlanders. Wayne then led three Pennsylvania regiments across the bridge to attack the retreating British Grenadiers. After some heavy fighting, Wayne's men were forced to return to the shelter of the parsonage and orchard buildings. At 3:30 p.m. m., after a bitter stand-up fight in the afternoon heat and humidity, Clinton orders his troops to stand down. Washington wanted to pursue the fleeing British, but in the heat and humidity, his troops were too exhausted. At 5:30 p.m. With Wayne's men now in line with Alexander and Greene, Washington straightened his forehead and waited for Clinton's next move. That move never came. As night fell he had fresh troops ready to attack around the British flanks, but they had to hold out due to the loss of daylight. Clinton withdrew troops from him about 1 mile to the east.

During the battle, Mary Ludwig Hayes (later known as Molly Pitcher), a camp follower who brought water to the troops from a nearby spring, took her wounded husband's place by a cannon when he was wounded. Under fire and losing men, the artillery unit would fall back until she offered to take her place. Bravely, she served the cannon instead of her husband. At 10:00 p.m. m., after being allowed to camp for a few hours, Clinton quietly woke his troops and ordered them to begin following the baggage train. They broke camp and marched on Sandy Hook in the far northeast of New Jersey. From there, British troops embarked on naval transports on July 6, and the Royal Navy took Clinton's army on a short trip over New York Harbor and through The Narrows to the safety of Manhattan. The timing was fortuitous for the British; On July 11, a superior French fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing anchored off Sandy Hook, and Washington wisely decided not to proceed, instead marching his army north to join other American forces encamped just off the coast. along the Hudson River. Although Washington failed to destroy the British column, he inflicted damage on his troops and demonstrated that American troops, if he led them properly, could take on British regulars. The British had defended their baggage train, but were unable to defeat the Americans in open battle. Clinton reported 358 total casualties after the battle: 65 killed, 59 killed by fatigue, 170 wounded, and 64 missing. Washington counted some 250 British dead, a figure later revised to just over 300. In his post-battle report to Lord George Germain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, Clinton claimed that he had carried out a successful operation to redeploy his army against a superior force.

The counterattack was, he reported, a diversion intended to protect the baggage train and ended on his own terms, though in private correspondence he admitted that he too hoped to inflict a decisive defeat on Washington. After leading his army through the heart of enemy territory without the loss of a single tank, he congratulated his officers on "the long and difficult retreat in the face of a vastly superior army without being marred by the greatest affront." small". While some of his officers showed grudging respect for the Continental Army, his misgivings were not based on the battlefield but rather on the realization that France's entry into the conflict had altered the strategic balance against Great Britain. Brittany. For Washington, the battle was fought at a time of serious doubt about his effectiveness as commander-in-chief, and it was politically important for him to present it as a victory. On July 1, in his first major communication to Congress from the front since the disappointments of the previous year, he wrote a full account of the battle. The content was measured, but unequivocal in claiming a significant victory, a rare occasion when the British had abandoned the battlefield and wounded the Americans. Congress received it enthusiastically and voted a formal thanks to Washington and the army to honor "Monmouth's important victory over the great British army." In their accounts of the battle, Washington officials invariably wrote of a major victory, and some used the opportunity to finally put an end to criticism of Washington; Hamilton and Lt. Col. John Laurens, another of Washington's aides, wrote to influential friends, in Laurens's case his father Henry, President of the Continental Congress, praising Washington's leadership.

The American press portrayed the battle as a triumph with Washington at its center. Governor William Livingston of New Jersey, who never got any closer to Monmouth during the campaign than Trenton, nearly 25 miles away, published an anonymous "eyewitness" account in the New Jersey Gazette just days after the campaign. battle, in which he credited Washington with victory. Articles were still being published in a similar fashion in August. Congressional delegates who were not supporters of Washington, such as Samuel Adams and James Lovell, were reluctant to give Washington credit, but were forced to acknowledge the importance of the battle and not question British success in reaching New York. York. Washington loyalist Elias Boudinot wrote that "none dare acknowledge themselves to be his enemies." Washington supporters were encouraged to defend his reputation; in July Major General John Cadwalader challenged Conway, the officer at the center of what Washington had perceived as a conspiracy to remove him as commander-in-chief, to a duel in Philadelphia in which Conway was wounded in the mouth. Thomas McKean, Chief Justice of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, was perhaps the only congressional delegate to register his disapproval of the matter, but he did not think it wise to bring Cadwalader to court to answer for it. Faith in Washington had been restored, Congress became almost deferential to him, public criticism of him almost ceased, and for the first time he was hailed as the Father of his country. The epithet became commonplace by the end of the year, by which time the careers of most of his major critics had been eclipsed or in shambles. Even before the day was out, Lee was cast as the villain, and the vilification of him became an integral part of the narrative that Washington's lieutenants constructed as they wrote in praise of his commander-in-chief.

Lee continued in his position as second-in-command immediately after the battle, and it is likely that the problem would have simply disappeared if he had let it go. But on June 30, after protesting his innocence to all who would listen, Lee wrote a saucy letter to Washington blaming "dirty earwigs" for turning Washington against him, asserting that his decision to withdraw had saved the day and declared that Washington was "guilty of an act of cruel injustice" toward him. Instead of the apology Lee tactlessly sought, Washington responded that the tone of Lee's letter was "highly inappropriate" and that he would launch an official investigation into Lee's conduct. Lee's response demanding a court-martial was again insolent; Washington ordered his arrest. The court convened on July 4, and three charges were brought before Lee: disobeying orders not to attack on the morning of battle, against "repeated instructions"; carry out an “unnecessary, disorderly and embarrassing withdrawal”; and lack of respect for the commander in chief. The trial concluded on August 12, but the accusations and counter-accusations continued until Congress confirmed the verdict on December 5. Lee's defense was articulate but fatally flawed by his efforts to make it a personal contest between himself and Washington. He denigrated the commander-in-chief's role in the battle, calling the official Washington account "from start to finish a most abominable bloody lie," and falsely cast his own decision to withdraw as a "masterful maneuver" designed to lure the British to the main body. Washington stayed out of the controversy, but his allies portrayed Lee as a traitor who had allowed the British to escape and linked him to the previous winter's alleged conspiracy against Washington.

Although the first two charges turned out to be dubious, Lee was undoubtedly guilty of disrespect, and Washington was too powerful to cross it. As historian John Shy noted, "Under the circumstances, an acquittal on the first two counts would have been a vote of no confidence in Washington." Lee was found guilty on all three counts, although the court removed "shameful" from the second, noting that the withdrawal was "disorderly only in some cases." Lee was suspended from the military for a year, a sentence so lenient some interpreted it as vindicating all but the charge of disrespect. Lee's fall from grace removed Washington's last significant critic of the military and the last realistic alternative to Washington as commander-in-chief, and silenced the last voice to speak for a militia army. Washington's position as the "indispensable man" was now unassailable.

By the summer of 1778, Stockbridges Mohawks had served in every major campaign in the eastern theater of the American Revolutionary War, from Bunker Hill to Monmouth. In the last battle, fought just ten days after the British evacuated Philadelphia in a move to consolidate their forces in North America, some 20 Stockbridges fought in various New England regiments, shoulder to shoulder with their neighbors in what became the largest and longest land battle of the entire war. In early July, the British settled in and around Manhattan, while American forces camped in White Plains, just several miles to the north. The area between the two armies, now the Bronx and Yonkers, was indeed dark and bloody terrain, as patrols watched each other and laid ambushes. On the British side, the best unit for such maneuvers were the Queen's Rangers led by young Colonel John Simcoe. This unit was a direct descendant of Rogers's rangers from the French and Indian War some twenty years earlier, and in fact Rogers was the first commander of the Queen's rangers during the Revolution. Composed of loyalists, the RI was formed into cavalry and infantry units, all dressed in short green coats. While serving in the Bronx area, the regiment often worked cooperatively with Hessian troops. On the American side of the lines, the advanced troops consisted of light infantry commanded by Colonel Mordecai Gist from Maryland, where the stockbridges were stationed. These men were the shock troops of the Continental Army, lightly equipped and always ready to move quickly. They patrolled the no man's land between the two armies during the summer of 1778. During July, a group of stockbridgers under Daniel Nimham joined the US Army at White Plains.

Abraham Nimham, seeking to fight alongside his father, petitioned the army to allow all stockbridges from the various regiments to serve together. In addition to the stockbridges, it is possible that other Indians in the New England regiments were allowed to join up with the Mohicans for their patrol activities. This combined Indian force served alongside light infantry. Thus, the stage was set for a showdown between the Queen's loyalist rangers and the stockbridges. On one occasion during July, a group of British troops led by Lieutenant Colonel Simcoe were patrolling near Valentine's house. Proceeding north on Mile Square Road, they stopped at a lane entrance by Daniel DeVoe's farm, being ambushed by stockbridges. Simcoe was not one to let this incident go unanswered. Towards the latter part of August he devised his own ambush to punish the stockbridges. On August 31, Simcoe implemented his planned revenge on him. Advancing from the Kingsbridge section of the Bronx early in the morning with 500 men from various units, Simcoe hoped to lure the Americans forward down the Mile Square Road from his positions. At the same time, he would divide his own forces in an effort to encircle and trap the Americans. Emmerick's corps would take up a position west of Tibbet Creek and Mile Square Road, near Frederick De Voe's residence, while the Queen's rangers moved along the Bronx River; both units were hidden from the Americans by the elevations. With his troops in position by 1000 hours, the stockbridges discovered Emmerick, and the Queen's rangers moved quickly to gain the heights, Lt. Col Tarleton immediately advancing with the Legion's hussars and cavalry. The Indians from some fences fired at the company of grenadiers, wounding four of them and Lt. Col Simcoe.

But finally they were driven from the fences by the rangers and grenadiers, and they began to flee in the open field. Lt Col. Tarleton with the cavalry got between them and chased them quickly up Cortlandt Ridge, he was nearly killed when he fell from his horse chasing an Indian, fortunately the Indian had no bayonet and his musket had been discharged. As the stockbridges engaged the main force of enemy troops, the American light infantry took up position north and west of the Mile Square Road. The American infantry took off. One source from the battle states that there were 70 light infantry and 48 Stockbridge Indians, the American forces were outnumbered almost five to one. At 7:00 p.m., it was all over. Some of the Indians escaped over Tibbetts Brook and hid among the rocks. Unable to scale the rocks, the British soldiers called on the fugitives to surrender, promising their lives. According to one account, three Indians ventured out and surrendered, but were killed by the British. The site of this alleged atrocity would become known as the Indian Bridge. As for battle casualties, the British reported 37 Indians and a small number of other rebel soldiers killed, and 10 taken prisoner. Four British soldiers were reported killed and three wounded, including Simcoe, although one Hessian officer reported as many as 40 English dead.

France, after signing the treaty of alliance with the USA, sent Admiral Jean-Baptiste Charles Henri Hector, Count d'Estaing with a fleet of 12 ships of the line: Languedoc (80), Tonnant (80), Cesar (74), Zele (74), Hector (74), Protecteur (74), Marseillois (74), Guerrier (74), Vaillant (64), Provence (64), Fantasque (64), Sagittaire (50); 4 frigatebirds: Chimere (28), Alcmene (28), Aimable (28), and Dauphin (28); altogether 958 guns with 7,500 sailors transporting 2,500 marines and 1,500 French army soldiers to North America in April 1778 in their first major attempt at cooperation with the Americans, with orders to blockade the British American fleet on the Delaware River. British leaders had early information that d'Estaing was headed for North America, but political and military differences within the government and navy delayed the British response, and he sailed unopposed through the Strait of Gibraltar. It was not until early June that a fleet of 13 ships of the line left European waters in search of him, under the command of Admiral John Byron. Estaing's Atlantic crossing took three months, but Byron was also delayed by bad weather and did not arrive in New York until mid-August. (Byron was called "Jack Bad Weather" because of his repeated bad luck with the weather.) The British had evacuated from Philadelphia to New York City before d'Estaing's arrival. The British fleet was no longer on the river when the French fleet reached Delaware Bay in early July. Estaing decided to sail for New York, but its well-defended harbor presented a daunting challenge to the French fleet. The French and their American pilots believed that Estaing's larger ships would not be able to cross the bar into New York Harbor, so the French and American leaders decided to deploy their forces against British-occupied Newport, Rhode Island.

While Estaing was out of port, British General Henry Clinton and Admiral Richard Howe dispatched a fleet of transports with 2,000 troops to reinforce Newport across Long Island Sound. The troops reached their destination on July 15, bringing Major General Robert Pigot's garrison to over 6,700 men. American and British forces had been engaged in clashes on Aquidneck Island since the British occupation began in late 1776. Major General Joseph Spencer of the Rhode Island defenses had been ordered by Major General George Washington to launch an assault on Newport in 1777, but he had not performed and was relieved of command. In March 1778, Congress approved the appointment of Major General John Sullivan to Rhode Island. By early May, Sullivan had arrived in the state and produced a detailed report on the situation. He began logistical preparations for an attack on Newport, stockpiling equipment and supplies on the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay and the Taunton River. British General Pigot was aware of Sullivan's preparations and launched an expedition on May 25 that raided Bristol and Warren. This destroyed military supplies and looted the cities. Sullivan's response was to make new calls for assistance, which were reinforced by a statement from Congress after a second raid in Freetown on May 31. General Washington wrote to Sullivan on July 17 to order him to raise 5,000 troops for possible operations against Newport. Sullivan did not receive this letter until July 23, and the following day Colonel John Laurens reached him with the news that Newport had been chosen as the Allied objective on the 22nd and that he must muster as large a force as possible. Sullivan's force at the time numbered only 1,600 personnel. Laurens had left Camp Washington on the 22nd, riding ahead of a column of Continental troops (John Glover's and James Mitchell Varnum's brigade) led by the Marquis de Lafayette.

News of the French involvement garnered support for the cause, and militia began pouring into Rhode Island from neighboring states. Half of the Rhode Island militia was called up and led by William West, and large numbers of militiamen from Massachusetts and New Hampshire along with the Continental artillery came to Rhode Island to join the effort. However, it took a while for these forces to assemble, with most of them not arriving until the first week of August. Washington sent Major General Nathanael Greene, a native Rhode Island officer, to further bolster Sullivan's leadership corps on July 27. Sullivan had been regularly criticized in Congress for his performance in previous battles, and Washington urged him to seek advice from Greene and Lafayette. Greene wrote to Sullivan about the matter and reinforced the need for a successful operation. Estaing sailed from his position off New York Harbor on July 22, when the British judged the tide high enough for the French ships to cross. He initially sailed south before turning northeast towards Newport. The British fleet in New York consisted of 8 ships of the line under the command of Richard Howe, and they sailed after him once they discovered their destination was Newport. Estaing arrived at Point Judith on July 29 and immediately met with Generals Greene and Lafayette to develop his plan of attack. Sullivan's proposal was for the Americans to cross to the east coast of Aquidneck Island from Tiverton; while French troops would use Conanicut Island as a staging ground and cross from the west, cutting off a detachment of British soldiers at Butts Hill in the northern part of the island. The next day Estaing dispatched frigates to the Sakonnet River (the channel east of Aquidneck) and to the main channel leading to Newport.

When the Allied intentions became clear, General Pigot decided to deploy his forces on the defensive, withdrawing troops from Conanicut Island and Butts Hill. He also decided to move most of the livestock into the city, ordered orchards cleared to provide a clear line of fire, and destroyed carts. The French ships that arrived ran aground several of his support ships, which were burned to prevent their capture. As the French advanced up the channel towards Newport, Pigot ordered the remaining ships to spread out to block the French's access to Newport harbour. On August 8, Estaing moved most of his fleet into Newport Harbor. On August 9, Estaing began landing some of his 4,000 troops on nearby Conanicut Island. On the same day, General Sullivan learned that Pigot had abandoned Butts Hill. Against the agreement with Estaing, Sullivan crossed the troops to seize that high ground, worried that the British could return to occupy it again. Estaing later approved of the action, but the initial reaction from him and some of his officers was disapproval. John Laurens wrote that the action "provoked much indignation from French officers." Howe's fleet consisted of 9 ships of the line: Eagle (64), Trident (64), Somerset (64), Nonsuch (64), Ardent (64), St Albans (64), Preston (50), Experiment ( 50), and Isis (50); 8 frigates: Phoenix (44), Roebuck (44), Venus (36), Amazon (32), Pearl (32), Apollo (32), Richmond (32), and Vigilant (20); 2 Carcass and Thunder bombards. He was delayed from New York by headwinds, and arrived at Point Judith on August 9. Estaing feared that Howe would be reinforced and finally gain a numerical advantage, so he boarded the French troops and sailed out to battle with Howe on 10 August. The weather deteriorated into a major storm as the two fleets maneuvered into position and prepared for battle.

The storm raged for two days and scattered both fleets, severely damaging the French flagship. He also foiled Sullivan's plans to attack Newport without French support on August 11. Sullivan began siege operations while awaiting the return of the French fleet, closing on the British lines on August 15 and opening trenches northeast of the fortified British line north of Newport the following day. As the two fleets attempted to regroup, the individual ships encountered each other and there were several minor naval skirmishes; two French ships, already suffering storm damage, were heavily damaged in these encounters, including Estaing's flagship the Languedoc (80). The French fleet regrouped at Delaware and returned to Newport on August 20, while the British fleet regrouped at New York. Admiral Estaing was pressured by his captains to immediately sail to Boston to make repairs, but instead he sailed to Newport to inform the Americans that he could not help them. He reported to Sullivan upon his arrival on August 20; Sullivan argued that the British might be forced to surrender in just a day or two if the French were left to help, but Estaing refused. Estaing wrote: "It was ... difficult to convince myself that some six thousand men well entrenched and with a fort before which trenches had been dug could be taken in twenty-four hours or two days." Estaing's captains also opposed the idea of the French fleet remaining in Newport, with whom he had a difficult relationship due to his arrival in the navy at a high rank after service in the French army. The fleet sailed for Boston on August 22. The French decision provoked a wave of anger in the American ranks, as well as among their commanders. General Greene wrote a complaint that John Laurens called "sensible and forceful," but General Sullivan was less diplomatic.

He penned a missive containing much inflammatory language, in which he called Estaing's decision "disparaging the honor of France," and included new complaints on the agendas that were later dropped when tempers cooled. US soldiers called the French decision a "desertion" and noted that French forces "left us in the most ruthless way." The French departure caused a mass exodus of American militia, significantly reducing the American force, many of whom had only enlisted for a 20-day period, anyway. On August 24, General Washington alerted Sullivan that Clinton in New York was assembling a relief force. That night, his council made the decision to withdraw to positions in the northern part of the island. Sullivan continued to seek French help, sending Lafayette to Boston to negotiate further with Estaing, but this ultimately proved fruitless. Estaing and Lafayette met with fierce criticism in Boston, with Lafayette commenting that "I am more on the warpath in the American lines than when I approached the British lines at Newport". Meanwhile, the British in New York had not been idle. Admiral Howe was bolstered by the arrival of ships from Byron's storm-tossed squadron, and sailed to catch Estaing before he reached Boston. General Clinton organized a force of 4,000 men under Major General Charles Gray and sailed with him on August 26, bound for Newport. On the morning of August 28, the American war council decided to withdraw the last troops from their siege camps. They had engaged the British with occasional fire for a few days as some of their equipment was being withdrawn. The deserters had informed General Pigot of the American plans to withdraw on August 26, so he was prepared to respond when they withdrew that night.

On the morning of August 28, the American war council decided to withdraw the last troops from their siege camps. They had engaged the British with occasional fire for a few days as some of their equipment was being withdrawn. The deserters had informed General Pigot of the American plans to withdraw on August 26, so he was prepared to respond when they withdrew that night. On August 29, the British sensed that the Americans were attempting to leave the island and moved out of their lines to attack, hoping to break the retreat. The Americans were heading to the northern end of the long, narrow island and crossing the narrow water to the mainland. The Americans held out at Butt's Hill, 12 miles from Newport, which they had fortified. The British attempted to turn their right wing around in the morning, when Greene, in command, changed sides, vigorously attacking the pursuers and driving them into his strong defense on Quaker Hill. A general engagement ensued, as the British line was broken and driven back in the confusion to Turkey Hill. The day was very hot, and many perished from the heat. The action ended around 3:00 p.m. m., but a slow cannonade was maintained until sunset. The 1st Rhode Island, the first black regiment in US history, participated in the action. Positioned on the right (west) side of the American line, they defended their part of the hill against fierce attacks by German troops. With 400 men, the 1st Rhode Island held its own, fending off three separate and distinct charges of 1,500 Hessians under Earl Donop. They were driven back with such tremendous loss that Donop immediately requested a trade, fearing that his men would kill him if he returned to battle with them, for having exposed them to such slaughter.

After a 12-day siege by the Americans entrenched on Honeyman's Hill in Middletown, a weary and disappointed Sullivan realized that the ground attack alone could not break through the English line. With extreme regret, Sullivan was forced to order a retreat. On August 30, around midnight, the last of the Continentals was withdrawn from Aquidneck. Regular troops were sent to rejoin Washington, the militia returned home, and only a small force remained to man the guns at Fort Barton. The Battle of Rhode Island was over. Continental forces withdrew to Bristol and Tiverton on the night of August 30, leaving Rhode Island (Aquidneck Island) under British control. However, their withdrawal was championed by the Rhode Island RI, a slave unit of Rhode Islanders (African-Americans, Narragansetts, and mixed-race men) who were promised their freedom in exchange for enlisting. They wore uniforms of cream colored pants and jackets, with tall white hats patterned with blue anchors and topped with large blue feathers. Twice the Hessians charged with their bayonets. Twice, in deadly hand-to-hand fighting, the Rhode Island RI-1 drove them back. The Hessians took reinforcements and attacked again, again being repulsed, while the troops withdrew in an orderly and unhurried manner. According to an account in the New Hampshire Gazette, it was accomplished "in perfect order and safety, not leaving behind the slightest item of provision, camping equipment, or military stores." General Sullivan's incendiary writings reached Boston before the French fleet arrived, and Admiral d'Estaing's initial reaction was reported to be a dignified silence. Politicians worked to smooth over the incident under pressure from Washington and the Continental Congress, and d'Estaing was in high spirits when Lafayette arrived in Boston.

He even offered to march the troops overland to support the Americans: "I offered to become a colonel of infantry, under one who was a lawyer three years ago, and who certainly must have been an uncomfortable man for his clients." Clinton and Gray's relief force arrived in Newport on September 1. Since the threat was over, Clinton ordered Gray to attack several communities on the Massachusetts coast. Admiral Howe was unsuccessful in his attempt to catch up with Estaing, who had a strong position at Nantasket Roads when Howe arrived there on 30 August. Byron succeeded Howe as New York station chief in September, but was also unsuccessful in blocking Estaing. His fleet was scattered by a storm when he reached Boston, after which Estaing escaped, bound for the West Indies. Clinton sharply criticized General Pigot for not waiting for the relief force, which could have successfully trapped the Americans on the island. He left Newport for England soon after. The British abandoned Newport in October 1779, leaving behind a war-ravaged economy. Naval action turned to the West Indies, late in 1778. The Earl of Estaing fled to Boston after a sea battle on October 24, from which port he did not leave until the following December 5. From there he went to the West Indies for the following winter, where the French took their time without purpose of great consequence. Meanwhile, the British on December 14 seized the French Saint Lucia, a valuable plantation in the West Indies, capturing an immense treasure estimated at more than 300,000 pounds sterling.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«La línea occidental fue arrollada y los indios los obligaron a regresar al centro en la retaguardia; y los muchachos campesinos, no acostumbrados a los gritos espeluznantes de los guerreros salvajes, fueron arrojados a una confusión y pánico indescriptibles».

«The western line was overwhelmed and the Indians forced them back to the center in the rear; and the peasant boys, unaccustomed to the blood-curdling cries of savage warriors, were thrown into unspeakable confusion and panic.».
— Attributed to coronel Nathan Denison.
​

Concerned that the French might try to recapture parts of New France that they had lost in the French and Indian War, the British Army adopted a defensive strategy in Quebec. They recruited loyalists and Indian allies to wage border warfare along the northern and western borders of the Thirteen Colonies. Colonel John Butler recruited a regiment of Loyalists, while the Sayenqueraghta and Cornplanter chiefs recruited mainly Seneca warriors. Joseph Brant, a Mohawk warlord whose real name was Thayendanegea and who had attended British schools, recruited mainly Mohawks for what became a guerrilla war against American frontier settlers. By April, the Senecas were raiding settlements along the Allegheny and Susquehanna rivers. In early June, the three groups met in the Indian village of Tioga, New York. Butler and the Senecas decided to attack the Wyoming Valley, while Brant and the Mohawks (who had already ravaged Cobleskill in May) attacked settlements further north. American military leaders, including General George Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette, also sought to recruit the Iroquois, primarily as a distraction to keep the British busy in Quebec. However, these recruitment attempts met with more limited success. The Oneidas and Tuscaroras were the only tribes in the Six Nations to become Patriot allies. On July 1, John Butler's British force of approximately 1,000 regulars, loyalist irregulars, and Indians entered the Wyoming Valley and took control of Yankee Forts Wintermoot and Jenkins, on the western banks of the Susquehanna River, just above Wilkes-Barre. The following morning, July 2, the combined Indian-Loyalist force of 500 marched south and demanded the surrender of Fort Forty.

Colonel Zebulon Butler and other high-ranking officers urged caution, debating whether to stay in the fort and wait for reinforcements, or go out and face the raiders in the open. With Washington and the Continental Army en route to New Jersey, there was little hope of immediate support. The more the officers debated, the more the younger militiamen pressed for an attack, accusing them of cowardice. The British commander sent under a flag of truce, and under the escort of an Indian and a ranger, a message delivered by Daniel Ingersol. Ingersol was not allowed to say a word of his hearing to either Colonel Butler or Colonel Denison. His demand for surrender was rejected. Shortly before noon on July 3, Colonel Zebulon Butler and his 386th (240th Connecticut Regiment, a detachment of Continentals, and Wyoming volunteers) left Fort Forty to fight British and Allied forces. Lieutenant John Jenkins, Jr. was left in command of the fort. Some old men had stayed with him, including the minister of the settlement. Reverend Jacob Johnson's daughter, Lydia, had married Colonel Zebulon Butler. Others at the fort included Captain Obadiah Gore, Captain Wiliam Gallup, and Thomas Bennet. At 2:00 p.m. to the rhythm of fife and drum, it is said that they played “Stars and Stripes” for the first time; Butler, who was on leave from the Continental Army at the time, led the small army. Colonel Nathan Denison was second in command. As they marched to Wintermoot to launch their attack, the troops were spotted by an Indian foraging party. Reporting to British Colonel John Butler that they were within a mile of his position, Butler ordered Fort Wintermute “to be seized.” set it on fire so that the enemy would be deceived into believing that they were retreating.” Butler then proceeded to organize his battle line in the surrounding woods.

The men marched to what is now Wyoming Avenue. They stopped at a bridge that spanned Abraham's Creek. Thomas Bennett boldly declared that "they were marching into a trap and would be destroyed"; and he left them at Abraham Brook and returned to the fort. He stopped again at Swetland Hill. This time the scouts reported that the enemy was in full retreat. Here Butler, Dorrance, and Denison wanted to hold the line until reinforcements from Washington and John Franklin arrived. But Stewart prevailed. When the British Butler saw the colonists forming a battle line, he had already set fire to Fort Wintermute and ordered Fort Jenkins to be the same. Seeing the thick black smoke, the soldiers believed that the enemy was retreating. As Butler had planned, the colonists were tricked into advancing more quickly. British Butler had 110 Rangers and 464 Allied Indians, he deployed the Rangers to the front and the Indians to the flank had stripped off their uniform and rank insignia. He tied a black scarf around his head to identify himself, then waited with his rangers lying on the ground for the battle to begin. The Americans advanced to within 600 meters of the British line when they began to fire. The rangers lay silent on the ground until the Americans were within 300 meters of them. The Indians began attacking the settlers on the right. Captain Hewitt's company had driven this party back; but not until Lieutenant Daniel Gore was wounded and Captain Robert Drake was mortally wounded. The American right advanced more rapidly. The rangers got up from the ground shortly after the Indians began the attack on the American left. The rangers withdrew a short distance and returned fire. The colonists mistook that for retreat. It was for this reason that the right had about thirty bars in front of the left.

The soldiers on the left, in closest contact with the swamp, were suddenly attacked by the Senecas. Outflanked, Denison ordered Captain Whittlesey to fall back and make an angle with the main line. He hoped this would protect the left flank. “The western line was overwhelmed and the Indians forced them back to the center in the rear; and the peasant boys, unaccustomed to the blood-curdling cries of savage warriors, were thrown into unspeakable confusion and panic.” The orders of the officers had been confused with the order to withdraw. The fleeing soldiers of the left wing dragged the center and the right wing. Colonel Dorrance tried to stop the panic but was shot down and captured. Neither Butler nor Denison could stop their men from fleeing. Garrett was killed and Hewitt held his part of the line. His men retreated slightly and returned fire. Seeing the panic on the other line, an officer is quoted as saying to Hewitt “the day is lost, look the Indians are sixty yards from our rear, we will withdraw…I will be damned if I do” was his reply. . "Drummer play," he yelled, as he tried in vain to rally his men. At that moment, a bullet mortally wounded him, and the last of the crumbling line gave way in a rout. Reports from those who survived indicate that few men were killed in the actual battle. The battle lasted 45 minutes, in the actual combat there were few casualties, most were during the flight and pursuit. The British had 3 dead and 8 wounded, of the Americans only about 60 militiamen and another 60 continentals managed to flee. Butler claimed that his force had taken 227 scalps, burned 1,000 houses, and drove 1,000 cattle plus many sheep and pigs. Seneca Indians were angered by accusations of atrocities they said they had not committed, and the militia took up arms after being paroled.

Later that year, Joseph Brant, under Butler's command, retaliated in the Cherry Valley Massacre. Reports of the prisoner massacres and atrocities in Wyoming angered the American public. Later, Colonel Thomas Hartley arrived with his additional Continental regiment to defend the valley and attempt to harvest. They were joined by some militia companies, including Denison's, who violated his parole to join the force. In September, Hartley and Denison ascended the East Branch of the Susquehanna with 130 soldiers, destroying Indian villages as far as Tioga and recovering a large amount of loot taken during the raid. They fought off hostile Indians and withdrew when they learned that Joseph Brant was mustering a large force at Unadilla. When he laid waste to the settlements at Springfield and Andrustown in July, Joseph Brant left the survivors with warnings that German Flatts would soon be attacked as well. The German Flatts settlement had been founded in 1723 by immigrants from the German Palatinates. The district was defended by a local militia regiment under the command of Colonel Peter Bellinger. There were two main forts, Fort Dayton and Fort Herkimer, on either side of the Mohawk River. Although Brant had planned to attack German Flatts before September, the absence of John Butler delayed his plans. Butler had returned to Fort Niagara after his attack on Wyoming Valley communities in July, sending Captain William Caldwell to Unaquaga to recruit men for the unit known as Butler's Rangers. By early September it was clear that Butler would not return to the area, so Brant and Caldwell launched the expedition with what men they had. The exact composition of the force that departed from Unadilla is unclear. 152 Iroquois, mainly Mohawks, were in the force, but loyalists (in Caldwell's company of rangers and in Brant's company of volunteers) numbered between 200 and 300.

Due to earlier warnings that Brant was planning an attack, Colonel Bellinger had been sending scouts in the direction of Unadilla to obtain information. On September 16, Brant's company overwhelmed a 9-man scouting party, killing a few and scattering the rest. One of the survivors was Adam Helmer, who ran 26 miles, his own Marathon ahead of the advancing force to warn German Flatts. Colonel Bellinger issued a call to arms for his regiment and sent an urgent aid request to Colonel Jacob Klock to assist his regiment while the colonists took refuge in the forts. Caldwell, Brant, and their men reached German Flatts shortly after Helmer's warning, on the afternoon of September 16, and began their attack the next morning. Because the settlers had taken refuge in the forts, there was no significant opportunity for raiders to take prisoners or scalps. They demonstrated before the forts, but lacked the heavy cannons to properly assault them. Instead, they laid waste to communities on both sides of the Mohawk River, destroying 63 houses, a similar number of barns, three mills, and a sawmill. They drove off a large number of horses, cattle, and sheep, killing those they could not take with them. The only buildings left standing were the forts, a barn, the church, and the houses of the minister and some loyalists. More than 700 people were left homeless by its destruction. Due to Helmer's warning, only three Americans were killed. Captain Caldwell wrote that his men "would probably have killed most of the inhabitants of German Flatts had they not been warned of our arrival by one of the scouts who came in and warned of our approach, and perhaps reached their strongholds." .

Klock's Regiment arrived when the raiders had left. The militia chased the assailants, but could not catch up with them. However, some friendly Oneida and Tuscarora Indians took advantage of Brant's absence from Unadilla to raid that town, freeing the prisoners Brant had taken while he was on his way to German Flatts. The Americans launched retaliatory attacks in early October that destroyed Unadilla and Onaquaga. Brant and John Butler's son Walter organized a retaliatory expedition against Cherry Valley. The lurid propaganda associated with the accusations against the Senecas in the Wyoming Valley Massacre, even though Brant was not present, fueled among his opponents a view of him as a particularly brutal opponent. Brant then joined forces with Captain Walter Butler (John Butler's son), leading two companies of Butler's Rangers commanded by Captains John McDonell and William Caldwell for an attack on the important Cherry Valley settlement of Schoharie Creek. Butler's forces also included 300 Senecas, probably led by Cornplanter or Sayenqueraghta, and 50 regulars from the 8th. As the force moved into Cherry Valley, Butler and Brant quarreled over Brant's recruitment of Loyalists. Butler was dissatisfied with Brant's successes in that sphere and threatened to withhold the provisions of Brant's loyalist volunteers. Ninety of them ended up abandoning the expedition, and Brant himself was about to do so when his Indian supporters convinced him to stay. The dispute did not sit well with the Indian forces, and may have undermined Butler's tenuous authority over them. Cherry Valley had a stockade fortress (built after Brant's raid on Cobleskill) surrounding the town meeting house. It was garrisoned by 300 soldiers from the 7th Massachusetts Continental Army, commanded by Colonel Ichabod Alden.

Alden and his staff were alerted on November 8 by Oneida spies that the Butler-Brant force was moving against Cherry Valley. However, he took no precautions and continued to occupy his headquarters some 400 meters from the fort. Late in the day on November 10, Butler's force arrived near Cherry Valley and established a cold camp (no fires) to avoid detection. Reconnaissance of the town identified weaknesses in Alden's dispositions, and the raiders decided to send one force against Alden's headquarters and another against the fort. Butler obtained promises from the Indians that they would not harm noncombatants at a council held that night. On November 11, the attack began early in the morning. Some overeager Indians spoiled the surprise by shooting at settlers chopping wood nearby. One of them escaped and raised the alarm. Little Beard led some of the Senecas to surround Wells's house, while the main body surrounded the fort. The attackers killed at least 16 officers and troops from the guards, including Alden, who was cut down as he fled from Wells's home to the fort. Most sources say that Alden was within range of the gates, only to stop and attempt to shoot a pursuer, who may have been Joseph Brant himself. His wet pistol missed repeatedly and he was killed by a thrown tomahawk that hit him in the forehead. Lieutenant Colonel William Stacy, second in command, also quartered in Wells's house, was taken prisoner. Those who attacked Wells's house eventually managed to get inside, leading to a melee inside the house. After killing most of the soldiers stationed there, the Senecas slaughtered everyone in Wells's house, 12 in all. The raiders' attack on the fort was unsuccessful.

Lacking cannons, they were unable to do any significant damage to their palisade walls. The fort was guarded by loyalists while the Indians razed the rest of the settlement. Not a single house was left standing, and the Senecas, seeking revenge, were reported to have murdered anyone they encountered. Butler and Brant attempted to restrict their actions, but were unsuccessful. Brant, in particular, was dismayed to learn that several families he knew well and had counted as friends had borne the brunt of the Senecas' uproar. Cherry Valley is south of the Mohawk River and east of the north end of Otsego Lake. Unadilla is to the southwest, near where the Unadilla River joins the Susquehanna. Onaquaga is located a little further to the southwest, on the Susquehanna. Lieutenant William McKendry, a quartermaster in Colonel Alden's regiment, described the attack in his diary: “442 Five Nations Indians were immediately found, 200 Tories under the command of a Colonel Butler and Captain Brant; attacked headquarters, killed Colonel Alden; took Colonel Stacy prisoner; attacked Fort Alden; after three hours he unsuccessfully withdrew from taking the fort. Most of the soldiers killed had been at Wells's house." On November 11, Butler sent Brant and some Rangers back to the village to complete its destruction. The raiders took 70 captives, many of them women and children. Around 40 of them managed to be freed by Butler, but the rest were distributed among the villages of their captors until they were exchanged. Stacy was taken to Fort Niagara as a prisoner of the British. A Mohawk chief, justifying the action in Cherry Valley, wrote to an American officer that "you burned our houses, which makes us and our brothers, the Seneca Indians, angry, so we destroy men, women and children in Chevalle. ”. The Senecas declared that they would no longer be falsely accused, nor would they fight the enemy twice.

Butler reported that "in spite of my greatest precautions and efforts to save the women and children, I could not prevent some of them from being unhappy victims of the fury of the savages", but also that he spent most of his time guarding the fort during the raid. Quebec Governor Frederick Haldimand was so upset by Butler's inability to control his forces that he refused to see him, writing that "such indiscriminate revenge taken even against the treacherous and cruel enemy against whom they are confronted is futile and a bad reputation for themselves, as it is contrary to the provisions and maxims of the King whose cause they are fighting.” Butler continued to insist in later writings that he was not to blame for the day's events. The violent border war of 1778 prompted calls for the Continental Army to take action. Cherry Valley, along with allegations of noncombatant murder in Wyoming, helped pave the way for the launch of the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, commissioned by Commander-in-Chief General George Washington and led by Major General John Sullivan. The expedition destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages on their land in central and western New York and drove the women and children to refugee camps at Fort Niagara. However, he was unable to stop the border war, which continued with renewed severity in 1780. In 1777, George Rogers Clark was a 25-year-old Virginian in the Kentucky County militia. Clark believed that he could end the Kentucky raids by capturing the British posts in the Illinois country and then moving against Detroit. In April 1777, Clark sent two spies into the Illinois Country. They returned after two months and reported that the fort at Kaskaskia was not guarded, that the French-speaking residents were not very attached to the British, and that no one expected an attack from Kentucky.

Clark wrote a letter to Governor Patrick Henry of Virginia outlining a plan to capture Kaskaskia. Because the Kentucky settlers lacked the authority, manpower, and supplies to launch the expedition themselves; In October 1777, Clark traveled to Williamsburg via the Wilderness Road to meet with Governor Henry, joining a group of about 100 settlers leaving Kentucky to avoid Indian raids. Clark presented his plan to Governor Henry on December 10, 1777. To maintain secrecy, Clark's proposal was only shared with a small group of influential Virginians, including Thomas Jefferson, George Mason, and George Wythe. Although Henry initially expressed doubts about whether the campaign was feasible, Clark managed to gain the trust of Henry and the others. The plan was approved by members of the Virginia General Assembly, who were given only vague details about the expedition. Publicly, Clark was authorized to recruit men for the defense of Kentucky. In a secret set of instructions from Governor Henry, Clark was instructed to capture Kaskaskia and then proceed as he saw fit. Governor Henry commissioned Clark as a Tcol in the Virginia Militia and authorized him to assemble 7 Militia Cos, each with about 50 men. This unit, later known as the Illinois Regiment, was part of the Virginia State Militia and therefore not part of the Continental Army. The men were drafted to serve for three months after they arrived in Kentucky. To maintain secrecy, Clark did not tell any of his recruits that the purpose of the expedition was to invade the country of Illinois. To recruit men and buy supplies, Clark received £1,200 in continental currency. Clark established his headquarters at Redstone Old Fort on the Monongahela River, while three of Clark's associates from the Dunmore War, Joseph Bowman, Leonard Helm, and William Harrod, began recruiting men.

Clark commissioned Captain William Bailey Smith as a major, giving him £150 to recruit four companies in the Holston River valley and then meet Clark in Kentucky. For a variety of reasons, Clark was unable to muster the 350 men authorized for the Illinois Regiment. His recruiters had to compete with recruiters from the Continental Army and other militia units. Some believed that Kentucky was too sparsely populated to warrant diverting troops, and recommended that it be evacuated rather than defended. Settlers in the Holston Valley were more concerned with the Cherokees to the south than the Indians to the north of Ohio, and were reluctant to enlist in operations to the north. Although some Pennsylvanians enlisted in the Illinois regiment, the long-running boundary dispute between Pennsylvania and Virginia meant that few Pennsylvanians volunteered for what was perceived as a campaign to protect Virginia territory. After repeated delays to allow time for more men to join, Clark left Redstone by ship on May 12, 1778, with about 150 recruits, organized into three companies under Captains Bowman, Helm, and Harrod. Clark expected to meet Holston's 200 men under Captain Smith at the Falls of the Ohio in Kentucky. Traveling with Clark's men were about 20 families set to settle in Kentucky. On the journey up the Ohio River, Clark and his men picked up supplies at Forts Pitt and Henry that were provided by General Edward Hand, commander of the Western Department of the Continental Army. They arrived at Fort Randolph (Point Pleasant, West Virginia) shortly after being attacked by an Indian war party. The fortress commander asked for Clark's help in pursuing the raiders, but Clark refused, believing that he had no time to waste.

As he neared the falls of the Ohio River, Clark stopped at the mouth of the Kentucky River and sent a message upriver to Major Smith, telling him it was time to rendezvous. Clark soon learned, however, that of Smith's promised four companies, only a partial company under a Captain Dillard had reached Kentucky. Clark therefore sent a message to Colonel John Bowman, the senior militia officer in Kentucky, requesting that the colonel send Dillard's men and any other recruits he could find to the falls. Clark's small flotilla reached the Falls of the Ohio on May 27. He established a base camp on a small island in the middle of the rapids, later known as Corn Island. When the additional recruits from Kentucky and Holston finally arrived, Clark added 20 of these men to his force and sent the others back to Kentucky to help defend the settlements. The new recruits were placed in a company under Captain John Montgomery. In Montgomery's company was a scout named Simon Kenton, who would become a legendary Kentucky frontiersman. On the island, Clark revealed that the true purpose of the expedition was to invade the country of Illinois. The news was greeted with enthusiasm by many, but some of Holston's men deserted that night; seven or eight were caught and brought back, but others escaped capture and returned to their homes. While Clark and his officers briefed the troops in preparation for Kaskaskia's expedition, families who had traveled with the regiment down the Ohio River settled on the island and planted a corn crop. While Clark and his officers briefed the troops in preparation for Kaskaskia's expedition, families who had traveled with the regiment down the Ohio River settled on the island and planted a corn crop.

Clark and his men set out from Corn Island on June 24, 1778, leaving behind seven soldiers who were deemed not tough enough for the journey. These men stayed with the families on the island and kept the provisions stored there. Clark's force numbered about 175 men, organized into four companies under Captains Bowman, Helm, Harrod, and Montgomery. They passed over the white waters of the falls during a total solar eclipse, which some of the men considered a good omen. On June 28, the Illinois Regiment reached the mouth of the Tennessee River, where they landed on an island and prepared for the final leg of the journey. Normally, travelers to Kaskaskia would continue to the Mississippi River and then paddle upriver to the town. As Clark expected to take Kaskaskia by surprise, he decided to take his men through what is now the southern tip of Illinois and approach the village by land, a journey of approximately 90 km. Clark's men captured a boat of American hunters led by John Duff who had recently been in Kaskaskia. They provided Clark with intelligence on the village and agreed to join the expedition as guides. That night, Clark and his troops landed their ships on the north side of the Ohio River, near the ruins of Fort Massac, a French fort abandoned after the French and Indian War. The men marched 80 km through the forest before emerging on the grassland. When a guide announced that he was lost, Clark suspected treachery and threatened to kill the man unless he found his way. The guide got back on track and the walk resumed. They reached the outskirts of Kaskaskia on the night of July 4. Thinking they would have arrived sooner, the men had brought only four days' worth of rations; they had gone without food for the last two days of a six-day march. Joseph Bowman wrote, "In our starving condition, we unanimously decided to take the city or die trying."

They crossed the Kaskaskia River around midnight and quickly secured the town without firing a shot. At Fort Gage, the Virginians captured Rocheblave, who was sleeping in his bed when the Americans stormed the lightly guarded fort. The next morning, Clark worked to secure the loyalty of the townspeople, a task made easier because Clark brought news of the Franco-American alliance. Residents were asked to swear allegiance to Virginia and the United States. Father Pierre Gibault, the town priest, was won over after Clark assured him that the Catholic Church would be protected by Virginia law. Rocheblave and several others considered hostile to the Americans were held prisoner and later sent to Virginia. Clark soon extended his authority to nearby French settlements. On the afternoon of July 5, Captain Bowman was dispatched with 30 mounted men, along with some citizens of Kaskaskia, to secure Prairie du Rocher, Saint-Philippe, and Cahokia. The cities offered no resistance, and within 10 days more than 300 people had taken the oath of American allegiance. When Clark turned his attention to Vincennes, Father Gibault offered to help. On July 14, Gibault and some companions set out on horseback for Vincennes. There, most of the citizens agreed to take the oath of allegiance, and the local militia garrisoned Fort Sackville. Gibault returned to Clark in early August to report that Vincennes had been conquered and the American flag was now flying from Fort Sackville. Clark sent Captain Helm to Vincennes to take command of the Canadian militia. In Detroit, Henry Hamilton learned of Clark's occupation of the Illinois Country in early August 1778. Determined to retake Vincennes, Hamilton mustered some 30 British soldiers, 145 Canadian militiamen, and 60 Indians under Egushawa, the influential leader of the Odawa War.

Captain Normand MacLeod of the Detroit Volunteer Militia led an advanced group of militiamen. On October 7, the main contingent from Hamilton began the journey of more than 300 miles to Vincennes. Going down the Wabash, he stopped at Ouiatanon and recruited Indians who had declared allegiance to the Americans after Clark's occupation of the Illinois Country. By the time Hamilton entered Vincennes on December 17, so many Indians had joined the expedition that his force had grown to 500 men. As Hamilton approached Fort Sackville, the Canadian militia under Captain Helm deserted, leaving the American commander and some soldiers to surrender. The townspeople quickly renounced their allegiance to the United States and renewed their oaths to King George. After Vincennes was recaptured, most of Detroit's Indians and militia went home. Hamilton stationed himself at Fort Sackville for the winter with a garrison of about 90 soldiers, planning to retake the remaining Illinois towns along the Mississippi River in the spring.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«consideradas por el Rey como un objeto de gran importancia en la escala de la guerra».
«considered by the King as an object of great importance in the scale of the war».
— Attributed to Lord George Germain, the British Secretary to Henry Clinton about the conquest of the Southern Colonies.​

In March 1778, after the defeat of a British army at the Battle of Saratoga and France's subsequent entry into the war as an American ally; Lord George Germain, the British secretary responsible for war, wrote to Lieutenant General Henry Clinton that the southern colonies he captured were "regarded by the King as an object of great importance in the scale of the war". Germain's instructions to Clinton, framed as recommendations, were that he should leave Philadelphia and then undertake operations to recapture Georgia and the Carolinas, while making diversionary attacks on Virginia and Maryland. In June and July 1778, Clinton successfully withdrew his troops from Philadelphia to New York. In November, after facing the threat of a French fleet off New York and Newport, Rhode Island, Clinton turned his attention south. He organized a force of about 3,000 men in New York and sent orders to St. Augustine, the capital of eastern Florida, where Brigadier General Augustine Prevost would organize all available men and Indian agent John Stuart would muster local Creek warriors and Cherokees to assist in operations against Georgia. Clinton's basic plan, first proposed by Thomas Brown in 1776, began with the capture of the Georgian capital, Savannah. Clinton gave command of the 3,000-strong detachment to Colonel Archibald Campbell. The force consisted of two 71st Highlander brigades, 2 Hessian regiments from Wöllwarth and Wissenbach, and 4 militia battalions: a battalion of New York Volunteers, two battalions of Lancey's brigade, and a battalion of Skinner's brigade. Campbell sailed from New York on November 26, arriving at Tybee Island. The troops sailed from Sandy Hook, New York, on November 27, 1778, escorted by a Royal Navy squadron under Commodore Hyde Parker. Campbell's force reached Tybee Island, at the mouth of the Savannah River, on December 23, 1778. The state of Georgia was defended by two separate forces.

Continental Army units were under the command of General Robert Howe, who was responsible for the defense of the entire South, while state militia companies were under the overall command of Georgia Governor John Houstoun. Howe and Georgia authorities had previously argued over control of military expeditions against Prevost in eastern Florida, and those expeditions had failed. These failures led the Continental Congress to decide in September 1778 to replace Howe with Major General Benjamin Lincoln, who had successfully negotiated the militia's participation in events surrounding the British at the Battle of Saratoga. Lincoln had not yet arrived when news reached Howe that Clinton was sending troops to Georgia. During November 1778, British raids on Georgia became increasingly threatening to population centers in the state. Despite the urgency of the situation, Governor Houstoun refused to allow Howe to direct the movements of the Georgia militia. On November 18, Howe began marching south from Charleston, South Carolina, with 550 Continental Army troops, arriving in Savannah later that month. He learned that Campbell had sailed from New York on December 6. On December 23 sails were seen on Tybee Island. The next day, Governor Houstoun assigned 100 Georgian militia to Howe. A council of war decided to attempt a vigorous defense of Savannah, despite the fact that they would likely be significantly outnumbered, hoping to last until Lincoln's troops arrived. Due to the large number of potential landing points, Howe was forced to hold most of his army in reserve until the British had landed.

By December 27, the entire British fleet had anchored off Tybee Island. The squadron consisted of the ship of the line Phoenix (44), and the frigates Vigilant (28), Rose (24), Fowey (24), the brig Keppel, the sloop Greenwich and the Comet galley and transport ships. Campbell landed a group of Highlander soldiers on Wilmington Island and took two civilians prisoner and brought them back for questioning. These two men revealed much information about the size of the garrison in Savannah and the positions of the American troops. On December 28, the British squadron sailed 3 km from Savannah, opposite the Girardeau plantation, and preparations were made for an early landing the following morning. Howe was misinformed about the enemy's strength, and believing that he could stand up to them, determined to defend the city. Observing this movement of the enemy, he rightly concluded that the British troops would land below Brewton Hill and advance towards the city along the great road, now known as the Thunderbolt Road, and Captain John C. Smith, with his company of Carolinians from the south, was sent to the hill to watch the enemy. Campbell realized that Brwton Hill had to be controlled before his forces could land, and sent two companies of the 71st to take control of it. The Carolinians opened fire at approximately 100 meters; the British, instead of returning fire, quickly charged with fixed bayonets, denying the Continentals a second shot. The Carolinians withdrew, having killed 4 and wounded 5 at no cost to themselves. By noon, Campbell had landed his army and began to advance cautiously towards the city. The swamp on the eastern side of Savannah was much wider and more difficult to cross than it is today. On the high ground west of the swamp, General Howe put his force in battle array to cover the great road, which crossed the swamp by a narrow causeway, and burned the bridge over the creek that ran through the center of the swamp.


To introduce further obstructions, a deep trench was dug 300 meters west of the swamp and filled with water. The army was divided into two brigades; the 1st Brigade, commanded by Colonel Elbert, constituted the left wing, and the 2nd Brigade under Colonel Huger, the right wing. Five artillery pieces were stationed in front of the road; companies of light infantry guarded the flanks. Campbell left a battalion of Lancey's 71st Highlanders and New York Provincials to guard the landing point at Girardeau, and advanced up the road toward Howe's position. When Campbell's advance companies spotted Howe's line around 2:00 p.m., the main body halted near the field and Campbell approached under cover of light infantry and climbed a tree to see what he was up against. He saw Howe's defenses as essentially solid, but was told by a local slave that there was a path through the swamp to Howe's right. Campbell ordered James Baird to take 350 light infantry and 250 Loyalists from New York and follow the slave through the swamp, while positioning his troops out of sight in a way that would give the impression that he was attempting a flanking maneuver on the enemy. Howe's left. True to his word, the slave led Baird down the path they had left unguarded; the mainlanders did not know they had been outflanked. When they reached his position, Campbell ordered the regulars to charge. The first sounds of battle Howe heard were musket fire from the barracks, but these were quickly followed by cannon fire and the appearance of British and German troops on his front. He ordered an immediate withdrawal, but it quickly turned into a rout. His untested troops barely bothered to return fire, some dropping their weapons before trying to escape through the swampy terrain. Campbell reported that "they could hardly be found, their withdrawal was rapid beyond conception."

Light infantry in the continental rear cut off the road to Augusta, the only significant escape route, forcing mad fighting by retreating troops into the city itself. Georgian soldiers on the right attempted to find a safe crossing of Musgrove Creek, but there was none, and many of the troops were taken prisoner. Soldiers who did not immediately surrender were sometimes bayoneted. Colonel Huger managed to form a rear guard to cover the escape of several mainlanders. Some of Howe's men managed to escape north before the British closed off the town, but others were forced to attempt to swim across Yamacraw Creek, an unknown number drowning in the attempt. Campbell gained control of the town at the cost of 7 killed and 17 wounded, not including the 4 men killed and 5 wounded during the preliminary skirmish. Campbell took 453 prisoners, and there were at least 83 killed and 11 wounded by Howe's forces. When Howe's retreat ended at Purrysburg, South Carolina, he had only 342 men left, less than half his original army. Howe would receive much of the blame for the disaster, with William Moultrie arguing that he should have contested the landing site in force or withdrawn without a fight to keep his army intact. He was exonerated in a court martial that investigated the event, although the court noted that Howe should have held out on the cliffs or more directly opposed the landing. Over the next few weeks, the Americans withdrew from Georgia entirely, and a new administration was created to run the colony on behalf of the British Crown. Many of the Georgians were quick to express their support for King George III. General Prevost arrived in mid-January, but by then General Lincoln had begun to rally support in South Carolina to oppose the British.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«no he podido rechazar que el ejército de los Estados Unidos se una al del Rey. La unión probablemente se efectuará este día. Si no tengo una respuesta inmediata, debo consultar en el futuro con el general Lincoln».
«I have not been able to refuse the United States Army to join the King's. The union will probably take place on this day. If I don't have an immediate answer, I must consult with General Lincoln in the future.».
— Attributed to French Admiral Count Charles-Hector Theodat d'Estaing.​

When British Brigadier General Augustine Prevost arrived from St. Augustine in mid-January, he assumed command of the garrison there and sent a force under Campbell to take control of Augusta and increase Loyalist forces. On January 24, Campbell and more than 1,000 troops left Savannah, arriving near Augusta a week later, with minimal harassment from the Georgia Patriot militia along the way. Augusta had been defended by South Carolina General Andrew Williamson, leading about 1,000 militia from Georgia and South Carolina, but he withdrew most of his men when Campbell approached. His rear guard briefly escaped with Campbell's men before retreating across the Savannah River into South Carolina. Campbell began recruiting loyalists. By 10 February some 1,100 men signed up, but relatively few actually formed militia companies, forming only 20 British Army companies. Campbell began to require loyalty oaths, under penalty of loss of property; many made this oath unconvincingly, letting Williamson quickly learn of his true feelings. Early in his march, Campbell sent Major John Hamilton to recruit Loyalists in Wilkes County and Lt. Col. John Boyd on an expedition to recruit Loyalists in the interior of North and South Carolina. Boyd was successful and recruited several hundred men. As he traveled south back to Augusta, more loyalists joined his company until he reached over 600 men in central South Carolina. As this column advanced, the men looted along the way, predictably causing angry patriots to take up arms. The Continental Army commander in the south, Maj. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln, based in Charleston, South Carolina, had been unable to respond adequately to the capture of Savannah.

With limited resources (lacking men and funds), he was able to muster about 1,400 militiamen from South Carolina, but he was not authorized to order them out of state. On January 30, he was reinforced at Charleston by the arrival of 1,100 militiamen from North Carolina under the command of General John Ashe. He then immediately sent them to join Williamson on the South Carolina side of the Savannah River near Augusta. The banks of the Savannah River in the Augusta area were controlled by a loyalist force led by Colonel Daniel McGirth, while the banks of South Carolina were controlled by a Georgian Patriot militia led by Colonel John Dooly. When about 250 militia arrived from South Carolina under Colonel Andrew Pickens, Pickens and Dooly joined forces to carry out offensive operations in Georgia, with Pickens taking overall command. At some point they were joined by some companies of the North Carolina Light Horse Militia. On February 10, Pickens and Dooly crossed the Savannah River to attack a British Army camp southeast of Augusta. Finding the camp unoccupied, they learned that the company was on patrol. Suspecting that they were heading for a frontier post called Fort Carr, Pickens sent men directly there while the main body pursued the British. The British reached the fort, but were forced to abandon their horses and baggage outside its walls. Pickens then besieged the fort until he learned that Boyd was on the move from South Carolina with some 700 loyalists, heading for Georgia. He reluctantly lifted the siege and headed to intercept Boyd. Pickens established a strong detachment near the mouth of the Broad River, where he expected Boyd to attempt to cross. Boyd, however, had increased his force to about 800 men, and he chose to go north. He first tried Cherokee Ford, the southernmost point of the Savannah River, where he came across a blockhouse at McGowen.

The blockhouse had a detachment of 8 Patriots commanded by Captain Robert Anderson with two small swivels in an entrenched position, which thwarted Boyd's approach to the Cherokee Ford. Boyd moved north upriver about 5 miles and crossed the Savannah River there, skirmishing with a small Patriot force that had watched his movements on the Georgia side. When Pickens learned that Boyd had crossed the river, he himself had crossed into South Carolina in an attempt to intercept Boyd. He immediately re-entered Georgia upon learning of Boyd's whereabouts. On February 14, Pickens caught up with Boyd as he paused to rest his troops near Kettle Creek, just a few miles from Colonel McGirth's loyal camp. Boyd apparently didn't know he was being followed so closely, and his camp, though guards had been posted, were not particularly alert. Pickens moved forward, leading the center, with his right flank under Dooly and his left under Georgia Ltcol Elja Clarke. Gunfire between Patriot scouts and camp guards alerted Boyd to the situation. Boyd formed a defensive line near the rear of the camp and advanced with a 100-man force to oppose Pickens in a crude defensive work of fences and fallen trees. Pickens, whose advance gave him the advantage of high ground, was able to outflank that position, even though his own wings were slowed by marshy conditions near the creek. In heavy fighting, Boyd received a mortal wound, and the small company withdrew to the Loyalist main line. Patriot flanks began to emerge from the swamps. The Loyalists, led by Boyd's second-in-command, Major William Spurgen, engaged the Patriots in battle for an hour and a half. Some loyalists crossed the stream, abandoning horses and equipment.

Clarke realized that there was high ground on the other side of the creek that they seemed to be heading towards and led some of his men there, causing them to shoot his horse from under him in the process. The loyalist line was finally broken and his men were killed, captured or scattered. Many of Boyd's men returned home. A significant number were captured or handed over to Patriot authorities in the days following the battle, and the fate of some of his men is unknown. Campbell reported that 270 of Boyd's recruits eventually joined him. He organized them into the Royal North Carolina Regiment. When Pickens approached the mortally wounded Boyd after the battle, the loyalist leader, who had lived in South Carolina before the war and was known to Pickens, asked the patriot leader to give his wife a pin and inform her about your destiny. Which Pickens would eventually do. Of the Loyalist prisoners, only about 20 survived his injuries. Pickens took them first to Augusta, and then to Ninety-six, where they were held along with a large number of other Loyalists. Seeking to make an example of themselves, authorities in South Carolina put several of those loyalists on trial for treason. About 50 of them were convicted, and five men, including some captured at Kettle Creek, were hanged. British military leaders were outraged at the treatment of what they considered prisoners of war, even before the trial. General Prevost threatened reprisals against the Patriot prisoners he was holding, but did not act for fear that other American-controlled British prisoners might be mistreated. His invasion of coastal South Carolina in April 1779, a counterattack against General Lincoln's moves to recapture Georgia, led South Carolina officials to overturn most of the convictions.

At a council held in Augusta on February 12, Campbell decided to abandon Augusta and began the retreat to Savannah on February 14 at two on the morning of the battle. Campbell did not leave due to the outcome of the battle. He didn't find out about the battle until he had already left Augusta; his departure was prompted by the arrival of General John Ashe's 1,200 Patriot forces at General Andrew Williamson's camp across the Savannah River, the shortage of supplies, and the uncertainty as to whether Boyd would have succeeded in his mission. The success of the Battle of Kettle Creek was somewhat affected by the subsequent British victory at the Battle of Brier Creek on March 3, which took place during Campbell's retreat. On February 13, General John Ashe joined Williamson at his command post overnight. That same night, British forces evacuated Augusta. On February 14, Colonel Archibald Campbell withdrew his British forces from Augusta and stopped at Hudson's Ferry, located about 15 miles south of Briar Creek. Brigadier General Augustine Prevost sent some reinforcements to Hudson's ferry with orders to stop Ashe's advance. The British plan was for Major MacPherson to occupy the south bank of the creek as a diversion. Prevost's younger brother, Lt. Col. Mark Prevost, would take a 900-man force and make an encircling move 50 miles wide to the west and attack the American rear. On February 25, Ashe's force entered Georgia and headed for Savannah. On February 27, Ashe entered the Briar Creek area and discovered that the only crossing bridge had been destroyed by retreating British forces. The creek was too deep to traverse as it ran through a deep swamp almost 5 km wide. He decided to rebuild the destroyed bridge and build a road to Savannah so that Rutherford could reinforce his army from Matthew Bluff, South Carolina. Matthew Bluff was about 5 miles east of Briar Creek.

Prevost decided to execute a plan of attack devised by Campbell before he left. This plan was to make a big move, cross Brier Creek at a bridge further north and west, and then move south and trap Ashe's men in the triangle of land where the creek and river met. A diversionary force would stay at the site of the destroyed bridge to distract Ashe's men. On March 1, the diversionary force, some 500 men, including regulars and militiamen, openly marched north until they were within 5 km of the burning bridge, and camped there. That night, around 900 veteran troops drawn primarily from the 71st Highlander and James Baird's light infantry companies and also included field guns and several experienced militia units, including members of the Florida Rangers (famous for leading skirmishes into Florida) . They made a rapid march north to the Moulin de Paris bridge. On March 2, arriving around 10:00 a.m., they found the bridge destroyed and began building a temporary bridge for their team to cross. Worried that they might be discovered, Prevost sent Baird's light infantry and a company of light dragoons to ford the river that night. They acted as a screen against covering up the work in progress and cutting off Ashe's escape route. On March 3, at dawn, Prevost's entire party had crossed the river, and began the advance towards the patriot camp, meeting scouts on the way and taking them prisoner. Late in the afternoon, Prevost's men clashed with pickets from Ashe and shots were heard in the Patriot camp. A horseman galloped to inform Ashe of the impending attack from the British coming down the road.

Ashe raised the alarm and ordered the troops to form up. The number of troops actually arrayed for the battle was about 900, as several troops had been sent south to scout, and others were on duty at the burned bridge. The distribution of ammunition to the men was complicated by the shortage of cartridge cases and the different calibers of muskets, some were supplied in the wrong calibers, and the battle lines were formed in much confusion. When the American lines were finally formed, the left side was flanked by Brier Creek, but there was a large gap on the right side, between the end of the line and the river. The left was made up of the New Bern militia regiment from North Carolina, the center by a combination of the Georgia militia and Continental Army units under Samuel Elbert, and the right was made up of the Edenton regiment from North Carolina. Prevost's troops approached in three columns. Baird's light infantry was on the left, the 71st's 2nd Battalion was in the center, and Carolina Provincials and Rangers formed the right. Prevost kept the light dragoons and grenadiers in reserve. Both sides opened fire at long range, and then Elbert's men moved forward to close the distance. Two things then happened to create a gap in the American line. Elbert's men shifted to the left as they advanced, partially obscuring the fire of New Bern's men, and the British cavalry threatened to the right, driving Edenton's men away from the center, opening a gap with the center. Seeing that gap on the right, Prevost ordered the 71st Highlander to fix bayonets and charge through the gap. Most of the patriot militia did not have bayonets. Seeing the British attacking, many broke and ran without even firing a shot. Edenton's men fired a few rounds and then gave up the fight.

Elbert's mainlanders held formation in the center while the outflanking militia fled into the swamps, eventually being surrounded and pressed against Briar Creek, forcing Elbert to surrender. The 200 men on the bridge reached the battlefield at the end of the fighting, but quickly retreated as they were dragged away by the fleeing. Ashe pursued his retreating troops on horseback in an attempt to rally them, but to no avail, escaping into Matthew's Bluff with many others. By late afternoon, the battle was finally over with the American forces suffering a humiliating defeat. With their victory, the British restored their control over Georgia. Many of the patriots demanded that Ashe be blamed for this shameful defeat. The carnage on the American side would never be fully accounted for, as many militiamen fled back to North Carolina, and an unknown number drowned in the creek. The British counted 150 dead and about 200 captured, including Colonel Elbert and Lt. Col. John McIntosh. John Dooly and his Wilkes County militia arrived on March 4 and buried the dead Patriots in a mass grave. The British only lost 5 killed and 11 wounded. Anthony Lytle, the commander of the American light infantry, dispersed his men to avoid capture. Ashe was seen riding behind the militia companies, and was widely blamed for the disaster, often amid claims that he led the retreat. A court-martial acquitted him of charges of cowardice, but convicted him of failing to secure his camp. Lt col Prevost was appointed Acting Royal Governor of Georgia until James Wright's return to Savannah. Brier Creek stalled American attempts to force the enemy out of the new state and ensured British rule of the region.

Brigadier General William Moultrie, in his memoirs of the war, wrote that the loss at the Battle of Brier Creek extended the war by a year and made possible the British invasion of South Carolina in 1780. In mid-April, Lincoln was he felt strong enough to move in force with the goal of tightening the cordon around Savannah, cutting off the British from local resources. He marched from Purrysburg on April 23 to Augusta. Lincoln was apparently unaware that the British supply situation was somewhat dire, in part because American privateer activity had succeeded in capturing and diverting British supply ships destined for Savannah. His move to Augusta left the rich coastal lands of South Carolina protected by a minimal military force. When British General Augustine Prevost learned of this move, he decided to strike back against the militia forces at Purrysburg and marched 2,500 men on April 29. The Patriot militia, some 1,000 men under General William Moultrie, fell back toward Charleston rather than attack Prevost, and Moultrie sent messengers to Lincoln warning him of the British move. When Moultrie withdrew, the local men abandoned his force to protect their homes and crops. Prevost decided to go after Moultrie and chased him to the gates of Charleston. On May 10, companies from the two forces clashed near Ashley Ferry, about 7 miles from Charleston. Two days later, Prevost intercepted a message from which he learned that Lincoln was rapidly marching back to Charleston, and decided to withdraw. His army slowed down having taken supplies on the way, so he decided to leave a rearguard at Stono Ferry, between John Island and the mainland, moving most of his army to Savannah by ship on 16 March. June. Prevost placed Lt. Col. John Maitland in charge of the rearguard, which numbered about 900 men.

He established a bridgehead on the north side of an area now known as New Cut Church Flats, which was intended to cover Stono Ferry. Three strong redoubts were built surrounded by abatis and garrisoned by 500 Highlanders from the 71st under John Maitland, 100 Grenadiers from Trumbach's Hessian Regiment under Major Johann Endemann, 200 Hessians from the Wissenbach Regiment under Lt Col, Fredrich von Porbeck, and companies of Loyalists from North Carolina and South Carolina with 7 guns and the galley Thunder in support. Lincoln, upon his arrival in Charleston, decided to launch an attack against that outpost. Although he commanded some 6,000 men, he was only able to muster some 1,200 men, mainly from the poorly trained local militia, for the expedition. General Moultrie led a smaller secondary effort eastward against a small group of British soldiers on Johns Island. Lincoln deployed his troops after an 8-mile night march from Ashley Ferry, located in the town of Drayton Hall. Immediately after his arrival at dawn, they began to fight through thick woods. The Americans advanced in two wings and a reserve. The battle started well for the patriots. They engaged the British positions with light weapons and cannon fire for an hour, at which point they advanced towards the abatis. Of the Highlanders, two companies held out until only 11 men were left standing; a Hessian battalion finally broke. There Maitland switched forces from him in an attempt to counter the larger threat posed by Huger's wing. The Hessians rallied and returned to the fight, and reserves arrived across the bridge. Lincoln seeing that his troops were running out of ammunition, chose this moment to order a retreat.

American losses in the battle were 34 killed, 113 wounded, and 155 missing. Among the dead was Hugh Jackson, older brother of Andrew Jackson, who was struck down by heat and exhaustion. Huger was seriously injured. British casualties were 26 killed, 93 wounded and 1 missing. Maitland had decided almost a week before the battle to withdraw from the site, but his movement was delayed by the lack of water transport. She finally began to move on June 23 toward Beaufort, though with little indication of Lincoln's attack. The Continental Army regrouped, and by June 1779 the combined army and militia forces guarding Charleston numbered between 5,000 and 7,000 men. Major General Benjamin Lincoln, in command of these forces, knew that he could not retake Savannah without naval help; for this he turned to the French, who had entered the war as an American ally in 1778. In the summer of 1779, French Admiral Count Charles-Hector Theodat d'Estaing captured Saint Vincent and Grenada in the British West Indies, tipping the scales in favor of French naval superiority. Estaing's powerful fleet was available for a joint operation with the Americans. The Earl soon received a flood of letters from French diplomats and Major General Benjamin Lincoln, continental commander in the south, urging him to take his fleet north for a campaign against Savannah. On September 1, an unusually early arrival because there was still a substantial risk of seasonal hurricanes, a few French ships arrived in Charleston with the news that Estaing was sailing for Georgia with 22 ships of the line and 4,000 French troops. Estaing was enthusiastic about the proposal. The 50-year-old aristocrat was eager to make up for a failed Allied operation against Newport, which had had to be aborted the previous year due to lack of cooperation and bad weather.

The Earl reached the shores of Georgia on September 3 with 37 ships, including 22 ships of the line, and 4,000 soldiers detached from West Indies service. The formidable French fleet surprised and captured several British vessels near the mouth of the Savannah River. The fleet anchored off Savannah Bar, and the British ships withdrew upriver. The small garrison at Fort Tybee on Great Tybee Island, guarding the entrance to the river, fired on the French ships with their two guns to no effect. That night a French detachment occupied the fort, which they found abandoned. On September 12, a vanguard of 1,200 French troops landed unopposed on Beaulieu Beach in Ossabaw Sound, a few miles south of Savannah. Most of the French army landed, and a camp was established 5 km from the city. On September 16, Estaing arrogantly sent a formal demand to British General Augustine Prevost that he surrender Savannah to His Majesty the King of France. He reminded Prevost that he had captured Granada with a much smaller force, and held Prevost personally responsible for what might happen if the siege operations were prolonged. To the chagrin of the Americans, Estaing added “I have not been able to refuse the United States Army to join the King's. The union will probably take place on this day. If I don't have an immediate answer, I must consult with General Lincoln in the future." Prevost called for a 24-hour truce to allow him to consult with civil authorities in Savannah; and Estaing foolishly agreed to his request. He could have captured Savannah by direct assault, as the British garrison was unprepared for an attack. Instead, he allowed Prevost enough time to strengthen the city's defenses. The allies would regret losing their best chance to take Savannah.

The British troop strength in the area consisted of about 6,500 regulars at Brunswick, Georgia, another 900 at Beaufort, South Carolina under Colonel John Maitland, and about 100 loyalists at Sunbury, Georgia. General Augustine Prevost, commanding these troops from his base in Savannah, was caught unprepared as the French fleet began arriving at Tybee Island. Prevost was a veteran of many years of service in the British Army. The Swiss-born officer had been wounded at the Battle of Fontenoy in 1745. At the capture of Quebec by the French in 1759, he received a wound that had left a circular scar on his temple and led to his nickname Old Bullet. Head. He complained of poor health and was not considered an aggressive commander. Colonel Campbell wrote that Prevost seems a worthy man, but too old and inactive for this service. Old Bullet Head used the delay Estaing granted him to put soldiers, townspeople, and several hundred black slaves to work around the clock to finish the city's fortifications. He also sent an urgent message to Lt. Col. John Maitland to bring his 800 soldiers from Beaufort, and the 100 from Sunbury to reinforce the Savannah garrison. Captain Moncrief of the Royal Engineers was commissioned to build fortifications to repel invaders. With 500–800 African-American slaves working up to twelve hours a day, Moncrief had built an entrenched defensive line, including redoubts, nearly 370 meters long, on the plains outside the city, put soldiers and civilians to work to finish the plays. Ltcol Maitland, commander of the 71st Highlander, was from a distinguished Scottish family. The resourceful 47-year-old veteran, who had lost his right hand in combat in 1759, was respected both by his own men and by Americans.

Maitland had contracted a fever (in fact, he had little more than a month to live); however, he forcibly marched his men to the Savannah River. With the help of black fishermen as guides, he crossed up the river from Savannah, and he and his reinforcements reached the besieged city on September 17. With the arrival of Maitland's troops and his defenses strengthened, Prevost finally sent his reply to Estaing: No to Surrender! Augustine Prevost had the following forces: RI-71 highlander under Lt. Col. John Maitland (1st Battalion 71 under Maj. Archibald McArthur and 2nd Battalion 71 under Maj. McDonald; light troops under Maj. Colin Graham (light companies of the 16th, 60th and 71st); 60th (2nd Battalion/60, 3rd Battalion/60 and 4th Battalion/60); Captain Thomas Tawse's Light Dragoons (2 troops); Hessian Regiments from Trümbach, Hessian Regiment from Wiessenbach; Royal Marines; Volunteers from New York under Maj. Sheridan; Lancy's Brigade (4 Volunteer Battalion); King's Rangers under Lt. Col. Thomas Brown; South Carolina Regiment under Col. Alexander Innes; North Carolina Volunteers under John Hamilton; Georgia Loyalists under Maj. Wright; Georgia militia and Savannah militia. The British Royal Navy contributed to the defense with two frigates Foley and Rose. They landed their guns and most of their men to reinforce the ground forces. In addition, the British The armed brig Keppel and the armed ship Germaine were also deployed. There were two galleys, Comet and Thunder. Finally, the British armed two merchant ships, Savannah and Venus. On September 19, when Estaing moved his squadron upriver, he exchanged fire with the ships Comet, Thunder, Savannah, and Venus. The next day the British scuttled the Rose, which was leaking badly, just below the town to prevent the French ships from advancing further. They also burned Savannah and Venus. By sinking the Rose in a narrow part of the channel, the British effectively blocked her. Consequently, the French fleet was unable to assist the American assault.

Germaine took a position to protect the north side of Savannah's defenses. Comet and Thunder were tasked with opposing any attempt by South Carolina galleys to bombard the city. Over the next few days, British shore batteries assisted the Comet and Thunder galleys in engagements with the two South Carolina galleys; during one of these, they severely damaged the Vengeance. Benjamin Lincoln and his continental officers were upset that the earl had moved to Savannah without them, as if the operation was purely French exercise. They feared that Estaing might take the city and hold it for the French king, a fear that did not bode well for cooperation between the Allied armies. Lincoln met Estaing on September 23. His 3,000 troops included Continentals and militia from Georgia and South Carolina. With Estaing's 4,000 French regulars, the Allies now had 7,000 men with which to take Savannah. Opposing them in the city were 2,500 British troops and Loyalists under Prevost. General Benjamin Lincoln, a new Englishman who neither drank nor cursed, was a patient and cautious commander. Estaing seemed unimpressed by him, describing him as a brave but extremely indifferent man with no opinion of his own. The earl was amazed at Lincoln's phlegmatic habit of falling asleep in his chair, even when he was dictating correspondence. Delays plagued the allies. Lack of horses and artillery wagons prevented them from landing the heavy artillery, which was not in place until 4 October. Siege entrenchments began on 24 September, but progress was slow and the British took every opportunity to disrupt the work. British sorties against the siege lines on 24 and 27 September confused the Allies.

The second sortie caused an accidental exchange of fire in the dark between French and American troops; and several soldiers were killed. On the night of October 1, the rebels prevented a detachment of 111 British troops from reaching Savannah. The British, under Captain French, had camped on the Ogeechee River. Colonel John White, a Continental from Georgia, with only two officers, a sergeant and three privates, tricked the French into thinking the camp was surrounded by a larger force by lighting fires in the surrounding woods, as if all an army was locked up there; White demanded the surrender of the detachment, and the entire British force was taken prisoner. At midnight on October 3, French artillery opened fire on Savannah. But according to an officer, the gunners, still under the influence of rum, their enthusiasm did not allow them to direct their guns with proper care. On October 4, 53 heavy guns and 14 mortars began a five-day bombardment of the city. The bombardment failed to break through the defenses, but caused considerable damage inside the city. An American officer wrote: “The poor women and children have suffered beyond description. Some of them in Savannah have already been killed by our bombs and cannons." One of Prevost's aides commented: "Many poor creatures were killed trying to get to their cellars, or to hide under the cliff of the Savannah River." On October 6, Prevost called for the women and children to be allowed to leave Savannah and take refuge on boats anchored on the river. Estaing and Lincoln refused, fearing it was another delaying tactic. On the morning of October 8, Major Pierce Charles L'Enfant, with a handful of troops, attempted to set fire to felled abatis trees in front of the British lines; but the wood was too wet and did not catch fire. Estaing's engineers told him that they would need at least 10 more days before they could penetrate the British works.

When the bombardment did not have the desired effect, Estaing had a change of heart and decided it was time to attempt an assault. He was motivated in part by a desire to finish the operation quickly, as scurvy and dysentery were becoming problems on his ships, and some of his supplies were running low. While a traditional siege operation would likely have succeeded over time, it would have taken longer than Estaing was prepared to stick around. He proposed an assault before dawn on October 9. Lincoln agreed; and the allies prepared for one of the bloodiest attacks of the war. Estaing hoped to exploit a weak point in Savannah's defenses. Although the city was protected to the north by the Savannah River and protected to the west by a wooded swamp, a narrow depression along the edge of the swamp allowed the Allies to move their troops close to the British defenses under cover of the night before. launch the attack. The allies decided to use that approach route to attack the enemy's right flank. Prevost knew of the terrain to the west of the city and had anticipated that the attack would come that way. A Rebel defector warned him of Allied plans, so Old Bullet Head strengthened his defenses on his right flank and placed him in command of the skilled Maitland. Three forts or redoubts protected the British right flank. The most exposed, Spring Hill Redoubt, was defended by loyalist troops from South Carolina led by Capt. Thomas Tawse and the vengeful Lt. Col. Thomas Brown, who had once been besieged and feathered by rebels from Georgia. The other redoubts on the right were also defended by loyalist troops. Therefore, the bloodiest part of the battle would pit Americans against Americans. Further to the British right, Prevost had placed a 9lb naval battery near the river.

Another naval battery was to the east of the Spring Hill Redoubt, supported by British Marines and Grenadiers from the 16th, to be used to reinforce the redoubt if the Allies attacked there. The Allied plan called for a vanguard of 250 French grenadiers to attack the Spring Hill redoubt, while two strong French assault columns, led by Estaing himself and Colonel Stedingk, attacked the other two forts on the British right. Two American assault columns, under Colonel John Laurens and Brigadier Lachlan McIntosh would support the French. The French planned diversionary attacks to the west of the city near the river and from their trenches near the British center. Brigadier General Isaac Huger, with 500 militiamen from South Carolina and Georgia, would lead a feint east of the city. D'Estaing's 3,500 assault troops had been recruited for temporary duty with the regiments guarding the island colonies in the West Indies: Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Dominica. They included several hundred free black soldiers, including a young Henri Christophe. Formed into provisional units in Savannah, the troops and their officers had never before served together in combat. Now they must carry out a difficult assault against a forewarned enemy. The delays doomed the Allied plan. The volunteers who were to guide the troops through the swamp in the dark proved to be unreliable. A French officer wrote that his guide did not know the way and at the first shot of a musket he disappeared. The assault forces were not in position until after dawn and lost the advantage of the pre-dawn surprise attack. Estaing would confess to having a very low opinion of that attack. Eager to begin the attack, French stormtroopers waited at the edge of the swamp. From the direction of the Springoub Redoubt, 500 meters away, came the sound of Scottish bagpipes being played for them through the thick pre-dawn fog.

One Frenchman said "It was as if the enemy wanted us to know that his best troops were waiting for us." Around 0530 hours, Estaing's forces heard gunfire from the British lines and realized that their troops' diversionary attack in front of the enemy center had finally begun. A few minutes later, British sentries spotted the stormtroopers and fired several rounds. Not all Allied troops were in place yet. Allied diversionary attacks failed. Estaing and Lincoln would have to charge the Spring Hill redoubt without any support. Estaing considered calling off the attack, but his pride prevented him from showing hesitation in front of the Americans. My indecision, he said, would have made me a laughingstock. He ordered the attack to begin. Moving forward with a cry of Vive le Roi! The French grenadiers forming the vanguard advanced towards the Spring Hill redoubt defended by Captain Thomas Tawees with 110 men (28 dragoons, 28 regulars from the 60th, and 54 South Carolina Loyalists) in one swift movement. The British and loyalist troops in the fort opened against them with a crossfire of muskets and cannon. The white-coated grenadiers cleared the abatis in front of the fort, then, through smoke and fog, and under heavy fire, climbed up the parapet. But the French support column was slow to follow them. By the time they arrived to reinforce the vanguard, enemy fire had driven the grenadiers back. Leading his troops forward, Estaing was wounded in the arm just before he reached the redoubt. The fight became intense. The attackers were sprayed with musket fire and shrapnel shots (pieces of scrap metal, nails, bolts, steel blades and chains). The fire also came from a British galley on the river. A British soldier serving one of the guns said: "Believe me, I was never happier in my life than on this occasion."

Estaing's troops were repulsed, the French second assault column led by Stedingk advanced. The columns became entangled, lost formation and completely confused, as one French officer wrote. Stedingk's column was pushed back into the marshy ground on the French left, where more than half were killed or quickly trapped in the mud. Those who lost only their shoes, another officer said, were the luckiest. Estaing urged his troops to advance again. For a moment the fury and determination of the French attack nearly overwhelmed the defenders, and the French managed to raise their flag over the parapet. Stedingk later wrote: “My doubts were gone. I thought the day was ours." But the defenders were also determined. Despite three valiant assaults on the redoubt, the French were unable to withstand their firepower, and Estaing reluctantly ordered a withdrawal. As the French fell back, British troops rose from the parapet and unleashed a volley. Estaing was wounded a second time, in the thigh, and was almost left for dead. Continental Light Infantry arrived under John Laurens, a former aide to General George Washington, and then the Second Column under Lachlan McIntosh, whose wife and children were in Savannah. McIntosh had already weathered a political firestorm after killing his rival, Button Gwinnett, in a duel. The Patriots arrived near Spring Hill Redoubt at the height of the battle's confusion, as Estaing's wounded attempted to reform his troops. McIntosh's troops, pushed to the left in the swamp, were exposed to British naval fire from the river, as well as grapeshot from the fort. Major John Jones, the general's aide, was steps away from destroying an enemy cannon when he was cut in two by a cannon shot. McIntosh was driven back under heavy enemy fire in the Allied retreat.

The Continentals of the 2nd South Carolina, led by future partisan hero Francis Marion, managed to reach the redoubt. In brutal hand-to-hand combat on the parapet, Captain Tawse, the Loyalist commander, was killed after felling three of the attackers with his sword. Sergeant William Jasper placed the colors of the 2nd South Carolina Continental on the parapet, but was shot down. Jasper was already a hero due to his actions in 1776 at Fort Sullivan, near Charleston, where he raised his regimental flag in defiance of the British naval assault. So as he lay dying, he passed the colors on to Lieutenant John Bush, who also fell. As he fought for control of the parapet, Maitland compromised his reserves. The British Marines and Grenadiers unleashed a devastating bayonet charge that drove the attackers back from the ramparts into the ditch below. Allied assault troops, defenseless and exposed to deadly musket and artillery fire, were massacred in the ditch. The Haitian regiment known as the Chasseurs Volontaires de Saint-Domingue served as a reserve when Franco-American troops fought the British. The unit was made up of more than 500 free men from Haiti. As the Franco-American forces fell back, they moved forward to protect the retreat, suffering the highest number of casualties ever suffered by a unit in a single engagement. Broad daylight revealed dead and dying French and American soldiers, many impaled on abatis, 50 meters in front of the trench. Shrapnel victims littered the field 100 meters away. Seeing them, John Laurens flung down his sword in disgust. As the desperate Allied gamble unfolded in the bloody ditch off Spring Hill. General Kazimierz Pulaski, with the rebel cavalry, led a bold but reckless attempt to break through the British lines between the redoubts.

Riding at the head of his 200 cavalry, Pulaski reached the abatis, but was cut down by enemy canister fire. Exposed to deadly fire and demoralized by the loss of Pulaski, the Allied cavalry retreated in confusion. The attempt to capture Savannah was over. The confrontation lasted less than an hour. When it became clear even to Estaing and Lincoln that it was useless to continue, they withdrew their devastated troops and counted the losses. The two sides observed a four-hour truce to collect and bury the dead and recover the wounded. The French listed 151 killed and 370 wounded, while the Patriots lost 231 killed and wounded, nearly all Continental. British losses were only 18 killed and 39 wounded. For the Allies, Savannah was the bloodiest battle of the war, a Bunker Hill in reverse. Once again, Estaing resorted to siege operations. But his officers warned him that further delay in the face of possible hurricanes off the Georgia coast could endanger the fleet. Disputes between the allies soon began. A French naval lieutenant described the Savannah operation as an ill-conceived undertaking with nothing for France, while a young French artillery officer blamed the defeat at the Spring Hill redoubt on the Patriots. The defeat began when the rebels, he wrote, “fled first… like a crowd leaving the church. D'Estaing blamed Lincoln, saying the rebels promised much and delivered little." Lincoln criticized the count for not taking Savannah when he had the first chance. Over Lincoln's objections, Estaing reluctantly prepared to withdraw. He returned his troops to the French ships, loaded their weapons and equipment on board, and sailed for France, sending some of the ships to the West Indies. One of his officers described Estaing as "a real grenadier, but like a poor general... it's not the fault of the troops that Savannah wasn't taken, but of those who sent us".

The earl, who wrote prose and poetry, was intelligent, brave and daring. He was also arrogant, ambitious and, in the words of another officer, greedy for glory. His last words at the events of the 1790s were: "When you cut off my head, send it to the English, they will pay you well!" The siege was over. On October 19, Lincoln's last weary and disillusioned rebel troops withdrew to Charleston. Maitland, the old Scottish warrior who worked so hard to defend Savannah, died on October 26. Three days later, Governor Wright proclaimed a day of thanksgiving for the British victory. A golden opportunity to retake Savannah and alter the course of the war had been lost. Two more devastating defeats for the Patriots loomed the following year at Charleston and at Camden, Georgia remained in British hands until the end of the war; and Savannah was not occupied by the Patriots until the British withdrew in 1782.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«Este golpe casi pondrá fin a la guerra india».
«This coup will almost end the Indian war».
— Attributed to Colonel George Rogers Clark.​

On January 29, 1779, Francis Vigo, an Italian fur trader, arrived in Kaskaskia to inform Clark of Hamilton's new occupation of Vincennes. Clark decided that he needed to launch a surprise winter attack on Vincennes before Hamilton could retake the Illinois country in the spring. On February 6, 1779, Clark headed for Vincennes with probably about 170 volunteers, nearly half of them French militia from Kaskaskia. Captain Bowman was the second in command of the expedition, which Clark described as a "forlorn hope". As Clark and his men marched across the country, 40 men left in an armed galley, which was to be stationed on the Wabash River beyond Vincennes to prevent the British from escaping by water. Clark led his men through what is now the state of Illinois, a journey of approximately 180 miles. It was not a cold winter, but it rained frequently, and the plains were often covered with several inches of water. Provisions were carried by packhorses, supplemented by wild game that the men shot as they traveled. They reached the Little Wabash River on February 13, and found it flooded, forming a creek about 5 miles (8 km) wide. They built a large canoe to transport men and supplies across. The next few days were especially difficult: supplies were running low and the men were almost continuously wading through the water. They reached the Embarras River on February 17. They were now only nine miles from Fort Sackville, but the river was too high to ford. They continued down the Embarras to the Wabash River, where the next day they began building boats. Spirits were low: they had been without food for the past two days, and Clark struggled to keep the men from deserting. On February 20, five Vincennes hunters were captured while traveling by boat.

Clark was told that his small army had not yet been detected and that the people of Vincennes were still sympathetic to the Americans. The next day, Clark and his men crossed the Wabash by canoe, leaving their packhorses behind. They marched towards Vincennes, sometimes in water up to their shoulders. The last days were the most difficult: crossing a flooded plain about 6 km wide, they used the canoes to transport the tired from one high point to another. Shortly before reaching Vincennes, they encountered a villager known to be a friend, who informed Clark that they were not yet suspected. Clark sent the man ahead with a letter to the inhabitants of Vincennes, warning them that he was about to arrive with an army, and that they should all stay home unless they wanted to be considered enemies. The message was read in the public square. No one went to the fort to warn Hamilton. Clark and his men entered Vincennes at sunset on February 23, entering the city in two divisions, one led by Clark and the other by Bowman. Taking advantage of a slight rise in land that hid the men from him, but allowed his flags to be seen, Clark maneuvered his troops to create the impression that 1,000 men were approaching. As Clark and Bowman secured the town, a detachment was sent to begin firing at Fort Sackville after its wet powder was replaced by local resident François Busseron. Despite the commotion, Hamilton did not realize the fort was under attack until one of his men was wounded by a bullet through a window. Clark had his men build an entrenchment 80 meters in front of the fort gate. As the men fired on the fort throughout the night, small squads crawled up to 100 feet from the walls to get a closer shot. The British fired their cannon, destroying a few houses in the town, but doing little damage to the besiegers.

Clark's men silenced the cannon by firing through the fort's portholes, killing and wounding some of the gunners. Meanwhile, Clark received local help: the villagers gave him gunpowder and ammunition they had hidden from the British, and Young Tobacco, a chief of the piankeshaws, offered to have his 100 men assist in the attack. Clark refused the chief's offer, fearing that in the dark his men might mistake the friendly Piankeshaws and Kickapoos for one of the enemy tribes in the area. At about 0900 hours on February 24, Clark sent a message to the fort demanding Hamilton's surrender. Hamilton refused, and the shooting continued for another two hours until Hamilton sent his prisoner, Captain Helm, to offer terms. Clark sent Helm back with a demand for unconditional surrender within 30 minutes, or else he would storm the fort. Helm returned before time expired and presented Hamilton's proposal for a three-day truce. This too was refused, but Clark agreed to meet Hamilton at the town church. Before the meeting in the church, the most controversial incident in Clark's career occurred. Unaware that Clark had retaken Vincennes, a group of Indians and Canadians entered the town. There was a skirmish, and Clark's men captured six. Two of the prisoners were Canadian and were released at the request of villagers and one of Clark's Canadian supporters. Clark decided to make an example out of the remaining four Indian prisoners. They were forced to sit within sight of the fort and then killed on all fours; the bodies were scalped and then thrown into the river. Although Hamilton did not witness the executions, he later wrote that Clark had killed one or more of the Indians with his bare hands. Clark, on the other hand, did not claim to have been one of the executioners.

At the church, Clark and Bowman met with Hamilton and signed terms of surrender. At 10:00 a.m. on February 25, Hamilton's 79-man garrison marched out of the fort. Clark's men raised the American flag over the fort and renamed it Fort Patrick Henry. A team of soldiers from Clark and local militia was sent up the river at the Wabash, where a supply convoy was captured, along with British reinforcements and Philippe DeJean, Judge of Hamilton in Detroit. Clark sent Hamilton, seven of his officers, and 18 other prisoners to Williamsburg. The Canadians who had accompanied Hamilton were paroled after taking the oath of neutrality. Clark had high hopes after his recapture of Vincennes. He said "This coup will almost end the Indian war." In the following years of the war, Clark attempted to mount a campaign against Detroit, but each time the expedition was scheduled, it was canceled due to insufficient men and supplies. Meanwhile, settlers began pouring into Kentucky after hearing news of Clark's victory. In 1779, Virginia opened a land office to record claims in Kentucky, and settlements such as Louisville were established. After learning of Clark's initial occupation of the Illinois Country, Virginia had laid claim to the region, establishing Illinois County, Virginia in December 1778. Early in 1781, Virginia decided to turn the region over to the central government, paving the way for the final ratification of the articles of Confederation. These lands became the Northwest Territory of the United States. The Illinois campaign was financed in large part by local residents and merchants from the Illinois country. Although Clark filed receipts for him in Virginia, many of these men were never reimbursed. Some of the major contributors, such as Father Gibault, François Riday Busseron, Charles Gratiot, and Francis Vigo, would never receive payment during their lifetimes and would be reduced to poverty.

However, Clark and his soldiers received land across from Louisville. This Clark grant was based on what is now Clarksville, Indiana, and formed much of what would become Clark and eastern Floyd County, Indiana. Washington began to develop a plan for a coordinated campaign to "properly flog the Indians." He envisioned an operation "in a season when their corn would be almost half grown," and proposed a two-way attack, the main effort advancing up the Susquehanna River from the Wyoming Valley, and a supporting wing advancing from the Mohawk. Both would be supported by a third expedition advancing up the Allegheny River into Iroquois country from Fort Pitt as a detour. In his planning guide, Washington specified that "the only object should be to drive out the Indians and destroy their grain." Once accomplished, the expedition would return to the Main army regardless of whether or not a major engagement was fought. This was retaliatory economic warfare, directed at the enemy's ability to wage war, not necessarily the destruction of his forces on the battlefield. Successful execution would also force hostile tribes to choose between two equally unpleasant consequences. They could switch sides and become allies of the Americans, or become even more dependent on the Crown in exchange for their continued loyalty. Choosing the former could secure the American frontier in exchange for the Continental Congress and the state governments that provide subsistence for the Indians. Choosing the latter would further tax the already strained British logistics system in Canada. Either outcome was more beneficial to the American cause than doing nothing for the settlements in the interior of the country, since the main American army was facing the British forces entrenched in New York City.

Furthermore, an operation in the Indian country would at least offer some relief to the conflicting border settlements during the season. On February 25, Congress formally authorized Washington to plan and execute an Indian expedition in 1779. As he prepared to take command of the Western Army, Major-General John Sullivan studied the mission and available intelligence on the enemy and the ground over which he and his men would march and fight. Troops and tents were soon on the move in their respective assembly areas in Wyoming, Canajoharie, and Fort Pitt. As the start of the expedition was repeatedly delayed by supply problems, General Washington wrote a very frank letter detailing his instructions to Sullivan. The immediate objects of the operation were "the total destruction and devastation" of the Six Nations settlements. It was essential that their crops be ruined and that the Indians be prevented from planting more in that growing season. Sullivan decided that instead of making a supporting attack, the 1,500-strong Brig. General James Clinton's New York Continental Brigade would join his 3,000-man division at Susquehanna and march together by the most practicable route into the heart of the Indian settlements. In doing so, Washington recommended that Sullivan establish at least one post in enemy territory from which his forces could operate. He then had to send detachments "to raze all the surrounding settlements under instructions to do so in the most efficient manner", so that "the country cannot be merely invaded, but destroyed." Although Sullivan was confident of success, he had no illusions that the campaign he would lead would be easy. The enemy forces were estimated at 2,000 hostile warriors and several hundred provincial soldiers.

He described the enemy warriors his expedition would face as "perfectly acquainted with the country, capable of taking every advantage the terrain can afford, assured of war from youth and way of life, capable of enduring all kinds of warfare." of fatigue”. Sullivan expressed grudging respect when he wrote that "they are not inconsiderable enemies," realizing that a two-to-one numerical advantage did not guarantee success. Although confident, he was not overly so. He knew that the Six Nations warriors, even facing 3,000 soldiers, were still formidable. In order to avoid defeating such irregular forces on ground of his own choosing, Washington warned Sullivan that his force should "seek to make attacks rather than receive them, responding with as much impetuosity, shouting and noise as possible." possible". Men "should, whenever they get the chance, rush forward with war cry and fixed bayonet." Washington believed that nothing would baffle and terrify the Indians more than an aggressive attack carried out with daring. If after the destruction of their settlements was complete, and the Indians would show a disposition for peace, Sullivan was ordered to encourage them on the condition that they provide proof of his sincerity. One way the Indians were able to prove their sincerity was to hand over to American custody some of those who instigated or led the attacks on the frontier settlements, such as Butler and Brant, or anyone else in their possession. Another sign of friendship would be the capture of Fort Niagara from the British. In the weeks while the army waited for supplies, Sullivan's troops trained in the forests, gorges, swamps, and hills around the Wyoming Valley. Clinton was in the area around Lake Otsego. They practiced and rehearsed the pre-planned actions they would take to immediately respond to enemy contact with Indian warriors and British irregulars.

Sullivan's army was prepared to deny the enemy their greatest advantage when fighting in the woods, the element of surprise. When Clinton's brigade joined Sullivan's wing at Tioga Point, the marching order was designed to meet tactical considerations. The men of Major James Parr's corps of marksmen would spread out considerably ahead with orders to reconnoitre suspicious places ahead to prevent the enemy from launching a surprise attack or ambush. The 2 musketeer battalions of General Edward Hand's provisional brigade would form into six columns, each separated by 2 to 300 meters and proceeded by companies of light infantry. The artillery park was next in order, with 4×3 light bronze guns, 2×3 iron guns, two 5½-inch howitzers and a cohorn mortar, nine pieces in all. The rest of the artillery train, consisting of a traveling forge and three ammunition wagons, would follow the guns. To facilitate their deployment in the line of battle no matter where the enemy struck, the main body would move in a square formation, with General Enoch Poor's brigade from New Hampshire marching in a column of platoons, aligned with the right division of the Hand's brigade and Brig. General William Maxwell's New Jersey brigade was similarly lined up on the left. Each brigade would detached some 200 men from their regiments to provide outflankers, or security on their respective flank along the line of march. Clinton's brigade from New York would move in six columns, mirroring the deployment of Hand's brigade, to the rear of the square, with one of his regiments detached to provide the rear. Inside the plaza, the army's 1,200 packhorses would march in two columns along the center.

Meanwhile, Major Butler and his Provincial Rangers, a detachment of British regulars, and Captain Brant with his Loyalist and Mohawk volunteer corps; they had combined with a force of all the warriors the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, and Delaware chiefs could muster, some 1,000 men in all, near a Delaware town called Newtown. Expecting the American army to advance by marching in a column along the banks of the Chemung River or through the woods on an Indian trail, Butler and the chiefs chose their terrain well. Facing the American direction of advance was a ridge about a half-mile long that dominated a plain of land that bordered the river on the right. If the Americans came that way, the position allowed a relatively small force the ability to subject the attackers to withering fire. A steep mountain loomed to the left, parallel to the ridge, where warriors fighting Indian style could punish an American force advancing through the forest. Between the hill and the ridge, the Chemung trail emerged from a swamp into a large open area before crossing a steep gorge cut by a large stream. It was a perfect place for an ambush. A relatively small force, such as Butler's, could surprise an unsuspecting enemy as he emerged into the clearing by opening fire from concealed positions, and hold the Americans in front of them while Indian warriors slipped down their flanks and charged through the woods. . If the Indians were to gain the rear of Sullivan's army, they could cause great confusion, possibly driving off cattle and inflicting casualties disproportionate to their numbers. Perhaps the invading Americans would be so discouraged that they would abandon their planned invasion. They could repeat the battle of Oriskany.

At the very least, some companies that would concentrate their musket fire could fire a volley or two without risking heavy casualties before handing over the field to the much larger enemy army. At least they could buy time for Major General Frederick Haldimand, the royal governor of Quebec and commander-in-chief of British forces in Canada, and allied tribes to send reinforcements before the Americans reached the major Indian cities. While they waited, Butler's men dismantled buildings near their line for their lumber, cut down trees and tossed logs over one another for a protected firing position, and masterfully hid it from enemy view with bushes and foliage. The semicircular arrangement offered Butler and the Indians the advantage of the interior lines, where reinforcements could be sent to meet a threat from any part of the line that was not heavily compromised. Most of the Iroquois warriors were sent to the foot of the mountain. Captain John McDonnell with 60 of Butler's rangers, Captain Brant with 30 Loyalists and Mohawks, and a war party of 30 Cayugas under his own chief took up positions on the ridge. The 8th's detachment, the rest of Butler's rangers, and the remaining Indians were in the center in defensive work overlooking the creek. In order to pay attention to the Indians and coordinate the combined effort, Major Butler placed his son, Captain Walter Butler, in command of the Rangers. When the scouts reported that the Americans had camped a few miles downriver, Butler and the chiefs felt that his men were ready.

As the Americans marched up the Indian trail toward Newtown on August 29, the leading elements began attacking the Indian warriors deployed as skirmishers in the woods. The further the American sharpshooters and light infantrymen advanced, the bolder the enemy skirmishers became, although they did not stand and fight, but ran into the woods ahead of the advancing riflemen. After entering marshy ground, which seemed optimal for forming ambushes, the light troops advanced cautiously as more Indian warriors fired and withdrew. Major Parr suggested to General Hand that the situation was too dangerous to proceed without further reconnaissance, lest the warriors lure them into a trap. The major ordered one of his men to climb a tree to observe the enemy in front of him. From that position, after some time, he discovered the movements of various Indians, which were made visible by the amount of paint they were wearing. The rifleman described the enemy as lying behind extensive defensive work, stretching at least half a mile, and very cleverly concealed with branches and bushes. As the Americans saw it, the line was situated on high ground, with the left flank secured by a mountain and the right by the river. To attack the works directly, the Americans had to cross swampy terrain, ford a difficult creek, and proceed uphill through a clear, open field 100 meters wide and very cleverly concealed with branches and bushes. Immediately after Parr informed him of the enemy's disposition, General Hand advanced the light corps under concealment to within 300 meters of the enemy positions, and formed a line of battle. The riflemen advanced under cover to the creek and lay down on the bank less than 100 meters from the enemy.

General Sullivan arrived and sent the rest of his subordinate commanders to court martial while he waited for the army to advance. The enemy's fortifications were very extensive, though not impregnable. Because the Americans did not want to simply drive the soldiers and Indians out of their defenses, Sullivan came up with a plan to shift his flank in order to encircle them and attack them from the rear. The rifle corps and light infantry would continue to distract the enemy and keep their attention fixed on the front. Colonel Matthias Ogden, with the 1st New Jersey detached from General William Maxwell's brigade and sent west along the Chemung River to execute a flanking maneuver against Loyalist Indian forces. Similarly, General James Clinton's New York brigade and General Enoch Poor's New Hampshire brigade were sent east together, along a winding route through Hoffman Hollow; with the mission of approaching the eastern flank of Sullivan's Hill and if the opportunity presented itself, they would assault the ridge and attack on the enemy's right. Colonel Thomas Proctor was to move the artillery, 6 three-pounders, two howitzers and a cohorn mortar, to beat off the enemy and support by fire. The cannons would remain hidden until everything was ready. Maxwell's brigade was to remain some distance behind as a reserve. For the plan to be successful, it was imperative that the flanking units be in a position to take the enemy from the rear when the artillery fire began. The rifle corps and light infantry would advance towards the enemy positions. Around 1:00 p.m., the diversionary attack began. Major Butler recalled: "Some of the enemy made their appearance in the foothills of the woods ahead of us." The riflemen then went into action.

According to Lt. Col. Adam Hubley of the Pennsylvania 11th Light Corps, "There was a heavy exchange of fire between the rifle corps and the enemy, causing little damage." At the same time, the artillery opened fire. Generals Poor and Clinton ordered their brigades to march in regimental column. The troops passed through a very thick swamp covered with bushes. For almost 1.5 km, the columns found it very difficult to maintain order. Because of Poor's "great prudence and good conduct," however, experienced officers like Lt. Col. Henry Dearborn commented that the brigade "proceeded in much better order than I expected we could have done." After negotiating the swamp, the columns banked to the left and crossed the stream that ran ahead of the enemy position further downstream. As they did, the soldiers noticed a score of unoccupied buildings, which curiously had no cleared farmland nearby. Some of the men assumed that these were to be used as warehouses to supply raiding parties heading for the border settlements. Once on the other side, the troops began to climb the mountain that defined the enemy's left. After American riflemen distracted the troops and warriors in front of them across open ground for the next two hours, the enemy commander suspected that the Americans were not taking the bait they had set in front of them. Unlike the militia he had faced in Oriskany or Wyoming, these regulars were not drawn into the gorge where his men could attack them from behind their defensive position. When it became clear that the Americans were probably fanning out to assert their overwhelming numerical superiority, Butler considered a withdrawal. While the rifle corps kept its attention to the front, the Indians were reluctant to abandon their fortification.

Brant and the Cayuga chief left their position on the right to meet with Butler, recommending retreat before they became decisively involved in a losing battle. At about 3:00 p.m., the American artillery was ordered to advance to the high ground on the near side of the gorge, about 200 meters from the enemy position. Guns, howitzers and cohorn mortar opened fire on the positions and the Light Corps Riflemen were ready to advance and charge. The storm of grapeshot soon forced the defenders to abandon their log fortification. As the shells and cohorn mortar began exploding above and behind them, many of the Indians believed that the Americans had surrounded them with artillery. Many of the warriors were so shocked and confused that a large portion of them fled in panic. Butler led his rangers and several Indians up the hill to the left of his line to retreat. The swamp and brush had delayed the progress of Poor's and Clinton's brigades, so they were not yet in position when they heard the cannonade begin. After ascending halfway up the hill, the mainlanders were "greeted by rapid fire" and war cries from a body of Indians posted to prevent them from encircling the flank of the position. While the flank division's riflemen kept up a scattered fire, the rest of Poor's BRI quickly formed the line of battle. Although greatly fatigued by the difficult march and climb under the load and the oppressive heat, the troops climbed the hill. With their lines formed and bayonets fixed, the disciplined mainlanders advanced swiftly in the face of enemy fire, and without returning a shot, drove the enemy from tree to tree in front of them.

On reaching the top, the order was given, and Poor's soldiers aimed their muskets and fired a full volley that broke the Indians' resistance to their front and put them to flight. Clinton's brigade, following Poor's brigade up the hill, advanced with such ardor that several soldiers fainted from heat exhaustion. As they closed in on the ridge, Clinton's brigade spread out to the right and endeavored to block the enemy's retreat through the gorge along the river. When they heard the musketry of Poor's brigade battle on the hill, Major Butler and the Rangers and Redcoats realized that the Americans had gained ground on their flank and threatened to envelop them. At the same moment, Hand's light corps charged the positions, while the last of the British, Loyalists and Indians fled. In desperation, the remnants of Butler's force turned west. Nearly surrounded, the Warriors, Rangers, and Redcoats escaped as best they could, taking many of their dead and wounded with them. Some continued along the hill, skirmishing with the pursuing US light infantry for almost 2 km. Others crossed the Chemung River or took canoes to avoid capture. Most of the rangers headed to a town about 5 miles away, where Butler had told them to meet up. Many warriors, however, crossed the mountain in an attempt to reach their homes. Meanwhile, on the hill, although most of Poor's brigade regiments remained in line, Lt. Col. George Reid's 2nd New Hampshire "came more severely attacked" and was prevented from advancing as far as the rest. Lt. Col. Henry Dearborn, commanding the 3rd New Hampshire to Reid's right, saw what was happening. Reid's unit had become separated from the rest of the squad. Dearborn therefore thought it appropriate to reverse the front of his unit and come to Reid's aid.

On the enemy side, a large body of warriors saw an opportunity to attack the American rear by encircling the left of Poor's brigade, but Reid's regiment stood in their way. They collided on the side of the hill, and the warriors were in the process of surrounding the mainlanders. Reid was forced to either order a retreat or a desperate bayonet charge up the mountain. He chose the latter, and had barely given the order to execute the move when the Dearborn regiment arrived and fired a full volley that broke up the Indian attack. Hand's corps soldiers pursued the enemy past the chest and along the mountain until they made contact with the outflanking brigades. The rifle and light infantry companies continued the search for 2 km before returning to join the rest of the army at Newtown at around 18:00, where they camped on the same ground the enemy had previously occupied. Three Americans were killed and 30 were wounded, one of them fatally. The defeat of the enemy had been complete. The former enemy positions were littered with tin kettles, packages, blankets, and other items hastily abandoned to carry away their fleeing dead and wounded. Some of Poor's men scalped the Indian corpses, while others looked for warriors lying in wait who might still be in the area. Two prisoners were captured, one white and one black. The target had feigned death until an officer noted that there were no injuries on his body. After being struck with the side of a sword and ordered to get up, the man begged for mercy. The black prisoner was taken by Hand's light infantry after he became separated from his company during the retreat. Butler reported the loss of 5 Rangers killed and 3 wounded, and 5 Indians killed and 9 wounded.

Further west, Colonel Daniel Brodhead undertook a concurrent expedition. Brodhead left Fort Pitt on August 14, 1779, with a contingent of 600 regulars from his 8th and Pennsylvania Militia, marching up the Allegheny River into the Seneca and Munsee country of northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York. With most of the native warriors far away to engage Sullivan's army, Brodhead met little resistance and destroyed around 10 villages, including Conewango. Although initial plans called for Brodhead to eventually join up with Sullivan at Chenussio for an attack on Fort Niagara, Brodhead turned back after destroying villages near present-day Salamanca, New York, never linking up with the main force. Letters from Washington indicate that the cross-country journey east to the Finger Lakes region was deemed too dangerous, limiting this smaller expedition to a foray north. Newtown was the only significant engagement of the 1779 Indian Expedition. The British had relied on their Rangers and allied Indians to carry out irregular operations in the woods to delay or stop the Americans, but they proved unable to withstand the attack. In a message to Lt. Col. Mason Bolton of the British garrison at Fort Niagara, Major Butler blamed the loss on some comrade among the Indian chiefs who repositioned the men on the flank, and the poor turnout of the Iroquois and Delaware warriors. . However, he admitted to Bolton that the US Army moved with the utmost caution and regularity and was more formidable than its predecessors. The major warned of dire consequences if his rangers and Indian warriors were unable to stop them. If large reinforcements were not quickly forthcoming, Butler was certain that after the Indian villages and corn were destroyed, the refugees would flock to Fort Niagara, where they would consume large quantities of provisions and need clothing and shelter, already in short supply to survive. the forces of the King.

The Rangers and their Indian allies, however, were never able to mount a credible defense in Iroquois country. The American invasion resulted in the destruction of 40 Indian towns and agricultural fields that produced about 160,000 bushels of corn and other vegetables before returning to the main army. Sullivan's army had punished Six Nations forces that were hostile to the United States for siding with the British, and forever ended the Iroquois Confederacy's military dominance over other Indian nations. Although the hostile nations remained allies, the British supply system strove to support them in their distress. The British granted the Indians 675,000 acres of land in Canada. Around 1,450 Iroquois and 400 allies would live on a new reservation on the Grand River.

On April 12, 1779, the Treaty of Aranjuez was signed. After months of attempts at negotiations war became inevitable, England made the mistake of underestimating the Spain of Charles II. The pact was sealed by the French diplomat Charles Gravier, Count of Vergennes, and the Spanish Secretary of State José Moñino y Redondo, the first Count of Floridablanca. Upon learning of the pact, England offered Spain several colonial possessions six months after the signing of this pact if it refrained from supporting the American rebels. But the offer was not enough for the expectations that both France and Spain had for England, as high as her invasion, and, although such an objective could not be achieved. This treaty established the principles of the two powers to invade England, that is, the North American metropolis, however, this would not happen given the resistance of the British to the onslaught of the alliance. It mentioned to a lesser extent the suspension of the commercial rights of the English and the expulsion of these from Newfoundland. Spanish operations in North Florida were carried out by Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez, who was the Governor of Louisiana. Bernardo de Gálvez negotiated directly with Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, Oliver Pollock, and Charles Henry Lee. He blocked the port of New Orleans so that British ships could not use the Mississippi River, and also facilitated the transit of the American rebels through all the territory south of the war zone; helping to ship weapons and ammunition destined for the troops of George Washington and George Rogers Clark. Spain had sent to the US 120,000 reals of eight in cash that served mainly to pay for the Continental Army. To this would be added payment orders amounting to another 50,000 reais; they would be the famous "Spanish dollars" that would serve to support the US public debt, and that would later give rise to its own currency, the US dollar.

In addition to all this, through the Gardoqui shipping company based in Bilbao, 50,000 muskets, 50,000 bayonets, 1,246,428 musket balls, 225 bronze cannons, 23,868 hand grenades, 50,000 uniforms, 8,000 tents and 500,000 pounds of powder with salt protection against the foreseeable humidity of the sea. The total value of these deliveries was 2,582,206 reais. The American army that fought and won the battle of Saratoga, without going any further, was fully armed and equipped by Spain.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

The British position at Stony Point was fortified, but was never intended to be a true fortress in the 18th-century European sense of the word. No stone was used and no walls were built. The defenses consisted of earthworks (cannon positions) and abatís (felled trees sharp at the top and placed on earthen embankments). The defenses were situated on a rocky outcrop accessible only from the west, protected on the front by a gorge into the river and on both flanks by extensive marshy areas. To assault the position, the corps of light infantry was formed on June 12, 1779, with command assigned to General Wayne. The Corps of Light Infantry was an elite, seasonal fighting organization formed each year between 1777 and 1781 by the light infantry companies of each regiment in Washington's army. The Corps of 1779 was organized into a brigade of 4 regiments, each consisting of 2 battalions of 4 companies. The plan called for a night attack on the fortifications to be carried out by the 1,350-man corps. Each regiment consisted of 300 to 340 men, and the total force included an artillery detachment to handle captured British field pieces. According to 18th-century military doctrine, this was not enough men to take up a well-prepared defensive position, but in addition to the element of surprise, Washington's plan exploited a fatal flaw in the fortifications. The wooden abatis along the south shore of the point did not extend into the deep waters of the Hudson and could be outflanked by attackers along a narrow beach at low tide. The main attack would be along that area, but Washington reported that, if possible, secondary and diversionary attacks could also be made along the north shore of the point and across the causeway into the center.

Washington gave Wayne his instructions, along with permission to modify the plan as necessary. This was an unusual act for Washington, and indicates his high opinion of Wayne's tactical abilities. The assault would be difficult: it would take place in the dead of night, he asked the men to scale the steep, rocky sides of Stony Point, and maintain surprise. To achieve this last element, Washington ordered the men to carry unloaded muskets and attack using only bayonets to keep silent, a tactic often employed by the British Army, and one that had been used to devastating effect against Wayne two years earlier in battle. of Pauli. The exception to the loaded armament was the two companies of North Carolina light infantry, which Wayne ordered to cross the causeway, and stage a demonstration attack into the center of the British defenses, where the British expected an attack to take place. This battalion, commanded by Major Hardy Murfree, was instructed to fire their weapons as a diversionary tactic. Wayne selected Butler's 2nd Regiment of approximately 300 men to carry out an assault along the north shore of the point; while Wayne himself would lead the main column in the south, consisting of the 1st and 3rd Regiments, and Hull's Massachusetts Light Infantry detachment. The columns fielded an advance force of 100 and 150 men, respectively, wielding axes to clear obstacles, with 20 men from each advance force assigned as forlorn hope, to protect the force and be the first to enter the works. Wayne announced that he would give prize bounties to the first men to enter the works, and to anyone else who distinguished himself in action. After a morning meeting, on July 15, 1779, the corps of light infantry marched from Sandy Beach north to Fort Montgomery beginning at noon.

Any civilians found along the route of the march were to be stopped to prevent them from warning the British. The column, often forced to march single file over rough terrain and roads that were trails, took a winding route west through Queensboro to the west and over Dunderberg Mountain to avoid detection by the British. The corps began to arrive at 8:00 p.m. at Springsteel farm, about 2 km west of the fortifications, and by 10:00 p.m., had formed into attack columns. The men received a ration of rum and their orders. They were also given pieces of white paper to fasten to their hats in order to help them distinguish themselves from the British in the dark. The columns then moved at 11:30 p.m. to their starting positions, immediately diverging, to begin the assault at midnight. These attack columns were led by groups of volunteer soldiers nicknamed the forlorn hope who were responsible for opening holes in enemy defenses and, along with their weapons, were armed with axes and pickaxes. Bad weather that night helped the continentals. Cloud cover prevented the moonlight, and strong winds forced the British ships in Haverstraw Bay to leave their posts off Stony Point and move downriver. At midnight, as planned, the attack began with the columns crossing the swampy flanks. The southern column unexpectedly found it to be 0.6 to 1.2 meters deep and required 30 minutes to reach the first line of abatis, during which British sentries spotted Murfree's demonstration force and fired on it. Under fire, Wayne's column managed to break into the first line of British defences. Wayne himself was hit in the head by a musket ball and fell to the ground, leaving Colonel Febiger to take charge of Wayne's column.

In the meantime, Butler's column had managed to break through the abatis, suffering the only loss of life on the American side in doing so. The two columns penetrated the British line almost simultaneously and seized the ridge as 6 British companies of the 17th took up position against the diversionary attack and were cut off. Due to the stealth in which the Patriot assault forces approached the British defenses on the slopes of the hill, the artillery pieces that the British had placed on the summit were unsuccessful in repelling the attack. Due to the speed at which the Patriot foot soldiers were moving, the British guns could not be angled down far enough to fire on the men attacking the hill. The first man in the British top jobs was Lt. Col. Francois de Fleury, an aristocratic French engineer commanding a battalion of the 1st. He was followed by Lieutenant Henry Knox, Sergeant William Baker, Sergeant William Spencer and Sergeant George Donlop. When the men entered the British works, they shouted: "The fort is ours!", the pre-established slogan to distinguish friend from foe. The action lasted 25 minutes and ended at 1 in the morning. Wayne's losses were 15 killed and 83 wounded, but they took 546 prisoners, 74 of whom were wounded. British dead range from 63 to 20. Before dawn Wayne sent a short dispatch telling Washington: 'The fort and garrison, with Colonel Johnston, are ours. Our officers and men behaved like men who are determined to be free." The next day, Washington entered the works to survey the battlefield and congratulate the troops. For his exploits, Wayne was awarded a Congressional Medal, one of the few issued during the revolution.

Although the strategic value of Stony Point was up for debate; however, it was a great moral victory for the Continental Army. On the morning of June 16, Wayne's forces turned Stony Point's guns against Verplanck's, but long-range fire did no significant damage. The fire was enough, however, to prompt the schooner to weigh anchor and head downriver. Washington then sent General Robert Howe to lead the 2 BRIGADE to besiege Verplanck on the 17th; however, the force was not provided with adequate artillery or siege equipment, and could do no more than blockade the fort. On the 18th some British troops were landed from ships sent upriver, and it was rumored that more were coming overland, so Howe decided to withdraw. Washington had no intention of holding any of the points, and Stony Point was abandoned by the Americans on July 18, after taking captured guns and supplies. The British briefly reoccupied the site only to abandon it in October when General Clinton prepared a major expedition to the southern states. Some of the captured officers were exchanged immediately after the battle, but the more than 400 prisoners from other ranks were taken to a prison camp in Easton, Pennsylvania. An unsuccessful attempt by a small number of prisoners on 17 July to overpower their captors resulted in the death of one British sergeant and the injury of 20 others. A month later, Major Henry Lee successfully carried out orders from Washington to capture the British fortifications at Paulus Hook, a point south of Stony Point on the Hudson River. Washington hoped that victories at Stony Point and Paulus Hook would stop British incursions and push Clinton into a defensive position. Realizing that he had not achieved any of his objectives for the Hudson River campaign, Clinton decided to withdraw all of his troops back to Manhattan.

Clinton's campaign in 1779 had failed; Washington and the Continental Army had prevented the British from separating them from the southern colonies and had stopped British operations against privateers and American civilians who supported the rebel cause.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«En profunda angustia y ansiedad mental, estoy obligado a familiarizarme con su excelencia con la derrota total de las tropas bajo mi mando».
«In deep anguish and mental anxiety, I am compelled to acquaint Your Excellency with the complete defeat of the troops under my command.».
— Attributed to Major-General Horatio Gates.
​

Stalemate in the northern theater of the war after 1778-79 prompted British leaders to renew their interest in the southern theater. The British, most importantly, their commander Henry Clinton remained convinced that the southern colonies were full of Loyalists waiting for the British authorities to free them from Patriot rule. Clinton also realized that he could not take the north with the forces he had been given. Patriot forces had repelled attempts to establish themselves in the southern colonies at Moore Creek Bridge and Charleston in 1776, but the successful capture of Savannah, Georgia, in late 1778; it had restored British hopes that Charleston might be captured and that this success would contribute to increased loyalist support for the British campaign to quell the rebellion. The reality was that South Carolina was a deeply divided state, and the British presence unleashed the full violence of a quasi-civil war on the population. First, the British used Loyalists to pacify the Patriot population; the patriots returned violence in kind. Guerrilla warfare strategies employed by patriots Francis Marion, Thomas Sumter, and Nathanael Greene throughout the Carolina campaign of 1780-81 eventually hunted down the much larger British force in Virginia. Meanwhile, the Americans knew that Charleston was a likely target for the British following the capture of Savannah. Major General Benjamin Lincoln had been given command of the defense of Charleston in September 1779. In his initial instructions to Lincoln, General George Washington warned him of the impending British attack, but lamented that he was unable to offer military assistance due to the need. to maintain adequate continental forces around Britain's northern stronghold in New York City.

By the time Lincoln arrived, many of the forts defending Charleston Harbor were in poor condition, and the fortifications on its west and south sides (the sides facing the city's land approaches) were unfinished. Lieutenant General Henry Clinton's expeditionary force of some 8,500 British and German soldiers, and 6,000 sailors; he left New York just after Christmas in 1779. He left the important New York City garrison under the command of Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen. The British Regiments were: 1st Light Battalion drawn from the Regiments, 2 Grenadier Battalions drawn from the 7th, 23rd Royal Welch, 33rd, 42nd, 63rd, and 64th, and the Queen's Rangers. The army was transported by a fleet of 90 transports escorted by 14 Royal Navy ships, with 5 ships of the line and 9 frigates. December through January was a dangerous time for the weather and the fleet was caught in strong winds at Cape Hatteras, which could turn into a typhoon. Most of the army's horses died in the storms and those that survived had to be put down and the ships scattered. A ship carrying Hessian troops was brought across the Atlantic and landed on the Cornish coast in south-west England. A ship with heavy guns was sunk, and several more were taken by American privateers. Clinton, who had always been a poor sailor, hated the sea and spent most of the voyage seasick. As January drew to a close, the British fleet arrived at the mouth of the Savannah River and landed on Tybee Island on February 1 to assemble the rest of the fleet. After 10 days, Clinton declared that the army was ready to proceed and on February 11, troops began landing on Simmons Island and for the next 10 days the men scoured swamps on James and Johns Islands.

Clinton settled the men in a difficult camp and halted their advance, apart from establishing a beachhead at the Stono ferry on the mainland. Clinton wanted to prepare the force for him. He needed to establish supply depots and magazines, and he also sent reinforcements from detachments in Georgia and ordered more troops to be sent from New York. Clinton also had to wait for the navy to reach the upper harbor of Charleston, where his heavy guns could be brought ashore for the siege and the boats could be used to ferry troops across the Ashley River to the peninsula Charleston was on. . The entrance to Charleston Harbor was defended on the north side by Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island and on the south side by Fort Johnson on James Island. In 1776, the 2nd South Carolina Continental and a force of artillerymen repulsed an attack on Sullivan's Island by Commodore Peter Parker's British Royal Navy squadron. Since that time the forts on either side of the estuary had fallen into disrepair and were ungarrisoned, but were reoccupied on learning of the British arrival. The city of Charleston sits on an isthmus, connected to the mainland by a tongue or neck of land. Charleston is bounded on the west by the Ashley River and on the east by the Cooper River. The two rivers meet in the estuary at the southern end of Charleston. Inadequate defenses had been built into the language. Charleston was the only city in the southern states to normally have some 12,000 citizens, most of them of English origin, but with a mixture of black slaves, French Protestants, and a sprinkling of Germans. Nature offered a more formidable defense in the form of a heavy sand bar. The bar could be crossed in five places, but all the crossing points were so shallow that heavy ships could not pass. Frigates and smaller vessels could do it, but not without first lightening their load.

A series of log terraces protected the end of the tongue, and along each river were redoubts, trenches, and small fortifications. The redoubt at the point had 16 heavy guns, and the forts along the river had 3 to 9 guns each. However, Benjamin Lincoln, commanding the city's garrison, expected an attack by sea and neglected the land defenses and even the completion of the earthworks that stretched across the neck. At the heart of the land defenses was the citadel, or hornwork or "old royal work", which was a fort made of "tapia" or "tappy", which was a mixture of oyster shells, lime, sand and water. The fort had 18 cannons. There were redoubts on both sides, but they weren't complete, they weren't even well placed. During the month that Clinton took to advance, the Americans, under the direction of Governor Routledge, worked frantically to build the city's defenses, using a labor force of 600 slaves recruited from neighboring plantations. The Americans dug a flooded ditch in the neck, backed by double avatis and strong defensive work, supported by redoubts. The main redoubt was a stone hornabeque, located in the center of the line where the road passed through the neck, and was called Citadel. 66 guns were placed along the line. At the southern end of Charleston, facing the sea, a redoubt with 16 guns was built. Along the bank of the Ashley River, 6 small redoubts were built, each with 4 to 9 guns. Along the Cooper River, 7 redoubts were built, each with 3 to 7 guns. On the estuary, Forts Johnson and Moultrie were repaired and armed. A fleet of American ships defended the port of Charleston, commanded by Commodore Whipple with the ships Bricole (44), Providence (32), Boston (32), Queen of France (28), Aventure (26), Truite (26) , Ranger (20), General Lincoln (20) and Notre Dame (16).

Several of these ships had been purchased from Admiral Estaing before the French withdrew from Savannah. When Clinton landed, Lincoln had under his command 800 South Carolina Continentals (1st, 2nd, and 5th), 400 Virginia Continentals, some 380 Polaskis Legion, 2,000 Carolina militia, and a small number of Horry's dragoons. In April, before Clinton shut down the city, he would be reinforced from Virginia and North Carolina. Governor Routledge summoned the South Carolina militia to garrison Charleston, but they were unable to comply with the summons, claiming that there was a danger of smallpox in Charleston. He also wrote to the Spanish authorities in Havana, requesting the assistance of a Spanish fleet and army. The Spaniards excused themselves from helping, seeing it necessary to secure their most important possessions. General Clinton left 2,500 troops in Savannah and arrived in Charleston with 6,000. He then sent transports back to New York to bring in additional troops, and called the Savannah garrison to join him. As part of his US Army readiness, General Lincoln sent General Isaac Huger with US mounted troops, some 500 men from various regiments, to Monk Corner, 30 miles upriver from Charleston on the Cooper River, to keep open the Charleston route north. Huger's detachment left Lincoln with around 2,650 Continental troops and 2,500 militiamen, with a circuit of some 5 km of fortifications to defend. Towards the end of March, British warships began to move up the estuary towards Charleston. The American squadron moved to the mouth of the Cooper River and several warships and civilian vessels sank through the river's entrance, joining together to form a barrier from Charleston to Shute Folly Island. The rest of the American squadron stood upriver from the boom.

The cannons were removed from American warships to increase ground defenses. Meanwhile, Clinton had gathered troops and supplies from him, and even obtained 1,500 more men from Georgia. He was ready for the siege. On the night of March 29, Clinton began sending his reinforced army across the Ashley River at Draytons Landing, 12 miles from Charleston. The Americans did not oppose the landing, and by April 1, Clinton's forces had advanced less than 1,000 meters from the defenses through the neck. There, they began a process of opening the first parallel, where British engineers, some 800 meters from the American lines, built approach trenches and redoubts that were more or less parallel to the American defensive works. On April 8, the British ships sailed up past Fort Moutrie and anchored in the estuary between James Island and Charleston. Cannons were carried for the British batteries that were established at the neck. On April 10, the British batteries on the neck were ready to open fire on the Charleston. General Clinton asked General Lincoln to surrender, which he refused to do. On April 13, British guns opened fire from batteries on the neck and from James Island, using red-hot bullets. The shooting continued until midnight, setting parts of the city ablaze. The distance of only 800 meters would make artillery fire extremely effective by the standards of the time. In general, most guns were unreliable beyond 1,200 meters, with 400-800 being the effective range. The next day, General Lincoln called a council of his superior officers. Lincoln stated that he considered the situation desperate and he was considering leaving town. General Lachlan McIntosh urged the troops to leave Charleston and be transported to the east side of the Cooper River, but Lincoln refused to make a final decision on whether to leave.

In mid-April 1780, the British officer, Lord Rawdon, arrived from New York with 2,500 other men. In addition, there were 5,000 British sailors available from the fleet. Meanwhile, the British cavalry, commanded by Colonel Banastre Tarleton, was moving against the Americans at Monk Corner. The British horses had been lost in the storms at Cape Hatteras, but Tarleton replaced his mounts with local horses. On April 14, Tarleton surprised the American cavalry in the camp at Monk Corner with a surprise attack at 03:00. The American force was destroyed, and those who did not become casualties scattered. Tarleton captured enough horses for his dragoons, along with wagons and supplies. Lieutenant Colonel Webster with the 33rd and 64th joined Tarleton, and headed south along the eastern bank of the Cooper River about 10 km from Charleston, cutting off America's escape route across the river. By April 19, the British approach trenches had advanced to within 250 meters of the American line at the neck, and began digging the third parallel. The exchange of artillery between the two forces poses an interesting situation. British engineers are getting closer to the Americans. The Americans are firing at them and the British lines, the British are shooting over the heads at the Americans, but the artillery at the time was inaccurate and the rounds commonly fell short. So it was difficult for the engineers to know who was shooting at them. As they got closer, they could see firsthand the effects of their artillery. One shell hit an American emplacement, reported by a British engineer: "It burst on fall, throwing two emplacement gunners into the trench and exploding the enemy platform."

By the end of April, the third parallel had been completed. The men were almost on top of each other. Clinton had insisted that his men stationed in those trenches NOT load muskets, but use the bayonet. For Clinton, the bayonet meant discipline, pride, and spirit. It was probably a multitude of factors, unloaded muskets and horror or artillery included, that caused his men to panic on the third parallel on the night of April 24, when 200 Americans made a sortie against one end of the third parallel. The jägers fled towards the second; but the Americans still managed to kill about 50 and capture at least a dozen more. The following night on April 25, the men stationed on the third parallel abandoned their post when they heard small arms fire and screams from the US side; which in turn provoked a savage round of fire from the men on the second parallel, thinking that their comrades had been overrun and that a force of Americans was right behind them. An officer whose men had fled from the third parallel later said: 'Everywhere they saw rebels. They believed that the enemy had made a raid and fired musketry for more than half an hour, although no rebels had passed the ditch." Lincoln called another council of war, which was attended by Lieutenant Governor Gadsden. Lincoln proposed the alternatives of abandoning the city and withdrawing or capitulating on terms. Gadsden strongly opposed either proposal, threatening that the townspeople would turn on the American troops. Lincoln relented in council, but took matters into his own hands by proposing terms for a capitulation to the British. The terms, which allowed US troops to leave Charleston, were rejected by Clinton. Further fighting took place the following night, with an American incursion into the British siege lines, the British capturing a redoubt at Haddrell Point and Colonel Arbuthnot taking Fort Moultrie, whose garrison surrendered without a fight, in contrast to the defense put forward. by his predecessors on June 28, 1776.

On May 8, 1780, the British trenches were close to the American line at the neck and the flooded ditch leading to the American position was drained. Before an all-out assault, the British again summoned the American garrison to surrender. This time there was no alternative. The Americans could no longer escape from Charleston. British troops had occupied the east bank of the Cooper River, the Neck, and the opposite bank of the Ashley River. Ships of the British Royal Navy held the estuary. Lincoln asked for an extension to consult his officers on the question of surrender, and gave him until May 9. Lincoln demanded terms by which the American military would be released and American continental troops would be allowed to surrender with the honors of war. The British rejected this proposal. The next night was spent by each side bombarding the other with all the artillery at their disposal. This time, firing at wooden houses, the British artillery proved more effective, and many houses were set on fire, the civilian population decided that they had enough, and they asked Lincoln to surrender. Lincoln agreed to Cornwallis's terms. The American military would lay down their weapons and be allowed to return home with the promise of no further involvement in the war. American continental troops would become prisoners of war. On May 12, 1780, American continental troops marched out, their drums beating a Turkish march, officers allowed to keep their swords until cries of "Long live Congress!" unnerved the British, so that their swords were taken from them and they became prisoners. The militia surrendered their firearms and were eventually allowed to return to their homes, pledging never to fight the British Crown again.

During the fighting the British lost 76 men killed and 189 wounded. American losses during the fighting were 89 Continentals killed and 138 wounded. Very few US militias became victims. In the surrender, 5,466 American soldiers became prisoners. The British took 5,916 muskets, 391 cannon, 15 regimental colours, 33,000 cartridges and 8,000 cannon shots. They also captured the Charleston powder magazine which contained some 10,000 pounds of gunpowder, in addition to large stores of rum, rice, and indigo. Three days after the surrender, a tragic accident occurred. The captured muskets had been carelessly thrown into a wooden building where the powder was stored. A loaded musket must have been fired on the pile. The explosion that followed set six houses on fire and killed around 200 people. It was feared that the main magazine, with its considerable powder store, would catch fire and explode, but that did not happen, and the fire was put out by soldiers on both sides, residents of Charleston, and the group of slaves recruited in Charleston from neighboring plantations. by the Americans to build the defenses. After the capture of Charleston, the British advanced through the rest of the colony of South Carolina in what became a fierce civil war. On May 12, 1780, Charleston fell to the British under the command of Henry Clinton. A column of reinforcements consisting of 380 troops under the command of Colonel Abraham Buford failed to reach the town before its fall and turned to retreat north. This force, known as the 3rd Virginia Detachment, consisted of 2 Virginia RI-2 Corps, 40 Virginia Light Dragoons, and 2×6 guns. As Buford's detachment traveled north, they encountered several prominent citizens of South Carolina fleeing the advancing British. Even Governor John Rutledge joined the column as it moved toward the North Carolina border.

General Clinton returned to New York, leaving General Charles Lord Cornwallis in command of the Army of the South. Cornwallis learned of Buford's column and sent a force under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton to trap and destroy the Continentals. Tarleton commanded 270 men from his British Legion, 170 were dragoons and 100 were mounted infantry, 40 light dragoons from the 17th and a 3-pounder. Although the Americans were a week ahead of Tarleton, the aggressive British commander moved his men 150 miles at a brisk pace, reaching Buford on the afternoon of May 29, 1780. The area where the two forces met found is situated along the border of North and South Carolina, in an area called Waxhaws, in the Catawba River Valley. Tarleton sent a message to Buford, demanding that the Americans surrender, but they refused. Buford then ordered all of his heavy baggage and cannon to continue moving north, so his artillery would be in the battle. He then formed a line to meet the advancing British and Loyalists. His position was in an open wood to the right of the march route, with all his infantry in a single line. The American colors were placed in the center of that line. Buford ordered his men to hold fire until the British were within 10 meters. Seeing the rebel line spread out for battle, Tarleton divided his force into three attack columns. He deployed 60 British Legion dragoons, as well as another 60 mounted infantry from the right column, intending that the mounted infantry dismount and fire on the Americans, pinning them down. At the same time, he formed a central column of his elite troops, the 40 light dragoons of the 17th, as well as 40 mounted infantrymen of the Legion, to charge directly into the American center under covering fire from the Loyalists at the helm. right of him.

The left column was led by Tarleton himself and consisted of 30 carefully selected Legion men, with as many infantrymen ready to sweep the American right flank and to attack for their baggage and reserves. Tarleton held his single cannon in reserve with the remaining Legion mounted infantrymen. The British attack began as soon as all of his troops were in position. Colonel Buford gave the order to refrain from firing until the British were within 10 meters, the American forces were overwhelmed by the speed and aggressiveness of the British charge, Buford's men had time to fire a single volley before the British horsemen reached the line. The thin American line broke and they began shooting down soldiers left and right. Many American survivors of the battle claimed that their comrades were massacred while trying to surrender. As quickly as it had started, the Battle of Waxhaws was over. British casualties were light, with 5 killed and 14 wounded. The Americans lost 113 men killed and 203 wounded, 2 guns and 26 wagons were captured. Colonel Buford managed to escape the massacre. The Battle of Waxhaws became known as the "Buford Massacre" and Tarleton, already known as an aggressive commander, was condemned as a butcher. Clinton returned to New York on June 5, 1780, after the southern remnants of the Continental Army had been defeated in May 1780 at the Battle of Waxhaws, charging Lord Cornwallis with the pacification of the remaining parts of the state. The remaining Patriot resistance in South Carolina consisted of the militia under commanders such as Thomas Sumter, William Davie, and Francis Marion. Washington sent RIs from the Continental Army south, consisting of the 1st and 2nd Brigades from Maryland and the 1st Brigade from Delaware, under the temporary command of Major General Jean, Baron de Kalb. They had left New Jersey on April 16, 1780, arriving at the Buffalo ford on the Deep River, 30 miles south of Greensboro, in July.

On July 25, Major General Horatio Gates, the hero of Saratoga, arrived at General Johann Baron de Kalb's Patriot camp on the Deep River in North Carolina. Gates decided to advance to the nearest British outpost at Camden, which had a 1,000-man garrison, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Francis Rawdon. On July 27, the Patriots headed for Camden. Gates had chosen a direct march to Camden through the swampy and difficult terrain against the advice of his officers, who were familiar with the area. They had recommended a route that would have started west and then south. It was more roundabout, but through regions friendly to the Patriots, which meant they could collect some desperately needed food and supplies. The route Gates chose was more difficult, barren in nature, abundant in sandy plains, intersected by swamps, and very sparsely inhabited, and the few inhabitants they may encounter were likely hostile. All the troops had been short of food since their arrival at the Deep River. Gates also weakened his force by sending 400 Continentals to assist Colonel Thomas Sumter, who had requested reinforcements to carry out his own raids. Gates' original strategy was to use Major General Francis Marion and Sumter to cut off Camden's supply lines from the south. This action would leave Camden vulnerable and force the British to evacuate the garrison from it without a fight. On August 3, Gates joined 1,200 North Carolina militiamen under the command of General Richard Caswell. On August 7, at Rugeley Mill, 15 miles (24 km) north of Camden, 700 Virginia militiamen under the command of General Edward Stevens joined Gates's army. Also, Gates had Armand's Legion. However, by this stage, Gates no longer had the help of Marion's or Sumter's men, and had in fact sent 400 of his Continentals to assist Sumter with a planned attack on a British supply convoy.

Gates also refused the help of Colonel William Washington's cavalry. Gates apparently planned to build defensive works some 9 km north of Camden in an effort to force the British abandonment of that important city. Gates told his aide Thomas Pinckney he had no intention of attacking the British with an army made up mainly of militiamen. Camden was garrisoned by about 1,000 men under Lord Rawdon. General Cornwallis, alerted to Gates's movement, on August 9, marched from Charleston with reinforcements; arriving at Camden on 13 August, increasing the effective strength of the British troops to 2,239 men, of whom 1,000 were regulars: 23rd Royal Scots (292), 33rd (238), Fraser's 71st Highlanders (1st Battalion 144 and 2nd Battalion 110), light companies (148); Protestant Irish Volunteers (303), Tarleton's Legion (126 Infantry and 182 Light Dragoons), North Carolina Regiment (267) Provincial and Loyalist Militia (202), and Artillery. Gates ordered a night march to begin at 10 p.m. on August 15, despite his army of 3,052, two-thirds of whom were militiamen, who had never maneuvered together. Unfortunately, his dinner acted as a purgative as they marched, with Armand's cavalry in the lead. In the opposite direction marched Cornwallis's army, also on a night march at 10 p.m., with Tarleton's dragoons in the lead. A brief period of confusion ensued when both forces collided around 02:00, but both sides soon parted ways, not wanting a night battle. The forces formed for battle before first light. Horatio Gates deployed his 4,100 troops in a line and reserve.

Gates' formation, although typical British practice of the time, pitted his weaker troops against the more experienced British regiments. Cornwallis had approximately 2,239 men, and he deployed in a line and reserve in front of Saunders Creek. He placed his most experienced units on the right flank and his less experienced units on the left flank. When Gates discovered that he was facing Cornwallis and an experienced British force, he decided it was too late to withdraw and prepared for combat. The battlefield stretched in a narrow front across the swamps along Gum Creek. Gates's deployment had placed the least reliable troops against the best British regulars. The British opened the battle by using their right wing to attack the Patriot left. Facing an aggressive British bayonet charge, the militia fled before the British could even reach them. The Virginians broke and ran. Only one company of the militia managed to fire a few shots before fleeing. The panic quickly spread to the North Carolina militia and they too fled, running through the Maryland mainlanders. Seeing the utter panic of his entire left wing, Gates mounted his horse and hit the road with his militia, leaving the battle under the control of his subordinate officers. In just a matter of minutes, the entire left wing of the Patriot force was gone. As the rout unfolded on the left flank, Kalb's right flank attacked after being ordered by Gates. The mainlanders twice repulsed Rawdon's troops and then launched a counter-attack. The mainland counter-attack was successful and Rawdon's line was all but broken. Cornwallis saw the action and was forced to get into the action and stabilize his men. Meanwhile, instead of pursuing the fleeing militia, Webster turned to the left and continued to charge him as a flanking move against Kalb.

The North Carolina Militia Regiment that had been stationed closest to the Delware Continentals stood their ground, being the only Militia Regiment to do so. They fought well and were joined by Maryland Continentals who had been called up from the reservation by Kalb. The Marylanders fought off Webster's attack, but then only about 800 Continentals were facing at least 2,000 British regulars. The final blow came when Cornwallis ordered Tarleton to attack the Patriot rearguard. Under the cavalry charge, the patriots finally broke. Some managed to escape through the swamp and Kalb was wounded 11 times (8 by bayonet and 3 by musket balls) before he fell. The field was taken after an hour of fighting. Tarleton pursued the fleeing Patriots for over 20 miles before finally turning back. Gates, mounted on a fast horse, was almost 100 km away in Charlotte, North Carolina, that same night. About 60 mainlanders joined as a rear guard and managed to protect the troops in a retreat through the surrounding forests and swamps. British casualties were 68 killed, 245 wounded and 11 missing. The Patriots had 240 known dead, of which 162 were Continentals, 12 South Carolina militiamen, 3 Virginia militiamen, and 63 North Carolina militiamen. 1,500 prisoners were taken, of whom 290 were wounded and were taken to Camden after this action. Of this number, 206 were Continentals, 82 were North Carolina militia, and 2 were Virginia militia. The British captured 8 guns and about 200 wagons. Gates continued on to Hillsborough, a distance of some 300 km, where he arrived on the 19th and then wrote his report to Congress on August 20. The report to the president of the Continental congress, Samuel Huntington, began: "In deep anguish and anxiety of mind, I am bound to acquaint myself with his excellency with the total defeat of the troops under my command."

In an August 30 letter to General George Washington, Gates wrote: “But if being unlucky is reason enough to remove me from command, I will gladly submit to the bidding of Congress; and I will resign a position few generals would be eager to hold…” Gates's actions were called into question almost immediately. After Major General Nathanael Greene replaced him in December, Gates returned to his home in Virginia to await an investigation into his conduct during the battle. A congressional investigation in 1782 cleared him of wrongdoing, accepting his claim that his reason for leaving was to get to a place of safety so he could rebuild his army. He would not have another command for the rest of the war, but he did return to active duty before the war's end, serving on the Washington staff. Greene succeeded Gates as the new commander of the continental forces in the south. This loss left American morale in the South at a low level and the region firmly under British control until Geene built up Continental forces in early 1781. Kalb died 3 days after the battle. Despite the defeat, the patriot militias began a guerrilla war against the British, an example is the attack on British forces of the 63rd who were escorting prisoners to Charleston, Marion's guerrillas attacked to free them on August 20. Believing that British and loyalist forces were in control of Georgia and South Carolina, he decided to head north and address the threat posed by the remnants of the Continental Army in North Carolina. In mid-September he began moving north toward Charlotte, North Carolina. Cornwallis's movements were shadowed by North and South Carolina militia companies. One force under Thomas Sumter stayed behind and harassed British and Loyalist outposts in the South Carolina countryside, while another, led by 24-year-old Colonel William Richardson Davie, kept in fairly close contact with parts of his force. as Cornwallis moved north.

Davie had done a good job in the three months after the fall of Charleston. He had several times defeated small units of the British Army and captured supply trains, but they were no match for the entire British Army. His orders were to keep an eye on the British, report their movements to General William Lee Davidson, who commanded the Mecklenburg and Rowan militia, and attack any targets of opportunity they could find. Davie successfully surprised a detachment of Cornwallis's loyalist forces at the Wahab plantation on September 20, and then moved on to Charlotte, where he staged an ambush to harass Cornwallis's vanguard. Charlotte was then a small town, with two major highways intersecting in the center of town, where the Mecklenburg County Courthouse dominated the intersection. The south façade of the courthouse had a series of pillars, between which a stone wall approximately 1 meter high had been built to provide an area to serve as a local market. He was joined by a group of Mecklenburg militia commanded by Major Joseph Graham and they took up their positions around the courthouse. Davie posted three ranks of militiamen in and to the north of the courthouse, with one behind the stone wall, and posted companies of cavalry on the east and west sides of the courthouse, covering the roads leading in those directions. Finally, he put a company of 20 men behind a house on the south road, where he awaited the British advance. As his British column approached Charlotte, Cornwallis sent Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton's British Legion ahead, Tarleton was recovering from a violent fever, so Major George Hanger with the light dragoons was sent ahead to investigate. .

Cornwallis ordered Hanger to cautiously enter the town and check for militia, which he expected to be in the area. As the Legion moved slowly down Tryon Street towards the square, they saw that the street was empty. Contrary to Cornwallis's orders, Hanger and his cavalry merrily advanced toward the center of the city. Even after the 20 men behind the house opened fire, Hanger's men continued to ride until he was met by heavy fire from the militia line behind the stone wall. As the first line of militia maneuvered to make way for the second, Hanger mistook his move for a retreat and continued the charge. This brought him into a withering crossfire from the second line and the cavalry companies stationed to the east and west. Hanger went down with a wound, and his cavalry retreated in disarray back to the Legion infantry behind him. The British cautiously followed them for a few miles and discovered the American camp at Charlotte. Hanger sent his light infantry, commanded by Lt. Col. James Webster, to clear militiamen from his positions along the fences in the road. Webster's counter attack forced the Patriots to abandon the fences along the road and fall back to the stone wall. Hanger personally led his cavalry against the 20 mainland dragoons. Davie's troops drove the British back in the first assault. Hanger then led a second cavalry charge against the stone wall and was again stopped and forced back. Cornwallis, alerted by the sound of battle, stepped forward to assess the situation. Sarcastically yelling “you have everything to lose, but nothing to gain”, he ordered the Legion forward once more. By this time light infantry from the main army had also begun to arrive, and Davie withdrew his forces.

Hanger called the incident "an insignificant skirmish," but made it clear to Cornwallis that he would have to expect more resistance. Major Joseph Graham was wounded by three bullets and six sword cuts and was presumed dead. He survived his injuries and lived to become a prominent citizen of Charlotte. Hanger was also wounded, further disabling the effectiveness of Tarleton's Legion. Instead of advancing through Hillsboro, Cornwallis occupied Charlotte. The British Army remained in Charlotte for two weeks collecting food and supplies, but they had gained a new respect for the Americans and would later refer to Mecklenburg as "The Hornet's Nest of the Rebellion". General Cornwallis was having trouble subduing the Carolinas. Every time he thought he was making progress, his supply wagons were captured or small portions of his army were defeated by the guerrilla fighting of the patriot militia. The defeat of the Patriot army at Camden had been devastating and demoralizing, but the Patriots did not admit that they had been defeated. Cornwallis decided to divide his superior army into three branches, hoping to subdue the patriots in the Carolinas once and for all. Banastre Tarleton with the British Legion took the eastern branch and was brilliant and brutal. Major Patrick Ferguson was given a small group of 200 redcoat-wearing New York provincials and told to recruit loyalist militia to the cause in the Western Branch. Ferguson recruited brilliantly and soon had almost 4,000 loyalist militiamen. Ferguson patiently trained them and by September 1780, he had some 1,000 militiamen marching with him. The problem with the militia was that they always came home, and Ferguson rarely had more than 1/4 of the militia with him. They came in and out of the army as they pleased, and Ferguson couldn't control them. In an effort to discourage attacks in that western part of the Carolinas, Ferguson sent a message to the leaders of the Overmountains who lived west of the Appalachian Mountains. These men had been left out of the war zone. So Ferguson hoped to discourage them further. The message said, in part, that if the mountain men took up arms against the King, Ferguson would "march his army over the mountains, hang his leaders, and lay waste their country with fire and sword."

It was the wrong message to send to a group of stubborn Scots-Irish who were only interested in defending their homes on the border. Overmountain leaders Isaac Shelby and John Sevier took this threat seriously. They sent word across the mountains that they were heading east to fight Patrick Ferguson. Ferguson had turned an impersonal war into a personal challenge by threatening the houses of the mountain men. To facilitate the British offensive against the Patriots, Cornwallis assigned Major Patrick Ferguson at the head of the British Legion to eliminate the Patriots in the Carolinas and to protect the left flank of Cornwallis's army in Charlotte, North Carolina. Ferguson began leading his troops, made up entirely of American loyalists, searching for rebel militias. Time and time again, he missed confrontations with groups of backwoods supporters. The men of the mountain (Overmountain) met at Sycamore Shoals on September 25. Nearly 1,000 of them gathered, and after a fiery speech, they set out to find Patrick Ferguson. They traveled through the mountains on their horses through an early autumn snow. It was a difficult journey, but these men were used to hardship. They had defeated the Cherokees, could Patrick Ferguson and his army be any more difficult? They carried their long hunting rifles: although slow to load, these rifles were highly accurate even at long ranges. Along the way, the mountain men were joined by militia groups and others who decided to fight on the spur of the moment. On September 30, the Highlanders reached Burke County, North Carolina, where they met with 350 other North Carolina militiamen. Totaling 1,400 militiamen, the force was led by five different leaders, each holding the title of colonel.

These men held a council of war and appointed Colonel William Campbell of Virginia as commander of the group. However, they agreed that the five would act in council to command their combined army. The Patriot force began hunting Ferguson and his loyalist militiamen. However, Major Ferguson received information from two frontiersmen, deserters, that the Patriots were on their way to exterminate them. Ferguson left his base camp and began a slow march toward Charlotte, where Lord Cornwallis had established his headquarters. When Ferguson first received information that the Patriot force was on the move, he delayed his departure from Gilbert Town for three days before marching south. During this inexplicable delay, Ferguson wrote to Cornwallis, requesting reinforcements. On October 1, Ferguson's force reached the Broad River in North Carolina, where the Major wrote another letter to Cornwallis, again asking for some reinforcements. By October 6, loyalists reached King's Mountain, one of a series of rocky, wooded hills near the North Carolina-South Carolina border. It is shaped like a footprint with the highest point at the heel, a narrow vamp, and a wide, rounded toe. Loyalists camped on a ridge west of King's Pinnacle, the highest point on King's Mountain. Ferguson's force was a day's march west of Cornwallis's command post at Charlotte. The patriots searched for Patrick Ferguson, after several false moves and some misinformation, the men heard that Patrick Ferguson had stopped his army at a place called Little King's Mountain. Since the mountain men were still some distance away, they decided to ride fast and hard to catch Ferguson. They divided his band into two groups: the first group of about 900 men would proceed quickly to King's Mountain. The second group, numbering about 500 tired after the almost 500km journey, could not move as fast and would join the patriot forces as soon as they could.

The first group set out on the night of October 6, the mountain men riding furiously through a rain storm, intent on arriving as soon as possible. At dawn on October 7, they crossed the Broad River, about 15 miles from King's Mountain. In the early afternoon they arrived and immediately circled the ridge. The battle began at about 3:00 p.m., when the 900 Patriots, including John Crockett, approached the steep base of the western ridge. They formed eight detachments of just over 100 each. Ferguson was unaware that the Patriots had caught up with him and his 1,100 men. He was the only regular British soldier, made up entirely of loyalist Carolina militia, except for the 200 enlisted provincials from New York, who wore red coats. He hadn't thought it necessary to fortify his camp. The patriots surprised the loyalists. Loyalist officer Alexander Chesney later wrote that he did not know the Patriots were near them until the shooting began. As the Patriots screamed up the hill, Captain Abraham de Peyster turned to Ferguson and said, "These things are sinister, these are the bloody screaming boys!" Two parties, led by Colonels John Sevier and William Campbell, attacked the heel of the mountain, the smallest in the area, but its highest point. The other detachments, led by Colonels Shelby, Williams, Lacey, Cleveland, Hambright, Winston and McDowell, attacked the main Loyalist position, surrounding the heel. No one in the patriot army was in command once the fighting began. Each detachment fought independently under the previously agreed plan to encircle and destroy the Loyalists. The patriots crawled up the hill and fired from behind rocks and trees. Ferguson rallied his troops and launched a desperate charge with fixed bayonet against Campbell and Sevier. Lacking bayonets, the patriots ran downhill into the woods.

Campbell soon rallied his troops, returned to the hill, and continued firing. Ferguson ordered two more bayonet charges during the battle. This became the pattern of the battle; the Patriots would charge up the hill, then the Provincials would charge down the hill with fixed bayonets, driving the Patriots off the slopes into the woods. Once the charge was spent and the Conservatives returned to their positions, the Patriots would regroup in the woods, return to the base of the hill, and climb back up the hill. During one of the charges, Colonel Williams was killed and Colonel McDowell was wounded. Shooting was difficult for the Loyalists, as the Patriots were constantly moving around using cover and concealment to their advantage. In addition, the downward angle of the hill helped loyalists outmaneuver their rivals. After an hour of fighting, loyalist casualties were severe. Ferguson crossed the hill from one side to the other, blowing a silver whistle that he used to point to. Shelby, Sevier and Campbell reached the top of the hill behind the Loyalist position and attacked Ferguson's rear. The loyalists were herded back to their camp, where they began to surrender. Ferguson drew his sword and slashed at the little white flags he saw appear, but he seemed to know the end was near. In an attempt to rally his hesitant men, Ferguson shouted "Hooray, brave boys, the day is ours!" He mustered some officers and tried to get through the patriot ring, but Sevier's men fired a volley and Ferguson was shot and knocked off his horse but luckily he was not pinned to his horse and therefore not being dragged by his horse behind the fence. patriot line. The Loyalists recaptured Ferguson as they regrouped.

With their leader wounded, the loyalists began to surrender. Some Patriots did not want to take prisoners, as they were eager to avenge the Battle of Waxhaws, in which Banastre Tarleton's forces killed a considerable number of Abraham Buford's Continental soldiers after the latter attempted to surrender. Loyalist Captain Peyster, under orders from Ferguson, sent an emissary with a white flag, asking for quarter. For several minutes, the Patriots repulsed Peyster's white flag and continued to fire. A significant number of the Loyalists who surrendered were killed or wounded, including the White Flag emissary. As de Peyster sent up a second white flag, some of the Patriot officers, including Campbell and Sevier, ran forward and took control ordering their men to stop firing. They took around 700 Loyalist prisoners including Ferguson. The Battle of King's Mountain lasted 65 minutes. The loyalists suffered 290 dead, 163 wounded and 668 taken prisoner. The patriot militia suffered 28 dead and 60 wounded. The Patriots had to leave quickly fearing that Cornwallis would come forward to meet them. Loyalist prisoners well enough to walk were herded into camps several miles from the battlefield. The dead were buried in shallow graves and the wounded were left in the field to die including Ferguson who, never having been seen by the patriots, was mistaken for a wounded Loyalist officer. Both victors and captives starved on the march due to lack of supplies in the hastily organized patriot army. On October 14, the retreating Patriot force court-martialed the Loyalists on various charges (treason, desertion from Patriot militias, inciting Indian rebellion).

Passing through the Sunshine community, the retreat stopped at the Biggerstaff family property. Aaron Biggerstaff, a loyalist, had fought in the battle and been mortally wounded. His brother Benjamin was a patriot and was being held as a prisoner of war on a British ship docked in Charleston, South Carolina. His cousin John Moore was the Loyalist commander at the earlier Battle of Ramsour's Mill, in which many of the fighting men at King's Mountain had taken part on one side or the other. While stopping at Biggerstaff land, the rebels sentenced 36 Loyalist prisoners. Some were declared against by patriots who had previously fought alongside them and later changed sides. Nine of the prisoners were hanged before Isaac Shelby ended the trial. His decision to stop the executions came after an impassioned plea for mercy from one of Biggerstaff's women. Many of the patriots dispersed over the next few days, while all but 130 of the Loyalist prisoners escaped as they were led single file through woods. The column eventually camped at Salem, North Carolina. King's Mountain was a turning point in the US War of Independence. After a series of disasters and humiliations in the Carolinas (the fall of Charleston and the capture of the US Army there, the destruction of another US Army at the Battle of Camden, the Waxhaws Massacre), the stunning decisive victory at Kings Mountain was a great victory, a boost to Patriot morale Carolina loyalists were destroyed as a military force In addition, the destruction of Ferguson's command and the imminent threat of Patriot militia in the mountains caused Lord Cornwallis to cancel his plans to invade Carolina Instead, he evacuated Charlotte and retired to South Carolina, not returning to North Carolina until early 1781. Ferguson was found by Tarleton's Legion who, due to his injuries, returned to England.

By the fall of 1780, Loyalist forces were on the defensive in Carolina, still reeling from their painful defeat at the Battle of King's Mountain in October 1780. With that Patriot victory, the Carolina country returned to their control, putting pressure additional on Cornwallis and Tarleton. Thus, instead of going after the elusive Patriot leader "Swamp Fox" Francis Marion, Cornwallis ordered Tarleton to harass Patriot militia units under the command of General Thomas Sumter. Cornwallis hoped that Tarleton could secure a victory and reinvigorate the Loyalist cause. By the end of November, Sumter's patriotic band had grown to 1,000 men. On 18 November, Tarleton's British Legion dragoons and 63rd mounted infantry were bathing and watering their horses in the Broad River when some of Sumter's militiamen fired at them from the opposite bank. The British brought out a 3-pound cannon and easily dispersed the raiders. But Tarleton did not tolerate insults easily. Putting his men across the river in flatboats at night, he pressed Sumter hard the next day. Fortunately for Sumter, a deserter from the 63rd regiment revealed Tarleton's plans and location. Although Sumter had 1,000 militiamen, Tarleton at that time only had a little over 500 under his command, including 300 British regulars, but he had never been defeated. Sumter and his colonels decided it was best to find a strong defensive position and wait for Tarleton to attack them. Colonel Thomas Brandon, who knew the area, suggested the nearby farm of William Blackstock, a farm in the hills above the River Tyger. The land had been cleared for farming, providing good fields of fire and room for manoeuvre, and the structures were of logs and thus narrow but convenient gaps could be cut for men firing from behind cover.

On 20 November, at 1000 hours, Tarleton followed his lead, advancing ahead of the 71st and the artillery, with 190 of his dragoons and his Legion's mounted infantry, and 80 mounted regulars of the 63rd. He met a force from Sumter at Enoree Ford which he dispersed with great slaughter. It was later claimed that the group were some Loyalist prisoners who had previously been in charge of some Sumter riflemen under Captain Patrick Carr. Carr escaped at the approach of Tarleton, and in the confusion Tarleton took the freed Loyalists as rebels. Tarleton discovered that Sumter was withdrawing forces from him. Tarleton found the Patriot force and pursued them throughout the afternoon. At 4:00 p.m., Tarleton knew that using all of his strength he could not reach Sumter. Therefore, he decided to take only 190 dragoons and 80 mounted infantry from the 63rd to continue the fast pursuit and let the rest of his force follow on his own. Within an hour, he had finally caught up with the rear of Sumter's force. Sumter had reached the Tyger River. At 5:00 p.m., with daylight fading, Sumter was worried about his situation. However, a local woman who had been watching the British entered Sumter's camp and informed him that British artillery and foot soldiers were still trying to catch up with Tarleton. Knowing that he was favored with good defensive ground, Sumter decided to hold out at the Blackstocks plantation. The river was on Sumter's rear and right flank, but on its left flank was a hill that had 5 log houses belonging to the plantation set in an open field. He ordered Colonel Hampton and his riflemen to defend the houses, and Colonel Twiggs Georgia's sharpshooters were placed along a fence that stretched from the log houses to the woods on the left flank.

On the wooded hill that rose to his right from the main road, Sumter deployed most of the rest of his troops. Colonel Lacey's mounted infantry was to protect the right flank and Colonel Richard Winn was sent to the rear, along the river, as a reserve. As Tarleton approached Sumter's position, he decided that the Patriot line was too strong to attack alone without the rest of the force straggling behind him. While he waited for the rest of the British force, Tarleton dismounted his infantry and sent them to his right flank which faced a stream running opposite the Sumter front. The dragoons were sent to his left flank. Sumter decided not to wait until Tarleton was reinforced to attack. Just before Tarleton arrived, Taylor's detachment lumbered into the camp with cartloads of flour taken in the raid on Summer's mill. Initially, Tarleton charged and drove off a group of Sumter's men positioned ahead of the main body. However, Tarleton later stated that he had no intention at the time of engaging Sumter directly, but rather that the battle came about as a result of some of Sumter's men (the Georgians) engaging his own. Sometime after 5:00 p.m. Sumter sent Colonel Elijah Clark and 100 men to encircle Tarleton's right flank and prevent reinforcements from joining him. Clark's force fired on the British too soon and the British counter-attacked and drove Clark back. At the same time, Sumter ordered Colonel Lacey to attack the British left flank. He was able to get within 75 meters of the British, who were busy watching the fighting to the left of him, and opened fire. His men quickly killed 20 British dragoons. The British regrouped and drove Lacey out. While riding from their right flank into the center, Sumter was hit by a musket ball.

He pierced her right shoulder, along the shoulder, and splintered her spine. After discovering that Sumter was wounded, Twiggs assumed overall command. The advance of the British reinforcements was halted as Tarleton's men were being fired upon from their flanks. Tarleton and his men were in a precarious position and suffered severely from the fire of the patriots. At that moment of peril, Lieutenant John Money led a bayonet charge that threw Sumter's men into disarray: Money himself was mortally wounded in the attack by Colonel Henry Hampton's riflemen. Tarleton then fell back 3.5 km to join his support column. In the British withdrawal from Blackstock, Major James Jackson and his Georgians captured 30 riderless horses, apparently those of the 63rd. By the time Tarleton had joined forces with the 71st Highlander, it was dark and it was beginning to rain. Major James Jackson in later years reported that the fight had lasted three hours. Colonel John Twiggs, who took immediate command of Sumter, who had been badly wounded, left Colonel Winn to keep some fires burning, while the remaining Patriots withdrew over the Tyger River. Sumter himself had to be carried off the field in a litter. For the next three days, Tarleton attempted to pursue Sumter. Although he managed to take a handful of prisoners, most of Sumter's men managed to escape in separate groups. What was left of Sumter's brigade was put in charge of Lt. Col. William Henderson, who had been taken prisoner at Charleston, and had recently been traded. Cornwallis reported to Clinton on December 3: “As soon as he [Tarleton] took care of his wounded, he pursued and scattered the remaining part of Sumpter's body; and then, having assembled a militia under the command of Mr. Cunningham, whom I made a brigadier-general of the militia of that district, and who has by far the greatest influence in that country, returned to the River Broad, where he now remains ; as well as Major M'Arthur, in the Brierley Ferry neighborhood."

As darkness finally engulfed the battlefield, both sides withdrew to the safety of their positions. Both sides then claimed victory for the battle. The patriots claimed victory because they had picked the fight and repulsed the British. Tarleton claimed victory because he was successful in his initial mission of keeping the Patriot force away from Fort Ninet-Six and dispersing the Patriots. He also put Sumter out of commission for a time. British casualties were 92 killed and 75 to 100 wounded. Patriot casualties were 3 killed, 4 wounded, and 50 captured. Sumter's injury was a blessing in disguise, as Congress finally relented to allow George Washington to designate his own choice for American command of the South. Washington appointed one of his best field commanders, Nathanael Greene, whose very presence tilted the Southern campaign in favor of the Americans.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«en los cinco días anteriores a Cowpens, los británicos fueron sometidos a un estrés que solo podía ser aliviado con descanso y una dieta adecuada».
«In deep anguish and mental anxiety, I am compelled to acquaint Your Excellency with the complete defeat of the troops under my command.».
— Attributed to Major-General Horatio Gates.
​

The conflict in the South turned into a quasi-civil war, with roughly half the population supporting the Crown and half loyal to the rebellion. Congress trusted Washington to identify a suitable replacement for General Horatio Gates after his disastrous defeat at the Battle of Camden. On December 3, 1780, 38-year-old Nathanael Greene became the commander of the forces of the American South. When Greene took command, the Southern Army theoretically numbered 2,307 men, but present were only 949 Continentals, mostly from the Maryland Regiment, and 533 militiamen. He knew that his small army would not succeed in any direct confrontation with the British, so he violated military convention and divided his force in the region to wage guerrilla warfare. On December 21, 1780, 600 men under the command of Brigadier General Daniel Morgan were sent to take up position between the Pacolet and Broad rivers in South Carolina. Greene hoped that they would find desperately needed supplies and rally support for the rebellion among the strongly divided civilian population. The leader of British southern strategy, Charles Cornwallis, was planning an invasion of North Carolina when he received information that Morgan's troops were heading west. He received incorrect information that Morgan was planning an attack on the British fort Ninety-Six in South Carolina. Cornwallis ordered Lt. Col Banastre Tarleton with his British Legion to Fort Ninety-Six to engage Daniel Morgan and defend the fort. After reaching Ninety-six, Tarleton requested additional forces to pursue Morgan's army to what he correctly assumed was Morgan's true destination: the River Broad. On January 12 he received precise news of Morgan's location and continued on a hard march, building boats to cross rivers that were swollen by winter rains.

On January 13, Lt. Col. William Washington's Continental Light Dragoons patrolled the Fair Woods area. They rode into a large group of loyalists and captured 40 of them. Washington learned that British troops were operating near Musgrove Mill. Morgan drew his forces away from the British until he reached Cowpens some 3 days later. The annihilation of a unit by Morgan's cavalry some 80 km north of his headquarters decided the problem for Cornwallis. He ordered Tarleton to turn west while he led the main army north to the King's Mountain. Tarleton would either lead Morgan into a trap on the King's mountain, or engage and destroy Morgan's force, himself. On January 16, Tarleton was reported to have crossed the Pacolet River and was much closer than expected. Soon, Morgan crossed it and traveled west on the Green River Highway. Here, with the Broad River inundated 12 miles (19 km) behind him, he decided to oppose the British at Cowpens. Meanwhile, Tarleton marched his exhausted and hungry soldiers through the day and night in hopes of ensnaring the already entrenched Patriot force. When they finally camped near Cowpens, the British were physically and mentally exhausted, having slept only a few hours each night for the past week. The regulars and many officers were dangerously malnourished. On January 17, at 02:00, Tarleton roused his troops and continued his march towards Cowpens. Veterans would claim that "in the five days before Cowpens, the British were subjected to a stress that could only be relieved by rest and proper diet." Apart from that "in the 48 hours before the battle, the British ran out of food and slept less than four hours." Throughout the period Tarleton's brigade made a great rapid march through difficult terrain arriving at the battlefield exhausted and malnourished.

Tarleton, who had 1,150 troops, felt the victory and nothing would persuade him to delay. His patriotic scouts had briefed him on the area Morgan was in, and he was sure of success because Morgan's soldiers, mostly militiamen, seemed to be trapped between the more experienced British troops and a flooded river. Receiving word that Tarleton was in hot pursuit, Morgan withdrew north, to avoid being caught between Tarleton and Cornwallis. He mustered several hundred additional soldiers, including Andrew Pickens's militia, and determined that his force of approximately 1,000 men was capable of holding off Tarleton's attack. Morgan spent the night before the battle talking to as many mainlanders and militiamen as he could, making powerful speeches and rallying his men for the next battle. Privately, however, Morgan remained pessimistic, informing General Greene that his "force was inadequate for the intent you have hinted at." When he received word that Tarleton was advancing, Morgan formed his army of about 1,800 strong between the Pacolet and Broad rivers. As soon as he arrived at the scene, Tarleton formed a battle line. A few minutes before dawn, Tarleton's vanguard emerged from the woods in front of the American position. Tarleton ordered his forces deployed, while his lead dragoons (50 from the 17th and 100 from the Legion) charged the cover line of skirmishers, who had been ordered to make two volleys, preferably on the officers, and withdraw. . The marksmen opened fire and within minutes cut down 15 dragoons, who quickly withdrew. Tarleton immediately ordered the infantry forward against the Patriots, the covering gunners fired two shots and retreated to the militia line.

The British attacked again, this time reaching the militiamen, who (as ordered) fired two volleys at the enemy, especially shooting at the officers. The British, with 40% casualties among their officers, were stunned and confused. During this time, the British artillery ignored the fighting and instead fired on the Third Continental Line on the hill. The rounds were fired, landing among Washington's cavalry behind the hill and causing nothing more serious than their movement to a calmer position behind the American left. Tarleton ordered a charge against the militia line, which as planned, retreated over the mainlanders, with the order firing and falling back to fire again. Believing that the militia were fleeing as usual, he ordered the dragoons on both flanks to charge the flanks of the retreating militia. The depleted 17th Dragoons (35) were attacked by Lieutenant Colonel Washington's cavalry (182), completely routed and put to flight; to the right and the dragoons of the Legion (50) were stopped by the Virginia skirmishers who had regrouped to the rear. Morgan ordered Howard's men, retreating but still in effective range, to turn and volley in unison. The British had lost cohesion and were in the midst of a disorganized charge when the American barrage halted their advance. Taking advantage of the bewilderment, Morgan ordered a fixed bayonet charge, which caught the British line by surprise, in terrible surprise, began to collapse; some men gave up on the spot, while others turned and ran. Howard's men advanced and seized the two British guns, the British gunners fighting to the last man in a futile attempt to save their guns, but would eventually be forced to surrender.

William Washington's cavalry, after defeating the dragoons, appeared from behind the American left to hit the British on their right flank and rear. While on the other flank, the Virginia skirmishers, after defeating the Legion's dragoons, attacked the flanks and rear of the 71st Highlander. Tarleton found about 40 of his Legion dragoons and with them tried to save the two cannons that his forces had brought, which had been taken and held, but the fleeing soldiers and the Patriot charge drove them back. The shock of the sudden charge, coupled with the reappearance of American militiamen on the left flank where Tarleton's exhausted men expected to see Tarleton's own cavalry, proved too much for the British. Almost half of the British and Loyalist foot soldiers fell to the ground wounded or not. His will to fight was gone. "Combat shock" was the cause of this abrupt British collapse: the effects of exhaustion, starvation and demoralization hit them suddenly. Caught in a clever double encirclement compared to Hannibal's Battle of Cannae, many of the British surrendered. Tarleton desperately tried to rally the soldiers to him. In a final attempt to save the battle, he attacked Washington's cavalry with his Legion (55th) dragoons that he was able to muster. During the ensuing skirmish, Washington attacked Tarleton and the two briefly exchanged blows. His men outnumbered and with low morale were overwhelmed, Tarleton finally ordered a retreat after several minutes of engagement, but managed to shoot William Washington's horse before leaving the battlefield. The last to hold were the regulars of the 71st Highlanders, who, attacked head-on by the Continentals, on the left flank by the Virginians, and in the rear by the Washington Dragoons, finally surrendered.

It was 0800 hours and the Battle of Cowpens had lasted about an hour. In retreating from him, Tarleton was able to escape capture by forcing a local planter named Adam Goudylock to serve as his guide. It was a total victory for the patriots, British casualties were 110 killed of which more than 40 were officers, 200 were wounded and 500 taken prisoner. In stark contrast the patriot casualties were only 12 dead and 60 wounded. Tarleton suffered a casualty rate of 86%, and his Legion had been eliminated as a fighting force. Morgan's soldiers gave the 122 fallen men a proper burial and proceeded to Winchester, Virginia, where he handed over his prisoners and met with Nathanael Greene. Greene ordered his army north to gather supplies and prepare for the inevitable clashes that would follow with the British armed forces. News of his defeat was reported by Tarleton to a shocked Cornwallis who was expecting victory at Cowpens. Cornwallis redirected his focus south and decided that the British would make a final push to capture Virginia. The Patriot victory at Cowpens reignited the flame of rebellion that had been largely absent in the southern colonies, and led many in Britain to question the prospect of a successful end to the war in North America. Nathanael Greene, the new commander decided to split up his troops in the Carolinas to force the larger British contingent under Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis to fight them on multiple fronts (Greene also wanted to buy time to rebuild his army). This strategy paid off on January 17, 1781, when Brigadier General Daniel Morgan and his troops decisively defeated a British force commanded by Colonel Banastre Tarleton at the Battle of Cowpens, South Carolina.

Cornwallis set up camp at Hillsborough and attempted to scavenge for supplies and recruit Loyalists from North Carolina. However, the disorderly state of his army and the Pyle massacre, where 600 Patriot militiamen ambushed and killed 93 Loyalists and wounded 250 others, deterred the Loyalists. However, thousands of slaves had escaped from plantations in South Carolina and other southern states, and many joined the British to fight for their personal freedom. In the last months of the war, the British evacuated more than 3,000 liberated men to Nova Scotia, with others going to London. Northern slaves escaped to British lines in occupied cities like New York. On March 8, Brigadier General Daniel Morgan and Greene's forces met at the Guilford Courthouse. Greene met with his officers and asked what his next move would be. They all decided to continue the retreat to the north. That withdrawal would be known as the "Race for the Dan". The Dan River was swollen and safe to cross only at fords upstream, along the North Carolina-Virginia border. Greene stayed ahead of Cornwallis. He knew that his big trucks were holding him back. He decided to burn all the items that were not needed for the battle and left the stragglers behind so the army could move faster. Greene had detached a decoy force, commanded by Otho Williams, to lure Cornwallis in the opposite direction of the retreating main army. The decoy force managed to get the British to go after them instead of Greene. Cornwallis moved his army between the Americans and the fords upriver. Greene had collected enough boats to carry his army across the river to a point downstream of the British position. Greene knew that the British would wear themselves out from marching fast over 300 km.

Cornwallis arrived just in time to see the last boat of Americans cross the river. Since he had no boats, he turned his army around in disgust and headed for Hillsboro. In Virginia Greene rested his army and continued to amass his forces in preparation to meet Cornwallis's troops. In early March, Greene rested and reorganized his army. He was waiting for the promised reinforcements from Virginia before returning to North Carolina to attack the British. After learning that Cornwallis was retreating south, Greene sent a detachment across the river to watch for the British and harass them, which they did for a couple of weeks. A few days later, 600 militiamen arrived from Virginia. With these reinforcements, his strength reached 2,100 men, Greene had nearly twice as many troops as the British. He led his army across the Dan River back to North Carolina. Once back in North Carolina, Greene's force rapidly increased in size. About 400 mainlanders from Virginia arrived with Colonel Richard Campbell, about 1,000 militiamen from North Carolina, and 1,700 militiamen from Virginia. By March 10 Greene's force had grown to 4,400 troops. On March 12, Greene moved his army 20 miles to the Guilford Courthouse, where he carefully picked his ground for a fight with the British. On March 14, while encamped at the forks of the Deep River, Cornwallis was informed that General Richard Butler was marching to attack his army. With Butler there was a North Carolina militia corps, plus reinforcements from Virginia, consisting of 3,000 Virginia militia, a Virginia State regiment, a corps of Virginian 18-month-olds, and conscripts for the Maryland line. They had joined Greene's command, creating a force of some 9,000 to 10,000 thousand men in total.

On March 15, during the night, other reports confirmed that the US force was at the Guilford Court House, some 20 km away. Cornwallis decided to give battle, even though he only had 1,900 men at his disposal. He detached his baggage train with 130 North Carolina volunteers and 20 dragoons under Lt. Col. Hamilton to Bell Mill below the Deep River, then set out with his main force, before breakfast could be eaten, arriving at Guilford. at noon. Meanwhile, Greene, after receiving reinforcements, decided to cross the River Dan again and challenge Cornwallis. The two armies met at the courthouse in Guilford, present-day Greensboro, named for General Greene. Greene hoped to break Cornwallis's army against these men, but he would not allow his Continentals to be destroyed in a prolonged battle. He knew that without the continentals the army would cease to exist. The first shots were fired at approximately 0730 hours, when the dragoons of the British Legion from Tarleton advanced up the Great Salisbury road. There they met Lee's dragons standing guard at a narrowing in the road. After a heavy exchange of fire, Tarleton's men withdrew to the New Garden meeting house. Lee's infantry and a company of Campbell's rifles pursued them, and they quickly fell into a fight with the Guards' light infantry, Hessian jägers, and leading elements of the 23rd. The British line quickly lengthened, the red-clad infantry attempting to outflank Lee and his men. Seeing this, Lee ordered the infantry to withdraw to a wooded ridge by a crossroads, about halfway between the initial encounter and the subsequent fighting at the New Garden meeting house. Lee's dragoons covered the retreat. This fight at the crossroads was more of an infantry fight, as the woods surrounding the house prohibited effective cavalry manoeuvre.

Here the two sides fought for about thirty minutes before Lee withdrew to the main American lines approximately 5 km to the north. Due to these initial holding skirmishes, Greene had approximately two and a half hours to spread out his lines and prepare for the British attack. Greene deployed his troops numbering about 4,500 in three lines. At 1200 hours the British crossed Little Horsepen Creek, just under 1 km beyond the creek were the American positions and spread out for their attack. Cornwallis brought his artillery to the front to counter American artillery fire. Charles, Earl Cornwallis deployed his army with two brigades in the front line, one brigade in the second line, and cavalry in reserve. The North Carolina militia had moderate cover behind a rail fence and good firing ranges through plowed farm fields. Following the advice of Daniel Morgan, Greene placed groups of riflemen behind the North Carolina militia with orders to shoot any militiaman who left his post before he had delivered the required two volleys. The Americans opened artillery fire as the British appeared on the southern edge of the first clearing. Twenty minutes of ineffective artillery duels preceded the British attack on the front line. The actual assault occurred at approximately 1:30 p.m. On the north side of the road, the 33rd and 23rd, led by Lt. Col. James Webster, cut through the rough fields toward Eaton's brigade. On the southern flank, the 2nd Brigade of the 71st and Bose's Hessian Regiment, led by Maj. Gen. Alexander Leslie, approached Butler's brigade across similar, recently plowed ground.

After crossing a second wooden fence approximately 100-150 meters from the militia line, the British began to come under fire. The distance was far beyond the effective range of the rifles, so historians attribute this fire to Lynch's and Cambell's riflemen stationed on both flanks of the American line. Despite some men falling in the ranks, the British infantry pressed on with fixed bayonets. At 40 yards, North Carolina militiamen fired their muskets at the British lines. At this time, many British stopped and fired. Most of the downloads were made by companies. According to some, the British fired as many as three times, but their fire was less effective than that of the militia. The Americans braced their muskets against the fence and fired a second volley. This volley is considered to be one of the most effective individual volleys of the war. The British troops were surprised that the militia did not run away after firing the first shot, which was what the American militia usually did. After the second shot was fired, the militiamen fled, although some held out as the Surrey County militia refused to withdraw, joining Lee's Legion and fighting hard throughout the battle. The cavalry and continentals on the right flank withdrew in good order, but on the left flank the situation was more confused. Bose's Hessian battalion, supported by the Guards regiment, pressed on the right flank the flank of Lee's Legion and Campbell's Virginia skirmishers, who withdrew to the southwest; being harassed by these two battalions which accounted for almost 25% of the British forces, who moved away from the battlefield almost 1.2 km south of the New Garden road, where they maintained a private fight on a small rise within a forest, and no longer participated in the general battle.

As the British advanced towards the second line and the Hessian battalion and the 1st Guards battalion having separated in pursuit of the Patriot right flank, a gap was produced in the British line; so it had to reorganize, the right British brigade was reinforced with the 2nd Guards Battalion (300), and on the right the 2nd Battalion of the 71st Highlanders (212), the Grenadiers between the two brigades with the artillery following the path, and the left brigade with the 23rd and 33rd, the light infantry and the jägers on the British left flank. General Cornwallis had only the British Legion left unpledged. In the second line the Virginians waited. The woods were too thick to allow them to see the battle from the front line, but they doubtless heard the musket fire and then saw fleeing North Carolina militia as they made their way back through the Virginian lines. Finally the British appeared. The 23rd were the first to be seen, and Lawson ordered a regiment forward to meet them. Unfortunately, as he did so, the American brigade was caught on the flank by the Grenadier Guards, who encircled the regiment from north to south. Fighting north of the road quickly broke up into numerous platoon and company fights, as Virginians who had not run exchanged fire with British troops through the trees. The volleys lasted for a long time, with some regiments claiming as many as 20 shots per man. Finally, the British finally charged to the bayonet, and the Virginians of Lawson's brigade were routed. South of the road, Stevens's brigade put up a valiant fight. Cocke's and Moffet's regiments fought with the 71st, exchanging volleys six or seven times with the Scots.

When Stevens was wounded near the road, resistance in this part of the line collapsed. However, fighting continued on the southern part of Stevens's line. There Samuel McDowell's men held their ground for several more minutes before withdrawing. Meanwhile, a separate battle raged south of the second line. There, Alexander Stuart's Virginia Militia, Col. William Campbell's Riflemen, Lt. Col. Henry Lee's Legion, and Capt. Andrew Wallace's Continentals fought against the Guard Battalion, the Bose Hessian Regiment, Cornwallis sent cavalry of Tarleton. His private battle would drag on to the conclusion of the main fight, moving up to 1.5 km away from the main British army. It was 2:30 p.m. and the climax of the battle was about to begin. Greene's Continentals had been waiting for nearly an hour, listening to the noise of the fighting as it drew closer. They had seen the survivors of the first two lines pass by and knew that the British infantry would not be far behind. First to appear were the jägers and light infantry on the left flank, followed next by the 33rd, led by Lt. Col. James Webster. They immediately reached the line of the mainlanders. The British had heeled slightly, and the light infantry engaged Green's 5th Virginians, while the 33rd engaged Howes's 4th Virginians and 1st Maryland. The mainlanders let them close until they were within 30 meters, and they unleashed a volley, which was devastating. The fire slowed down the British regulars who suffered heavy casualties and withdrew to a strong position on the ridge opposite the Continentals. Ltcol Webster himself was injured and had to be evacuated. Tcol Stuart's 2nd Guards Brigade with 2 companies of O'Hara Grenadiers followed and, like the 33rd, immediately charged.

The result, however, was different. The 2nd Guards Brigade with the Grenadiers advanced directly down the road towards Captain Singleton's Battery and the 2nd Maryland. The Marylanders tried to turn, got confused, and then snapped as the Guardsmen hit them. The guards gave chase and might have won the day were it not for the 1st Maryland, as good a veteran unit as any in the British Army. Discovering that the Guards were behind them, they clashed and fired a devastating volley at the Guards. Returning to retrieve the captured cannons and sealed the breach. The guards were surprised, but they did not panic. They turned to face the mainlanders and returned effective fire. But then Lt. Col. William Washington and his light dragoons fell on the rear of the Guard. The redcoats retreated to their lines. With both lines formed, hand-to-hand fighting ensued, moving ever closer to the British lines. Cornwallis ordered Lieutenant John Macleod, in command of the 2×3 guns, and who had just arrived, to open grapeshot on the mainlanders, though that meant some of the guards would also be hit. They opened fire and hand-to-hand combat broke up, and the 1st Maryland and Washington cavalry withdrew to the American lines. At this time, the 71st and Taleton's cavalry with some Hessian units, began to reach the third line. Greene, feeling that there was nothing more to be gained this day, ordered the army to withdraw. The Battle of Guilford Courthouse was over. In retrospect, the engagement ended as a British tactical victory, but it was a victory the British could not savor. Low on supplies and with nearly 25% casualties, Cornwallis was forced to withdraw to Wilmington, North Carolina to await reinforcements, following a path that would eventually lead the British to their destination at Yorktown, Virginia.

The battle had lasted only 90 minutes, and although the British technically defeated the American force, they lost more than a quarter of their own men. Cornwallis reported his casualties as 3 officers and 88 men killed, and 24 officers and 384 men wounded, with a further 25 men missing in action. Webster was wounded during the battle and died two weeks later. Ltcol Tarleton, commander of the provincial loyalist British Legion, was another notable officer to be injured, as he lost two fingers after being shot in the right hand. Greene reported his casualties as 57 killed, 111 wounded, and 161 missing for the continental troops and 22 killed, 74 wounded, and 885 missing for the militia, a total of 79 killed, 185 wounded, and 1,046 missing. Of those reported missing, 75 were wounded men who were captured by the British, the rest fled to their homes. When Cornwallis resumed his march, these 75 wounded prisoners were left behind at Cross Creek, Cornwallis having earlier left 70 of his most seriously wounded men at the Quaker settlement of New Garden near Snow Camp. The British, taking ground with their customary tenacity when faced with superior numbers, were tactically victorious. Seeing this as a classic Pyrrhic victory, British Whig Party leader and war critic Charles James Fox echoed Plutarch's famous words when he said, "Another such victory would bankrupt the British Army!" He then went on to comment on the British force: “The conduct and actions of the officers and men who composed this little army will do more justice to their merit than I can say in words. Their perseverance, fearlessness in action, their invincible patience in the difficulties and fatigues of a march of more than 600 miles, in which they have crossed several great rivers and innumerable streams, many of which would be considered great rivers in any other country in the world, without tents or weather covers, and often without provisions, they will sufficiently manifest their ardent zeal for the honor and interests of their Sovereign and country.”

After the battle, the British spread out across a vast expanse of forest without food or shelter, and during the night torrential rains began. Had the British followed the retreating Americans, they might have come across their baggage and supply wagons, which had been camped west of the Salisbury road in some old fields before the battle. Greene, cautiously avoiding another Camden, retreated with his forces intact. With his small army of less than 2,000 members; Cornwallis refused to follow Greene into the country, and retreating to Hillsborough, he raised the royal standard, offered protection to the inhabitants, and for the moment seemed to own Georgia and the two Carolinas. Within weeks, however, he left the heart of the state and marched to the coast at Wilmington, North Carolina, to recruit and readjust his command. In Wilmington, the British general faced a serious problem, the solution of which, under his own responsibility, unexpectedly led to the end of the war in seven months. Rather than stay in Carolina, he decided to march on Virginia, justifying the move on the ground that until Virginia was reduced, he would not be able to firmly hold the more southern states he had just invaded. Later, General Henry Clinton harshly criticized this decision for not being military and for having been taken against his instructions. The danger lay in the suddenly changing situation in that direction. Like Greene, instead of following Cornwallis to the coast, he pushed boldly toward Camden and Charleston, South Carolina; with the aim of drawing his antagonist after him to the points where he was the previous year, as well as to drive back Lord Rawdon, whom Cornwallis had left in that field. In his main goal, the recovery of the southern states, Greene was successful at the end of the year, but not without hard fighting and repeated setbacks. “We fight, they hit us and we fight again”, were his words.

Following the Battle of Guilford Courthouse in Greensboro, North Carolina. Cornwallis had suffered significant casualties and subsequently moved his army to Wilmington, North Carolina. Greene, whose army was still largely intact after that battle, took advantage of Cornwallis's move to march on South Carolina and begin operations to remove the British from that state. With the help of militia commanders Thomas Sumter, Francis Marion, and Andrew Pickens, Patriot forces seized several British outposts in the interior of South Carolina; others were abandoned to by the British. By mid-May, the only places in the state with significant British garrisons were Fort Ninety-Six, in the northwestern part of the state, and the port of Charleston, nearly 200 miles (325 km) southeast of the Atlantic coast. British outpost Fort Ninety-Six was garrisoned by 550 experienced Loyalists, known as Lancey's Brigade, made up of provincial regiments under Lt. Col. John Cruger. Occupied by the British since 1780, the defenses consisted of a palisade surrounded by a deep ditch and abatís. A large redoubt called Fort Star provided a place for defenders to line up attackers on two of the palisade walls, and a smaller redoubt provided similar cover for the remaining walls and water supply. Cruger had 3×3 guns. Greene and about 1,000 troops arrived at the Ninety-Six on May 22, the same day as Andrew Pickens and Henry "Light-horse Harry" Lee. They began laying siege to nearby Augusta, Georgia. Siege operations began immediately, targeting Fort Star, under its chief engineer, Polish Colonel Thaddeus Kosciuszko. Cruger did what he could to interfere with the siege work, often going out at night to harass the workers.

In one notable incident, his forces drove away the workers and captured some of their digging tools. By June 3, Greene's men had dug a ditch less than 100 feet from Fort Star. They used a tactic similar to that used by General Marion to capture Fort Watson, building a wooden tower about 9 meters high, with a protected platform on top. Under this raised cover, Patriot snipers would have a clear line of fire on the fort. At first, the snipers in the tower were able to hit several gunners. Cruger responded quickly by using sandbags to raise the height of his parapet, giving enough cover for his own marksmen to fire at the tower through slats between the bags. He also tried to set the tower on fire with red-hot shots, but couldn't get the balls hot enough. The attackers fired incendiary arrows into the fort (a tactic that had worked when the Patriots captured Fort Motte), setting fire to anything flammable within the fort. Cruger had crews remove flammable roofs from buildings in the fort to prevent them from burning. On June 7, Lord Rawdon left Charleston with 2,000 British forces to relieve the siege. The next day, Pickens and Lee arrived, having successfully captured Augusta on June 6. Greene did not learn of Rawdon's move until June 11. When the situation became critical, Greene decided to attempt an assault on the fort. (Cruger learned of Rawdon's approach the following day when the messenger, posing as a patriot, came close enough to the fort to ride the remaining distance on his horse.) Greene planned for one party to capture the smaller redoubt, while a larger attack force went after Fort Star, where some men would knock down the sandbags to expose the defenders to fire from the tower.

When the attack began on June 18, everything was planned at first: the smallest redoubt was taken and the men successfully passed the abatis and lowered the sandbags. At this point, Cruger launched a counterattack with a couple of sorties to attack the flanks of the attackers. In a fierce battle dominated by bayonets and the use of muskets as clubs, the leaders of the attack were killed and their men forced to retreat to their trenches. With the attack failing, and Rawdon only 30 miles (48 km) away, Greene called off the assault and ordered a withdrawal. Greene's losses numbered 150 men, while Cruger's casualties were less than 100. Greene withdrew toward Charlotte, North Carolina, allowing Rawdon to join forces with Cruger. Rawdon sent a sizeable force to pursue Greene, but the heat and the effect of the long forced marches delayed them. The force withdrew to Fort Ninety-Six, which Rawdon then abandoned. General Greene blamed the failure of the operations against Ninety-Six in part on Sumter and Marion, who failed to act in support of his operations in a timely manner. Other officers later blamed Greene and Lee for failing to cut off the defenders' water supply in Spring Branch. When Greene learned of Rawdon's withdrawal from the Ninety-Six, he attempted to unite all elements of the Patriot military forces to attack Rawdon before he reached Charleston. He failed due to apparently late moves by Sumter and Marion. After Rawdon decided to burn and abandon Fort Ninety-Six, he withdrew the garrison to Charleston. Failing health, Rawdon sailed for England in late August, leaving Charleston under the command of Colonel Alexander Stewart. On July 16, Greene moved his army, exhausted from many days of marching and fighting, to a camp in the High Hills of Santee, allowing his main force to rest while awaiting reinforcements.

Marion and Sumter continued to harass the British in a "post war". On August 23, his force moved toward Camden to cross the Wateree River, and then Howell's ferry to cross the Congaree River. By September 4, they were camped at Fort Motte, then at Stoudenmyer Plantation on September 5-6. On August 13, Colonel Stewart had led a force of 2,000 to 2,300 men from Orangeburg to the Thompson plantation south of the Congaree River. He then returned to Eutaw Springs on August 27, about 3.5 km east of present-day Eutawville. On September 8, at 4:00 p.m., Greene's army began to march from Burdell Plantation in the direction of Eutaw Springs, which was 7 miles (11 km) away. In the vanguard were Ltcol Henry Lee's Legion (73rd infantry and 72nd cavalry). Behind in the marching column marched 40 cavalry and 200 infantry under Brigadier General Francis Marion, followed by 150 North Carolina militia under Colonel Francis Marquis of Malmedy and 307 South Carolina militia led by General Andrew Pickens Brigade. Continental Army troops formed the center and rear of Greene's column, led by 3 Green Battalions from North Carolina under the command of Brigadier General Jethro Sumner. Major John Armstrong led a mounted contingent while Lt. Col. John Baptista Ashe and Major Reading Blount led the foot soldiers. Ashe and Blount belonged to the 1st North Carolina, while Armstrong belonged to the 4th North Carolina. 2 Virginia battalions under Lt. Col. Richard Campbell and Maj. Smith Snead were followed by 2 Maryland battalions Lt. Col. John Eager Howard and Maj. Henry Hardman. The mounted men of Lt. Col. William Washington and Capt. Robert Kirkwood with the Delaware infantry companies formed the rear of the column.

Greene's force had 2×3 guns under Lieutenant William Gaines and 2×6 guns led by Captain William Brown. In total, Greene had 1,256 Continental infantry and 300 cavalry, the horsemen being divided mainly between Lee and Washington. Lee's cavalry was led by Major Joseph Egleston and his infantry by Captain Rudolph. Greene's army numbered 2,400 men, of whom 200 stayed behind to protect the baggage train. Stewart had between 1,800 and 2,000 troops on hand. His British regulars were the 3rd, 63rd, RI-64th and a battalion (300) under Major John Majoribanks, made up of the companies of the 3rd, 19th and 30th. The regulars were supported by two American loyalist contingents, consisting of a battalion of John Harris Cruger (150) of Lancey's brigade and 50 mounted loyalists from South Carolina under John Coffin. Stewart's artillery consisted of 6×6, 1×4 and 1×3 guns plus a swivel (rotating gun). In order to make up for the shortage of bread in his supply, Stewart had been sending out foraging parties every morning. At around 08:00 on September 8, Captain John Coffin and his detachment of his South Carolina loyalist cavalry were reconnoitring ahead of Stewart's main force when they encountered an American scouting party under the command of of Major John Armstrong. Coffin chased after Armstrong, who led him into an ambush. Attacked by the infantry of Henry Lee's Legion, Coffin escaped, but left 4 or 5 of his men dead and 40 more captured. The Americans encountered Stewart's gathering parties and captured about 400 of them. Greene's force, numbering about 2,200 men, closed in on Stewart's camp, while Stewart, warned by Coffin, deployed his force.

When the Americans realized they were closing in on the British force, they formed three lines, with the militia leading with 2x3 guns, followed by Continentals from Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina with 2x6 guns, with the Delaware regiment and the Washington cavalry in reserve. The Americans began the attack at 0900 hours, with artillery fire and advancing militia. This line consisted of, from left to right, Hampton, Henderson, Pickens, Malmedy's, Polk, Marion, Lee's infantry, and Lee's cavalry on the right flank. They were opposed by the British line consisting of, from left to right, Coffin's Cavalry and Provincial Light Infantry, 64th, 63rd, New Jersey Volunteers, New York Volunteers, and Marjoribanks' 3rd Battalion. Close combat ensued as the Militia closed with the British line. Some militia panicked while others stood their ground, capable of firing 17 rounds, before being ordered back and replaced by North Carolina Continentals who made a line pass. Continentals from North Carolina stopped the British advance, but a British bayonet charge forced them back, only to reform and stop the British a second time. Greene then ordered the Continentals from Maryland and Virginia to advance another step of the line, forcing the British back to their camp. However, two areas of British resistance remained, one under Major Henry Sheridan at Brick House, which included a swivel gun, and one under Major Marjoribanks on the north flank with the light infantry. Washington's cavalry attempted to dislodge Marjoribanks's infantrymen, but Washington was surrounded, wounded, and taken prisoner, remaining out for the rest of the war. Marjoribanks then retreated towards the brick house. The brick house became the focal point of the battle, and when an American artillery barrage failed, the house gave the British a focal point to regroup, rally, and re-enter the battle.

Major Majoribanks then attacked the American flank in the clearing before the house before being mortally wounded. According to Stewart, the Americans "gave on all sides, leaving behind two six-pound bronzes and more than two hundred dead in the field, and sixty prisoners, among whom was Colonel Washington, and from every report, around eight hundred wounded…”. According to Otho Williams, a sack of the British countryside ensued, while an attack on the British by Lee's cavalry failed. At this point, Greene ordered a withdrawal with all the wounded. Greene's army was able to march back to Burdell Plantation in column formation, with a cavalry picket covering the ordered retreat. According to Greene, "nothing but the brick house and its strong position in Eutaw prevented the remnants of the British Army from falling into our hands." The British declared the loss 85 dead, 351 wounded and 257 missing. However, Greene reported that he had captured 500 prisoners, including 70 wounded. When Stewart moved camp on Sept. 9, he left 54 of his wounded with a surgeon for treatment. These men were listed in Stewart's casualty report under the "injured" category, but the remaining 16 wounded captured by Greene would have been reported as "missing." The disparity between Stewart's report of 257 missing and Greene's figure of 500 prisoners was due to the capture of their foraging party as a separate engagement and not included in British losses in the battle. Including the loss of the foraging party, and counting the 54 wounded men Stewart chose to leave on 9 September in the category of "wounded prisoners" rather than "wounded", this gives a total British casualty of 85 killed. , 297 wounded, 70 prisoners wounded, and another 430 prisoners.

The American casualty toll was 251 dead, 367 wounded, and 74 missing. The British took 60 prisoners, including the wounded Colonel William Washington, and two artillery pieces. Rain prevented the continuation of the battle the following day. Instead, Stewart buried his dead, destroyed supplies including 1,000 muskets, and withdrew towards Moncks Corner, leaving 70 wounded. Greene chased Stewart to Martin's Tavern near the Ferguson Marsh. At that time, on September 11, Stewart was within range for support from the British garrison in Charleston. Despite winning a tactical victory, the British lost strategically. Their failure to stop Greene's continuing operations forced them to abandon most of their conquests in the South, leaving them in control of a small number of isolated enclaves in Wilmington, Charleston, and Savannah. The British attempt to pacify the south with loyalist support had failed even before Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

«En ese momento no podíamos disparar un solo arma … Por lo tanto, propuse capitular».
«At that time we could not fire a single gun...Therefore I proposed to capitulate.».
— Attributed to Cornwallis.

Virginia had largely escaped military notice before 1779, when a raid destroyed much of the state's shipbuilding capacity and seized or destroyed large quantities of tobacco, which was an important trade item for Americans. Virginia's only defenses consisted of local militia companies, and a naval force that had been all but annihilated in the 1779 raid. The militia was under the leadership of Baron von Steuben, an excellent but difficult drillmaster not only with his subordinates, but he also had a difficult relationship with the governor of the state, Thomas Jefferson. Steuben had established a training center at Chesterfield for new recruits to the Continental Army, and a "factory" at Westham for the manufacture and repair of weapons and ammunition. French military planners had to balance the competing demands of the 1781 campaign. After a series of unsuccessful attempts at cooperation with the Americans (leading to failed attacks on Newport, Rhode Island, and Savannah, Georgia), they realized that a more active involvement in North America was needed. As the French fleet prepared to depart from Brest in March 1781, several important decisions were made. The West Indies fleet, led by the Count of Grasse, after operations in the Windward Islands, was directed to Cap-Français to determine what resources would be needed to assist the Spanish operations. Due to a lack of transport, France also pledged six million pounds to support the American war effort rather than provide additional troops. The French fleet at Newport received a new commander, the Earl of Barras. Barras was ordered to take the Newport fleet to harass British shipping to Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and the French army in Newport was ordered to combine with Washington's army outside New York.

On orders deliberately not fully shared with General Washington, Grasse was ordered to assist in the North American operations after his stop at Cap-Français. The French general, the Comte de Rochambeau, was instructed to tell Washington that Grasse could help him without compromising himself. (Washington learned from John Laurens, stationed in Paris, that Grasse had discretion to go north.) The French fleet sailed from Brest on March 22. The British fleet was busy, and made no attempt to oppose the departure. After the French fleet had sailed, the steamer Concorde set sail for Newport, carrying the Count of Barras, Rochambeau's orders, and credits for the six million pounds. In a separate dispatch sent later, de Grasse also made two important requests. The first was that he be notified at Cap-Français of the situation in North America so that he could decide how he could assist operations there, and the second was that he be provided with 30 pilots familiar with North American waters. General Clinton never articulated a coherent vision of what the objectives should be for British operations in the coming campaign season in the early months of 1781. Part of his problem lies in a difficult relationship with his naval counterpart in New York, the aging Vice Admiral Marriott Arbuthnot. Both men were stubborn with prickly personalities. Due to repeated clashes, their employment relationship had completely broken down. In the fall of 1780, Clinton had requested that he or Arbuthnot should be relieved; however, orders reminiscent of Arbuthnot did not arrive until June 1781. Arbuthnot was succeeded by Thomas Graves, with whom Clinton had a somewhat better working relationship. Besides, Clinton's other problem was that he depended on Lord Germaine 3,000 miles away, and distance and time affected his decisions.

Also his relations with Lord Cornwallis in the south depended on the navy. His idea was to make the Chesapeake the main point of the war, even if it was necessary at the expense of New York. The British presence in the South consisted of the heavily fortified ports of Savannah, Georgia, and Charleston in South Carolina, and a series of outposts in the interior of those two states. Although the strongest outposts were relatively immune to attack by the Patriot militia which was their only formal opposition in those states; smaller outposts, as well as supply convoys and couriers, were often targeted by militia commanders such as Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion. Portsmouth had only recently been occupied in October 1780 by a force under Maj. Gen. Alexander Leslie, but Lieutenant General Charles, Earl of Cornwallis, commanding the British Army of the South, had ordered them to South Carolina in November. To replace General Leslie at Portsmouth, General Clinton sent 1,700 troops under General Benedict Arnold (who had joined the British Army in September as a brigadier) to Virginia in late December to raid and fortify Portsmouth. He first stormed Richmond, defeating the defending militia, from January 5 to 7 before returning to Portsmouth. Washington responded by sending Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, south with a small 1,200-strong army to oppose Arnold. Seeking to trap Arnold between Lafayette's army and a French naval detachment, Washington sought help from Admiral Destouches, the French fleet commander at Newport. Destouches was being held by the larger British American fleet anchored in Gardiner Bay on the eastern tip of Long Island, and was unable to help.

In early February, after receiving reports of storm-damaged British ships, Destouches decided to send a naval expedition from his base at Newport. On February 9, Captain Arnaud de Gardeur de Tilley sailed from Newport with three ships: the ship of the line Éveillé (64) and the frigates Surveillante (32) and Gentile (32). When de Tilley arrived at Portsmouth four days later, Arnold withdrew his ships into shallower waters up the Elizabeth River, where the larger French ships could not proceed. Unable to attack Arnold's position, Tilley could only return to Newport. On the way back, the French captured the frigate Romulus (44), which had been sent to investigate their movements. General George Washington asked Admiral Charles René Dominique Sochet, Knight of Destouches to take his fleet to the Chesapeake to support military operations against Arnold by the Marquis de Lafayette. Sailing on March 8, he was followed two days later by Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot, who sailed from eastern Long Island. Arbuthnot's fleet (8 ships of the line and 4 frigates) outnumbered Destouches's (8 ships of the line and 3 frigates), reaching the Virginia Capes just before Destouches on 16 March. After maneuvering for several hours, the battle raged at long range, with both fleets taking some damage and casualties without losing any ships. However, Arbuthnot positioned himself to enter the Chesapeake as the fleets parted ways, thwarting Destouches' objective. The French returned to Newport, while Arbuthnot protected the bay for the arrival of additional ground troops to reinforce General Arnold. As the French fleet prepared to depart from Brest in March 1781, several important decisions were made. The West Indies fleet, led by the Count of Grasse, after operations in the Windward Islands, was directed to Cap-Français to determine what resources would be needed to assist the Spanish operations.

Due to a lack of transport, France also pledged six million pounds to support the American war effort rather than provide additional troops. The French fleet at Newport received a new commander, the Earl of Barras. Barras was ordered to take the fleet from Newport to harass British shipping from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and the French army in Newport was ordered to combine with Washington's army outside New York. On orders deliberately not fully shared with General Washington, Grasse was ordered to assist in the North American operations after his stop at Cap-Français. The French general, the Comte de Rochambeau, was instructed to tell Washington that Grasse could help him without compromising himself. (Washington learned from John Laurens, stationed in Paris, that Grasse had discretion to proceed north. The French fleet sailed from Brest on March 22. The British fleet was busy with preparations to resupply Gibraltar, and made no attempt to oppose After the French fleet had sailed, the packet ship Concorde sailed for Newport, carrying the Count of Barras, Rochambeau's orders, and credits for the six million livres. In a separate dispatch sent later, de Grasse also made two important requests: The first was to be notified in Cap-Français of the situation in North America so that he could decide how he could assist operations there, and the second was to be provided with 30 pilots familiar with North American waters. On March 26, Arnold joined 2,300 troops under Major General William Phillips, who took command of the combined forces.Phillips resumed raiding, he defeated the militia at Blandford, and then burned the tobacco warehouses at Petersburg on April 25. Richmond was about to suffer the same fate, but Lafayette arrived. The British, not wanting to engage in a major battle, withdrew to Petersburg on May 10.

On May 20, Charles Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg with 1,500 men after taking heavy casualties at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. He immediately assumed command, as Phillips had recently died of a fever, taking charge of the 3,600 soldiers Arnold commanded. Cornwallis had not received permission to leave the Carolinas from his superior, Henry Clinton, but he believed that Virginia would be easier to capture, feeling that it would approve of an invading British army. Shortly afterward he was reinforced by some 2,000 more soldiers sent from New York, bringing his strength to 7,200. Cornwallis worked to eliminate Virginia's ability to support the revolutionary cause, and pursued Lafayette, who, with his small army of about 3,250 men, made no attempt to hold out at Richmond, but retreated north. He had a great responsibility and was up against an experienced commander like Cornwallis. In the weeks that followed, Lafayette repeated a series of bullying tactics, threats, feints, and retreats. He would retreat, generally north, always keeping a position upriver and closer to the Potomac River, thus ensuring that Cornwallis would not come between him and Philadelphia. On May 24, Cornwallis went after Lafayette, who withdrew from Richmond, and joined forces with Baron von Steuben and Anthony Wayne. Cornwallis did not go after Lafayette. While camping in Hanover County, Cornwallis learned that Wayne was only days away from his meeting with Lafayette. Consequently, he was hesitant to move any further from his base at Portsmouth, but decided to dash west before withdrawing. With this in mind, he sent Banastre Tarleton to Charlottesville and Simcoe to harass von Steuben, who was at the Point of Fork on the James River.

Von Steuben withdrew, but Simcoe was able to destroy a number of weapons, gunpowder, and supplies, which had been stored there, before rejoining Cornwallis. On June 10, Wayne joined the American force with 1,000 men, and 2 days later Colonel William Campbell, one of the famous American leaders at King's Mountain, provided an additional 600 "mountain men". On June 19, von Steuben appeared with his detachment. These reinforcements made the Lafayette body strong enough for more aggressive action. His strength was about 4,500 strong, but many were untrained and unarmed militia, artillery and cavalry. Around June 15, with the season hot, his troops tired of him, and Lafayette still evading him, Cornwallis decided it was time to return to shore. He had accomplished all he could in destroying supplies, hadn't found a large body of loyalists to join him, and his opponent was gaining strength daily. He moved east through Richmond and up the peninsula toward Williamsburg. Lafayette followed him, venturing closer to him all the time. Encouraged by his increased troop strength, Lafayette also became more aggressive in his tactics, sending detachments of his force to counter those Cornwallis sent on foraging and raiding expeditions. These detachments were made up of select units drawn from a variety of regiments. Among those commonly in the forefront of the army were a combined cavalry and infantry unit from Pennsylvania under Captain William McPherson, and companies of sharpshooters from Virginia under Majors Richard Call and John Willis. Lafayette received word that Lt. Col. John Graves Simcoe and his loyalist regiment of the Queen's Rangers were returning from a raid to destroy ships and scavenge the Chickahominy River.

In addition to his Simcoe force, he had some Hessian jäger companies led by Captains Johann Ewald and Johann Althaus. On the night of June 25, Wayne sent most of the advance guard under Colonel Richard Butler, including McPherson, Call, and Willis, to intercept Simcoe's force, they had 120 skirmishers, 100 light infantry, 120 cavalry and 180 Pennsylvania Continentals. An advanced group of about 50 dragoons and 50 light infantry under McPherson met advanced forces of Simcoe's force near Spencer's tavern, which was at a road intersection about 10 km north of Williamsbur. Simcoe's troops were advancing up the road toward Williamsburg, leading the cattle with the infantry and jägers at the head of Major Richard Armstrong, with Simcoe and the cavalry about an hour behind them. At Spencer's Tavern, the troops assembled and stopped to rest. Simcoe ordered the fences to be torn down in the area, as it was an ideal place for an ambush. While they rested, some of the loyalists went out to gather more cattle that were in the area, and the cavalry were at a nearby farm to feed their horses. McPherson's men met the latter, whose sentries raised the alarm to the main body. Simcoe's cavalry charged into McPherson's formation, breaking it up. McPherson and several of his men were horseless in the close combat, and several were taken prisoner before the vanguard of Butler's main force began to arrive. Simcoe ordered most of the infantry to support his cavalry, and sent the jägers and light infantry into the woods to the right to outflank the oncoming enemy column. Questioning the prisoners, Simcoe learned that Lafayette was not far away. He sent word to Cornwallis, sent the cattle convoy toward Williamsburg, and ordered trees cut down to barricade across the road as a point of defense.

He then ordered his troops in a calculated way to fool the Americans into believing that more troops were in formation. When Butler's force arrived, Simcoe ordered an infantry charge. This scattered the first wave of Butler's men into the nearby woods, where the jägers pushed them back. However, Butler's men continued to advance. Simcoe ordered a cavalry charge and fired a field gun to give the impression that a larger force was arriving. The charge forced Butler's men back, at which point the two forces became separated; Simcoe because he was worried Lafayette would get close, and Butler because his men were fooled by Simcoe's ploy. Simcoe left his wounded men in the tavern under a flag of truce, and withdrew down the Williamsburg road, joining forces Cornwallis sent about two miles down the road. The Patriots withdrew to Lafayette's camp at Tire Plantation and Simcoe was able to return to the tavern and retrieve the wounded from him. Simcoe reported his losses as 11 killed and 25 wounded, and the American loss as 9 killed, 14 wounded and 32 captured. Lafayette claimed that the Americans had killed 60 and wounded 100, while Cornwallis claimed that the British had had 33 killed and wounded. When Cornwallis arrived in Williamsburg, he received orders from General Henry Clinton to go to Portsmouth and prepare a detachment of troops to return to New York City. In accordance with these orders, Cornwallis began moving south into the Virginia Peninsula on July 4, planning to cross the wide James River on the Jamestown Ferry. Lafayette followed, with advanced units and most of his Continentals arriving at Norrell's mill, about eight miles from the ferry on July 5. Lafayette saw an opportunity to attack the isolated British force, as it would make the crossing difficult at Jamestown.

Cornwallis also recognized the possibility and decided to set a trap, hoping to capture a part of Lafayette's army. He single-handedly sent his baggage train and John Graves Simcoe's Queen's rangers across the river, and concealed his main force near the crossing. Cornwallis also sent suspected deserters to the Americans with information that the majority of the British force had already crossed, leaving only a rearguard on the north side of the river. General Wayne's vanguard force (Light Infantry (60); 1st (300), 2nd (300), and 3rd Pennsylvanians; BI Gimat (200), Virginia Sharpshooters (200), Armand's Legion (60), and continental dragoons (100) and 3×4 guns) and Lieutenant Colonel Tarleton's British vanguard pickets (light dragoons of the 17th (50), and the British Legion (207), and jägers). The jägers began a protracted skirmish that lasted almost two hours. British forces slowly withdrew, suffering significant casualties under the persistent American advance. Wayne's riflemen performed particularly well, taking out several of the British officers. However, things changed around 5:00 p.m., when the Americans reached an abandoned cannon that Cornwallis had left on the road. The capture of the cannon was the signal for the British counter-attack, which began with grapeshot, and was followed by an infantry charge. The British forces that counterattacked were Dundas' Brigade (43rd (287), 76th (522), 80th (520) and 2×6 guns) and Yorke's Brigade (1st Battalion (497) and 2nd Battalion (374), Brigade of Guards (538), 23rd (225) and 33rd (231), and 2×6 guns.Lafayette, from his vantage point on the river, saw the main British force and realized that Wayne was walking into a trap However, he was unable to contact Wayne in time to retrieve it.

Immediately beginning to move additional troops forward in an attempt to prevent the trap from closing on Wayne, he dispatched Lieutenant Colonel Gimat (Gimat's Battalion (190), Bose's Battalion (370), and Barber's Battalion (380)). Meanwhile, the British charge had thrown the Americans into some confusion, and Wayne was concerned that a retreat might turn into a disorderly rout. Wayne reformed his line, ordered his artillery to fire a volley of shrapnel. Wayne's bold volley worked; he successfully held off the British advance long enough for Lafayette's covering force to approach. Lafayette came forward to help manage the American withdrawal, which began to unravel after Cornwallis personally led a counter-charge. During the retreat, two of the American guns had to be abandoned because their horses were killed, and Lafayette had no horses. As the sun began to set, Cornwallis decided not to pursue the Americans, who withdrew to Green Spring. Casualties were 28 killed, 99 wounded, and 12 missing for the Americans. British casualties were 5 officers and 70 men killed or wounded. Cornwallis, satisfied with the victory, did not pursue the retreating Americans, instead crossing the James River as planned and moving to Portsmouth. There the arrangements to embark the troops were overturned by further orders from Clinton, which instead directed her to use his force to establish a fortified naval station. Cornwallis decided to do so at Yorktown, where he was forced to surrender after a brief siege in October 1781. Pursuant to further orders from him, Cornwallis ordered a careful survey of Old Point Comfort and Hampton Roads to find the best location for said naval station.

This was done by Lieutenant Alexander Sutherland of the Royal Engineers, who recommended against Old Point Comfort, which had been mentioned at length in the most recent correspondence between the British commanders in Virginia and New York as a possible place to replace a base. Having declared his intentions, Cornwallis began to take action. On July 30, the British transports, loaded with some 4,500 men, left Portsmouth and sailed for Yorktown, where they arrived on the night of August 1. On August 2, landings were made at both Yorktown and Gloucester. Banastre Tarleton, with his men and horses, crossed Hampton Roads in small boats and proceeded to Yorktown by road, arriving on August 7. On the 22nd, the detachment that remained in Portsmouth to level the works completed its mission and joined the main army. Construction of defenses began immediately at Yorktown and Gloucester, work Cornwallis estimated would require 6 weeks. In reality, the Siege of Yorktown began before this task was completed. Meanwhile, the Americans continued to keep an eye on the British. As the British Army moved south towards Portsmouth, Lafayette sent Wayne to the south side of the James to follow Cornwallis and try to check Tarleton's raids there. The Marquess himself took up his position on Malvern Hill. When Cornwallis left Portsmouth, Lafayette assumed that his destination was Baltimore. Acting quickly, he pitched the camp on Malvern Hill and, with his light infantry, headed for Fredericksburg. When he learned that the British were entrenching themselves at Yorktown and Gloucester, he took up a position on the Pamunkey River near West Point, Virginia, about 30 miles northwest of Cornwallis's position.

On July 6, the French and American armies met at White Plains, north of New York City. Although Rochambeau had nearly 40 years of war experience, he never challenged Washington's authority, telling him that he had come to serve, not command. Washington and Rochambeau discussed where to launch a joint attack. Washington thought an attack on New York was the best option, since the Americans and French outnumbered the British defenders 3 to 1. Rochambeau disagreed, arguing that the fleet in the West Indies under Admiral de Grasse was to sail for the American coast, where easier options than attacking New York might be tried. In early July, Washington suggested an attack on the northern part of Manhattan Island, but his and Rochambeau's officials disagreed. Washington continued to investigate the New York area until August 14, when he received a letter from Grasse stating that he was headed for Virginia with 28 warships and 3,200 soldiers, but he could only stay there until October 14. Grasse encouraged Washington to move south so they could launch a joint operation. Washington abandoned his plan to take New York and began preparing his army for the march south to Virginia. On August 19, the march to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began, 4,000 French soldiers and 3,000 American soldiers began the march on Newport, Rhode Island, while the rest about 4,000, under General William Heath, remained before New York back to protect the Hudson River Valley. Washington wanted to keep his fate completely secret. To ensure this, he sent false dispatches to Clinton revealing that the Franco-American military was going to launch an attack on New York, and that Cornwallis was not in danger. The troops used three distinct and separate routes to Princeton, New Jersey.

This was in part to confuse Clinton, who did not fully understand what was going on. Very few French and Americans really knew the target. On August 29, the Americans bivouacked at Brunswick and the French at Bullion's Tavern, and it was no longer possible to hide the destination. From Princeton, the march continued on to Trenton, where they found that there were not enough ships available to transport the men and stores. The decision was to continue on foot to the head of the Chesapeake Bay. The French and American armies marched through Philadelphia from September 2 to 4, where the American soldiers announced that they would not leave Maryland until they received a month's pay in coin, rather than in worthless continental paper money. General Rochambeau generously loaned Washington half his supply of Spanish gold coins. This would be the last time the men would be paid. This strengthened French and American relations. On September 5, Washington learned of the arrival of Grasse's fleet at the Virginia Capes with 28 ships of the line, several frigates and sloops, and 3,200 soldiers under the Marquis de Saint-Simon, who landed at Jamestown to join up with the Lafayette's growing strength. Once Grasse landed, he sent his empty transports to pick up the American troops. Washington paid a visit to his home, Mount Vernon, on the way to Yorktown. On September 8, Washington, Rochambeau, and the Chevalier de Chastellux left it to their subordinates to prepare the Allied armies for transportation across the bay by ship. They themselves continued overland to Williamsburg, stopping on the way for several days at Mount Vernon, Washington's home. This was Washington's first visit to his home in 6 years. He arrived in Williamsburg, Virginia, on September 14, and there was great rejoicing among the troops and the people as Washington assumed active command of the growing American and French forces.

The presence of the British at Yorktown made control of the Chesapeake Bay an essential naval objective for both sides. From the Antilles, French and British fleets headed north not only to contribute to the fighting in North America, but also to avoid the fearsome Caribbean hurricane season. However, the British commander, Rear Admiral Samuel Hood, could not tell if the French fleet was headed for the Chesapeake or if it was trying to help the American and French ground troops that were massing for a possible siege of New York. The British fleet reached the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay on August 25, but found no French ships there, so Hood proceeded to New York to rejoin 14 other ships of the line under his command. Meanwhile, his colleague, Rear Admiral Thomas Graves, had spent several weeks trying to intercept a French convoy bringing supplies from Europe to Boston, which had been requested by Colonel John Laurens. When Hood arrived in New York, he found that Graves, who had been unable to find the convoy, was in that port, but had only 5 additional ships of the line ready for a battle. Hood had not found the French Admiral de Grasse because he had deliberately sailed slowly and sent a message weeks in advance to his colleague in Newport, Rhode Island, the Count de Barras Saint-Laurent, fixing the precise date of arrival. of the. Barras relayed this information to Generals Washington and Rochambeau, preparing to besiege New York, and when they received it on August 14, they immediately saw the opportunity Grasse's fleet presented. Accordingly, Washington prepared for a rapid march and asked Barras to take his flotilla from Newport south to Chesapeake with the French artillery and other elements that would be needed for the siege.

Grasse arrived at the Chesapeake on August 29, almost exactly as planned, with a fleet that included 28 ships of the line and also carried 3 French regiments under General Marquis de Saint-Simon. On August 30, he encountered the British frigate Guadaloupe and the corvette Loyalist, which had been posted as lookouts. Both were pursued, the sloop was captured and the frigate forced into the York River. The next day the French fleet moved into Chesapeake Bay to anchor, 3 ships were detached to blockade the mouths of York and James. On September 2, the land forces under the Marquis de Saint-Simon were dispatched by James in long boats to land at Jamestown. These regiments were immediately landed to help American troops under the Marquis de Lafayette prevent the Englishman Cornwallis from retreating inland. Barras sailed from Newport on August 26, knowing that Yorktown had been chosen as an operational target by the Franco-American allies, Graves and Hood combined their naval forces and went out to engage French naval forces they had not encountered up to that point. But unaware that Barras's flotilla was also in the open sea, and heading south, both English admirals also headed south toward Chesapeake Bay. When the British fleet of 19 ships under the command of Graves returned to the Chesapeake on the morning of September 5, they found 25 French ships anchored behind Cape Henry. The remaining 3 vessels of Grasse's fleet had been detached to blockade the York and James rivers further north in the bay, and many of the vessels at anchor had officers, crews and sloops absent ashore. The surveillance frigates had seen sails on the horizon and thought it was Barras, but when they counted 19 they realized it was the English fleet.

Wind and tide favored the British, as did the element of surprise, for while the encounter surprised both sides, the French were at anchor and unprepared for a fight. The British could thus have inflicted severe losses on their enemies by penetrating into the bay and immediately launching the attack. However, it is highly unlikely that such an idea would have even crossed Admiral Graves's head. Conventional naval tactics from the days of sailing dictated that fleets should form a line of battle and then maneuver within range of their respective guns, each ship attacking the enemy in front of it in the line. At 11:30 a.m., 24 ships of the French fleet raised anchor and began sailing out of the bay with the midday tide. Some ships were missing up to 200 men, so not all of their guns were manned. Grasse had ordered the ships to form a line as they left the bay, in order of speed and disregarding the normal sailing order. Admiral Louis de Bougainville Auguste was one of the first to leave. With a squadron of three other ships, Bougainville set out well ahead of the rest of the French line; by 1545 hours the gap was large enough that the British could have cut off his squadron from the rest of the French fleet. At 1:00 p.m., the two fleets were more or less opposite each other. In order to engage and avoid some schools (known as Middle Ground) near the mouth of the bay, Graves at around 2:00 p.m. ordered his entire fleet to turn, a maneuver that reversed his line of battle, but it allowed him to align himself with the French fleet when their ships left the bay. This placed Hood's squadron, his most aggressive commander, in the rear of the line, and Admiral Francis Samuel Drake's in the forefront.

At this point, both fleets were sailing generally east, away from the bay, with winds from the north-northeast. The two lines approached at an angle so that the lead ships in the vanguard of both lines were within range of each other, while the ships in the rear were too far apart to attack. The French had a firing advantage, as wind conditions meant they could open their lower ports, while the British had to leave theirs closed to prevent water from entering the lower decks. The French fleet, which was in better repair than the British fleet, outnumbered the British in number of ships and total guns, and had heavier guns capable of throwing more weight. In the British fleet, Ajax (74) and Terrible (74), two ships of the West Indies squadron which were among the most heavily engaged were in very poor condition. The need for the two lines to be truly parallel in order for them to fully face each other led Graves to give contradictory signals which were interpreted critically by Admiral Hood. He interpreted the instructions to hold the battle line as taking precedence over the close action signal, and as a consequence his squad did not close quickly and never became significantly involved in the action. The smaller British fleet fielded 19 ships of the line, totaling 1,400 guns and 13,000 sailors. The French fleet was made up of 24 ships of the line, armed with a total of 1,700 guns and 19,000 sailors. At about 4:00 p.m., more than 6 hours since the two fleets first sighted each other, the British, who had the weather factor and thus the initiative, opened their attack. The battle began with the Intrepid (64) opening fire on the Marseillois (74), her counterpart near the start of the line. Action quickly spread to the forefront and later to the center of each line.

The French, in a known practice, tended to target British masts and rigging, with the intention of crippling the mobility of their opponents. The effects of this tactic were evident in the engagement: Shrewsbury (74) and Intrepid (64), at the head of the British line, became virtually unmanageable, eventually slipping out of line. The remainder of Admiral Drake's squadron was also heavily damaged, but casualties were not as severe as those of the first two ships. The angle of approach of the British line also played a role in the damage they took; the ships in their vanguard were exposed to tracking fire when only their bow guns could be applied to the French. The French avant-garde was also punished, although it was less severe. Captain Boades del Réfléchi (64) was killed on the leading side of Vice-Admiral Drake's Princessa (70), and the four ships of the French vanguard were, according to a French observer, "engaged with seven or eight ships close by". The Diadème (70), according to a French officer "was completely unable to hold the battle, having only 4×36 and 9×18 guns in serviceable condition" and was heavily fired upon; she was rescued by the timely intervention of Saint-Esprit (80). Bougainville's flagship Auguste (80) and Drake's flagship Princessa (70) were at one point close enough for the French admiral to consider boarding her. Drake managed to get away, but this gave Bougainville an opportunity to target the Terrible (74), which was already in bad shape before the battle; she was hit by several French cannonballs, and her bilge pumps, already overloaded in an attempt to keep her afloat, were heavily damaged by gunfire. Around 5:00 p.m., the wind began to change, to the disadvantage of the British fleet. Grasse signaled for the vanguard to advance further so that more of the French fleet could engage, but Bougainville, fully committed to the British vanguard at musket range, did not want to risk it.

When he finally began to walk away, British leaders interpreted it as a retreat. Instead of following her, the British fell back and continued firing at long range. Sunset brought the firefight to an end, with both fleets continuing on a more or less southeasterly course, away from the bay. Meanwhile, the center of both lines was occupied, but the level of damage and casualties suffered was noticeably lower. The ships in the rear squadrons were almost completely uninvolved. Admiral Hood reported that three of his ships fired some shots. The continuing conflicting signals left by Graves, and the discrepancies between his and Hood's records of what signals had been given and when, led to immediate recriminations, written debate, and an eventual formal investigation. The British used some wooden cannonballs which, when colliding, sent up wood fragments that tore the flesh of the French sailors. The British fleet suffered six ships damaged and 90 sailors killed and 246 wounded. The French fared better with 209 casualties and only 2 ships damaged. That night, Graves did a damage assessment. He noted that "the French did not appear to have suffered nearly as much damage as we had suffered," and that five of his fleet were on the run or virtually paralyzed in their mobility. Grasse wrote that "by the navigation of the English we perceive that they had suffered much". However, Graves maintained a windward position throughout the night, so that he could choose the battle in the morning. Ongoing repairs made it clear to Graves that he would not be able to attack the next day. On the night of September 6 he held a council with Hood and Drake.

During this meeting, Hood and Graves reportedly exchanged words regarding conflicting signals, with Hood proposing to shift the fleet to head for the Chesapeake. Graves rejected the plan, and the fleets continued to drift east, away from Cornwallis. On 8 and 9 September, the French fleet at times took advantage of the wind and briefly threatened the British with renewed action. French scouts spotted Barras's fleet on September 9, and Grasse turned his fleet back toward the Chesapeake Bay that night. Arriving on September 12, he discovered that Barras had arrived two days earlier. Graves ordered Terrible (74) sunk on 11 September due to her leaking condition, and was notified on 13 September that the French fleet had returned to the Chesapeake; he still hadn't learned that Grasse's line hadn't included Barras's fleet, because the frigate captain making the report hadn't counted the ships. In a council held that day, the British admirals decided not to attack the French, due to the "truly sorry state we find ourselves in". Graves then turned his battered fleet toward New York, arriving at Sandy Hook on September 20. On September 7, Lafayette moved his force from the Pamunkey River to Williamsburg, where he was able to at least temporarily block any movement Cornwallis might make on the peninsula. His army was substantially enlarged the next day by Saint-Simon's more than 3,000 soldiers, who arrived with de Grasse and landed at Jamestown. On September 14, Washington arrived at Lafayette's headquarters in Williamsburg to assume direct command of operations in the Virginia theater. The combined French and American forces, which Washington had left at the head of the Chesapeake Bay in early September, found a shortage of shipping at the Head-of-Elk as well.

It was necessary to use most of the available ships to transport ammunition and stores, with the result that most of the troops had to go to Baltimore and Annapolis to embark. On September 15, Washington wrote to Grasse about transporting his army. The French admiral had anticipated that need and had already dispatched the transports brought into the area from Newport by de Barras plus some frigates that had been seized, enough to accommodate some 4,000 soldiers. On September 17, Washington, with Rochambeau, Chastellux, Henry Knox, and the Chevalier Duportail, visited Grasse aboard the Ville de Paris (110) to pay his respects and consult on the joint operation under way against Cornwallis. In the discussion, Washington was able to prevail over Grasse to extend his stay in Virginia waters beyond the October 15 deadline he had originally set. He agreed to stay until at least the end of October. However, he did not approve of plans to move ships to the York River. By September 22, when Washington returned to Williamsburg, parts of the Allied armies from the North had arrived, landing along College Creek and elsewhere on the James River. Also included among the troops was a force under Lord de Choisy who had come down from Newport with de Barras. By the end of the same day, other parts of the convoy, which de Grasse had sent into the bay, began to arrive, and de Grasse was able to write: "Everything is going into the river today, even the artillery." Landing operations continued for several days with much of the artillery grounded at Trebell below College Creek. About this time Allied commanders learned that the English fleet in New York had been augmented by the arrival of a squadron under Admiral Robert Digby.

This led to apprehension on Grasse's part and increased the need to rush operations against Yorktown. Grasse debated the need to embark, a turn of events that caused moments of "painful anxiety" in Washington. In the end, however, Grasse was persuaded against this move, and he remained at bay. However, the need for immediate action on earth had become imperative. By September 27, the organization of the allied French and American armies meeting at Williamsburg had been completed. There were three parties: Continental Americans (approximately 5,200), French Auxiliaries (approximately 7,500), and American Militia (over 3,000). The Continentals were grouped into three divisions, commanded respectively by Major General Lafayette, Acting Major General von Steuben, and Major General Lincoln. In addition to his divisional duties, Lincoln also commanded the American wing. The artillery detachment, with field and siege pieces, several companies of sappers and miners, and other units, were under the command of Brigadier Henry Knox of Massachusetts. There was also a cavalry grouping, under Colonel Stephen Moylan of Pennsylvania. The French wing of the Allied armies made up about half of the total ground forces opposing the British. Commanded by the Count of Rochambeau, it included 7 regiments grouped into 3 brigades. The cavalry was under the Duke of Lauzun and the artillery under Colonel d'Aboville. The French engineers were led by Colonel Desandrouins and Lieutenant Colonel Querenet who were instrumental in preparing an excellent set of siege plans. The third component of the Allied armies was the militia, mainly from Virginia, commanded by General Thomas Nelson, Jr., a Yorktown native, who was supported by Brigadier George Weedon, Brigadier Robert Lawson, and Brigadier Edward Stevens.

On September 27, all was ready for the movement of the Allied armies against the British position at Yorktown, and an operations order was drawn up. At 0500 hours on September 28, French and American units, following instructions from Washington, their commander-in-chief, began to move toward Yorktown. The continentals, followed by the French troops, formed the left column and the militia, the right. The route extended over the main highways of the peninsula. At the Halfway House, halfway between Williamsburg and Yorktown, the Continentals moved to the right, while the French continued on the more direct route. Around noon, both sections approached Yorktown, and contact was made with British pickets who fell back. Lt. Col. Robert Abercrombie's light infantry, covering the British right, first raised the alarm, and some shots were exchanged with Tarleton's Legion, covering the British left, as American and French troops approached Yorktown. As night fell, Allied units reached temporary positions along Beaverdam Creek within a mile of the main enemy posts. At this time, orders were issued that "the entire army, officers and men, would be in arms that night." The Yorktown inversion, which began on September 28, settled more securely over the 2 days that followed. On the 29th, the American wing moved further east (right) and closer to the enemy, while the French and American units spread out to their designated camps; forming a semicircle around Yorktown from the York River in the northwest to Wormley Creek, a tributary of York, in the south and east. Reconnaissance was extended within gun range of the enemy's fortifications, and several skirmishes with British patrols took place. There was also some minor action at Moore's Dam on Wormley Creek, where the British had garrisoned temporary positions.

The French army was commanded by Count Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur de Rochambeau and had 11,000 men while the US army was commanded by George Washington with 6,000 men. When the British entered Yorktown in August 1781, one of the soldiers described the town, one of the most important in the lower Chesapeake, as: “This Yorktown, or Little-York, is a little town of about 300 houses ; it also has considerable girth. It is located on the bank of the York River, somewhat high up on sandy but level ground. It has 3 churches, 2 English Reformed and 1 German Lutheran, but without steeples, and 2 Quaker meeting houses, and a handsome court or meeting house, the building of which, like most houses, is built of brick. Here were many houses that were destroyed and abandoned by their occupants. There was a garrison of 300 militiamen here, but on our arrival they left without firing a shot back to Williamsburg, which is 16 English miles from here. We found few inhabitants here, as most of them had gone with suitcases and luggage to the country beyond.” The task facing Cornwallis was the fortification of this town and Gloucester Point, on the other side of York, as a base for the navy. In early August, he had little reason to expect that two months later he would be besieged. However, upon reaching Yorktown, he took to the task at hand with vigor. As the days passed, Cornwallis began to realize that enemy forces were gathering around him. In planning his defense, he established a line of fortifications near the city, supported by small enclosed earthworks, redoubts, and batteries. Just ahead of the main line, he built two positions, Redoubts Number 9 and 10, to command the high ground in that sector. Along the York-Hampton wagon he strengthened the main line by extending it out into the road in the form of a hornwork.

On the inner and main line, he had 10 redoubts and 14 batteries in which about 65 guns were mounted, the largest of which was 18-pounder. Some of this artillery came from the British ships anchored offshore at York. The British outer line used the protective features of ravines and streams. Near to the west of Yorktown was Yorktown Creek. In the east, but at a greater distance, ran Wormley Creek. These streams, with their swamps and rough terrain, constituted quite formidable barriers to the rapid advance of the troops. However, the area between the headwaters of these two streams was a weak link. This high ground, less than a mile wide, carried the road from Yorktown to Hampton. To control this, the British engineers put up four redoubts and some gun emplacements. On the west side of Yorktown Creek, near the point where a road to Williamsburg crossed, a large star-shaped work was built. It was garrisoned by part of the 23rd Royal Welch, it was known as the Fusiliers Redoubt. There was some work on Moore's Mill Dam. The town at Gloucester Point, across the river, was fortified with a single line of entrenchments with 4 redoubts and 3 batteries. On the York River, between Yorktown and Gloucester, there were British transports, supply boats, and some armed vessels, notably the Charon and Guadalupe. Behind his lines, Cornwallis had a force of some 7,500, most of them seasoned veterans. To help the gunners from him, all buildings, trees and other obstructions in front of his main line were removed for a distance of one km. All paths were blocked, and the completion of fixed positions was accelerated. Cornwallis had begun to feel the blockade of the French fleet even before the Allied armies reached Yorktown.

On 9/11, one of his soldiers wrote: “Now we have terrible provisions, rotten meat with worms from the ship and biscuits that have spoiled on the ships. Many of the men have been sick with dysentery or blood flow and diarrhea. Also, the fever is spreading, partly because of the many hardships from which we have had little rest day or night, and partly because of the horrible food; but above all, nitrous water is to blame.” Sickness and also the lack of officers would continue to be a serious handicap for the British. Cornwallis continued to stay in contact by letter with Clinton in New York. On September 16, he received word that Clinton planned to move south with a sizeable force to help him. When he received this news, Cornwallis decided not to take any offensive action and wrote to Clinton. On September 29, a dispatch from New York, written on the 24th, reported ship repairs and a reinforced British fleet, as well as the preparation of reinforcements for Cornwallis's Virginia garrison. Clinton continued: "There is every reason to hope that we will start on October 5." Around 10:00 p.m. on September 29, Cornwallis made an important decision, which he described in a letter to Clinton: “Tonight I received your letter of the 24th, which has given me the greatest satisfaction. I will retire to-night within the works, and I have no doubt, if relief should come in reasonable time, York and Gloucester will be in the possession of Her Majesty's troops." This decision to abandon his outer line without a fight definitely shortened the siege of Yorktown. It was a move for which Cornwallis has been criticized and an advantage that the Allied armies were quick to seize. The British Army under Lord Cornwallis had 8,000 troops. Washington wrote of the morning of September 30: “…we found that the enemy had evacuated their entire outer line of works, and those near the body of the city had been withdrawn. Washington wrote of the morning of September 30: “…we found that the enemy had evacuated their entire outer line of works, and those near the body of the city had been withdrawn. By this means we are in possession of very advantageous ground, which dominates, in a very close advance, almost the whole remaining line of their defence."

Even before Washington had written, American and French units had moved into these works. Within the day, the construction of an additional redoubt and a battery in this sector began. On the morning of September 30, while these movements were being made on the south side of Yorktown, in the far west, a French unit under Saint-Simon's command drove into the British pickets in the vicinity of the Fusiliers' redoubt. A sharp skirmish resulted, with several casualties, an action that allowed the Allies to take a more advantageous position in this quarter. One event only marred the successful movements of the 30th. Colonel Alexander Scammell of New Hampshire, a well-known long-serving soldier, was wounded during the early hours while engaging a small party south of Yorktown. He died of his injury a week later at the Williamsburg base hospital. In the first days of October, the allies completed their survey and planning and pushed for the construction and collection of siege material consisting of gabions (wicker baskets to be filled with earth to support the ramparts); fajinas (bundles of wooden sticks joined together for use in filling ditches, strengthening walls, etc.); frames (pointed stakes to be driven into embankments in a vertical or inclined position); and saucissons (large sashes). There was some delay while the heavy guns were being transported from the landing points on the James.

On 9/11, one of his soldiers wrote: “Now we have terrible provisions, rotten meat with worms from the ship and biscuits that have spoiled on the ships. Many of the men have been sick with dysentery or blood flow and diarrhea. Also, the fever is spreading, partly because of the many hardships from which we have had little rest day or night, and partly because of the horrible food; but above all, nitrous water is to blame.” Sickness and also the lack of officers would continue to be a serious handicap for the British. Cornwallis continued to stay in contact by letter with Clinton in New York. On September 16, he received word that Clinton planned to move south with a sizeable force to help him. When he received this news, Cornwallis decided not to take any offensive action and wrote to Clinton. On September 29, a dispatch from New York, written on the 24th, reported ship repairs and a reinforced British fleet, as well as the preparation of reinforcements for Cornwallis's Virginia garrison. Clinton continued: "There is every reason to hope that we will start on October 5." Around 10:00 p.m. on September 29, Cornwallis made an important decision, which he described in a letter to Clinton: “Tonight I received your letter of the 24th, which has given me the greatest satisfaction. I will retire to-night within the works, and I have no doubt, if relief should come in reasonable time, York and Gloucester will be in the possession of Her Majesty's troops." This decision to abandon his outer line without a fight definitely shortened the siege of Yorktown. It was a move for which Cornwallis has been criticized and an advantage that the Allied armies were quick to seize. The British Army under Lord Cornwallis had 8,000 troops. Washington wrote of the morning of September 30: “…we found that the enemy had evacuated their entire outer line of works, and those near the body of the city had been withdrawn. Washington wrote of the morning of September 30: “…we found that the enemy had evacuated their entire outer line of works, and those near the body of the city had been withdrawn. By this means we are in possession of very advantageous ground, which dominates, in a very close advance, almost the whole remaining line of their defence."

Even before Washington had written, American and French units had moved into these works. Within the day, the construction of an additional redoubt and a battery in this sector began. On the morning of September 30, while these movements were being made on the south side of Yorktown, in the far west, a French unit under Saint-Simon's command drove into the British pickets in the vicinity of the Fusiliers' redoubt. A sharp skirmish resulted, with several casualties, an action that allowed the Allies to take a more advantageous position in this quarter. One event only marred the successful movements of the 30th. Colonel Alexander Scammell of New Hampshire, a well-known long-serving soldier, was wounded during the early hours while engaging a small party south of Yorktown. He died of his injury a week later at the Williamsburg base hospital. In the first days of October, the allies completed their survey and planning and pushed for the construction and collection of siege material consisting of gabions (wicker baskets to be filled with earth to support the ramparts); fajinas (bundles of wooden sticks joined together for use in filling ditches, strengthening walls, etc.); frames (pointed stakes to be driven into embankments in a vertical or inclined position); and saucissons (large sashes). There was some delay while the heavy guns were being transported from the landing points on the James.

Perhaps James Thacher wrote a brief and accurate description when he wrote on October 1 and 2: "The heavy guns and mortars are continually arriving, and the best preparations are being made to pursue the siege in the most effectual manner." By October 6, however, the work of reconnoitring the abandoned British positions south of Yorktown and building support works there was complete. Everything was ready for the next move: the construction of the first Allied siege line. Throughout this interval the British had maintained a constant and effective artillery fire which tended to delay the work of the Allies. The siege diaries are full of accounts, like the one written by Lieutenant William Feltman on October 2: “A continual cannonade all day at our fatigue parties. A Maryland soldier's hand was shot off and a militia man was killed." Behind British lines feverish activity continued and general alarm was feared. The ships sank in the river immediately in front of the city to block any Allied landing attempts from that neighborhood. Cornwallis's positions were not complete, nor was his magazine. Every available man was in line to help with the construction, particularly the large black workforce that the British general had acquired. To complicate the image of Cornwallis. Although Washington was leading his main force against Yorktown, where the main British force was located, it was necessary for him to take steps to contain the enemy post at Gloucester Point on the north side of the river. This would close off a possible means of escape for Cornwallis and stop foraging parties sweeping the Gloucester countryside. The first Allied force there was 1,500 militiamen under Brigadier George Weedon. By 28 September, Weedon had been reinforced by the 600-strong Lauzun Legion, half of them mounted.

Several days later, 800 marines from the French fleet landed, and General Choisy was assigned to command the group. By early October the British garrison on the Gloucester side had increased and included both Simcoe's and Tarleton's cavalry, as well as ground units. On 3 October, as Choisy moved towards Gloucester Point to tighten his lines and force the enemy into their fixed positions on the point, a brief but spirited encounter ensued at "The Hook", in which Lauzun's daring cavalry and Tarleton had an important role. Casualties numbered 16 for the Allies and perhaps 50 for the British. The allies managed to hold the ground. The British withdrew behind their works where they remained until the end of the siege. On the afternoon of October 6, everything was ready for the opening of the first parallel, a series of positions which, together with the advantages of the terrain, completely surrounded the British works and brought men and artillery within range of the enemy. . The first line was based on the York River southeast of Yorktown and extended west, just above the headwaters of Wormley Creek, across the York-Hampton highway, to Yorktown Creek, which in a real sense functioned as a continuation of the line. The first line was about 2 km long and supported by four redoubts and five batteries. Its average distance from the main British works was about half a mile, although, to the right, this was somewhat greater due to two separate British redoubts, Nos. 9 and 10. About halfway along this line, the right or end of the York River, was assigned to American units; the left was built and garrisoned by the French. At dusk on October 6, more than 4,000 Allied troops paraded and marched to their assigned positions. The trench was occupied by about 1,500 troops, who carried backpacks, muskets and bayonets, as well as shovels, found a row of pine strips on the ground.

The engineers had placed them to mark the line where the excavation would begin. 800 soldiers stood with weapons at hand to repel a sortie should it arrive. The British were evidently taken by surprise, as their guns were not particularly active. The night was dark and cloudy, with a light rain falling, a factor that may have helped the troops led by General Lincoln and Baron de Viomenil. By morning the work was well advanced, enough to give them protection from the British gunners. Over the next few days, with precision and dispatch, units relieved themselves to avoid fatigue as trenches, redoubts, and batteries were perfected. Major General von Steuben, one of the few veterans of siege warfare in the American wing, had a leading role in the planning and construction of the siege works. Brigadier General Knox, with the American artillery, also played an important role, since the effectiveness of the artillery was a prerequisite for the success of the operation. As the main line took shape south of Yorktown, the French built a trench and battery between the York River and one of the branches of Yorktown Creek west of the city. This closed off a possible point of advance for the enemy, partly surrounded the rifle redoubt, and allowed the installation of ammunition at a point where they could sweep the British ships anchored in the river. This French battery on the left, with its 4×12 guns and 6 mortars and howitzers, was the first to go into action, firing at around 03:00 on 9 October. Two hours later, an American battery southeast of Yorktown added 3×24, 3×18 guns, 2×8 (203mm) howitzers, and 6 mortars for the bombardment. Washington apparently fired the first round of this battery with blunt accuracy.

On October 10, other batteries, including the Grand French on the York-Hampton highway, were completed and began firing. The Americans spotted a large house in Yorktown and believing that Cornwallis might be stationed there, they targeted it and promptly destroyed it. Cornwallis sank more than a dozen of his ships in the harbor. For the next 2 days there was no break in the concentrated and methodical bombardment of Yorktown, with General Thomas Nelson reportedly even directing fire on his own home. The effect was terrible, as charge after charge was sent hitting the British works or ricocheting or jumping on the ground. Enemy batteries depleted or slowly fell silent. Cornwallis's headquarters was nearly demolished and he himself narrowly escaped with his life at one point. All the while, the rate of fire increased. Such was the Yorktown bombing as described by one participant and testified by others who witnessed it. The fire had been devastating. Its effect was first reported to Allied leaders by Secretary Thomas Nelson, who, 'under a flag of truce', was allowed by the British to leave Yorktown and search the Allied lines. The bombardment was also directed against the British ships in the harbor with the same effect. Here "red-hot shots" were used to ignite the heavily tarred rigging and timbers of the ship. On the night of October 10, the artillery set fire to the warship Charon (44), which burned completely, hitting two transport ships that also burned. The other ships anchored under York sailed in the night and went to anchor in Gloucester, to protect themselves and be out of range of fire. Other vessels, large and small, including the frigate Guadalupe (28), were hit and set on fire. On the night of October 11, a British bombardier, designed to set enemy ships on fire, was hit and burned with brilliant fire. Against such heavy artillery fire, Cornwallis had difficulty keeping his own batteries going, and even the English ships' sailors and marines added little strength.

The destruction caused by the superior French and American artillery, firing at ranges of 800 to 1,200 meters, was so great and the enemy batteries were so completely overpowered that Washington was soon ready to open the second parallel, which would bring his troops into the distance of the enemy works. An "exaggerated" charge by the infantry would be the final stage of the siege if Cornwallis continued to hold out. Work on the approach trenches for the second line began on the night of 11/12 October, midway between the first siege line and the left front of the British works. By morning the troops had wielded their shovels, shovels and "boot hoes" so effectively that the work was well advanced and casualties few. During the next 3 days, the parallel was made about 400 meters from the British lines, but it could not reach the river, because British redoubts 9 and 10 were in the way. The construction continued and the artillery was moved from the first line to the new positions, where the fire could be even more deadly. The British gunners did their best with "musketry, cannon, canister, grapeshot, and especially, a multitude of bombs and shells large and small" to delay the job, but although they inflicted some casualties, they were not particularly successful. At this time, however, only half of the second siege line could be undertaken. Redoubt No. 10 near the river, a square position garrisoned by about 70 soldiers, and Redoubt No. 9, a 5-pointed star strongpoint garrisoned 125 soldiers, near the road from Yorktown to Moore House, blocked the extension of the second line to the right allied. Before the work could continue, these redoubts had to be reduced. By October 14, the approach trenches were within 140 meters of Redoubts 9 and 10. Washington ordered all guns within range to begin blowing up the redoubts to weaken them for an assault that night.

Prior to the attacks on those redoubts, Washington had ordered demonstration attacks on the far left against the Fusiliers' redoubt and also another on Gloucester Point to distract the enemy. For several days before the assault, the Allied gunners directed fire to weaken the positions, a fire that was not really very damaging. Washington planned to use the cover of a moonless night to get the element of surprise. To reinforce the surprise, he added absolute silence, ordering that no soldier load his musket until they reached the fortifications. The attacks were made at 8:00 p.m., after dark, in one of the most dramatic and heroic moves of the Siege of Yorktown, and proved to be a definite turning point in operations. Redoubt 10 was attacked by 400 Americans drawn from Lafayette's 1st Division and commanded by Lt. Col. Alexander Hamilton, who, being the senior officer, had claimed this honor, when the assignment was first given to another. He was assisted by Ltcol Jean-Joseph Sourbader de Gimat, Ltcol John Laurens and Major Nicholas Fish. The detachment moved at the prearranged signal: the explosion of six shells. American soldiers carried unloaded muskets, as they advanced in the dark, as the task at hand had to be done with bayonets. Reaching their objective, they charged without waiting for the elimination of the abatis surrounding the redoubt, thus saving a few minutes, an interval that could have been costly. Prior to the attacks on those redoubts, Washington had ordered demonstration attacks on the far left against the Fusiliers' redoubt and also another on Gloucester Point to distract the enemy. For several days before the assault, the Allied gunners directed fire to weaken the positions, a fire that was not really very damaging. Washington planned to use the cover of a moonless night to get the element of surprise.

To reinforce the surprise, he added absolute silence, ordering that no soldier load his musket until they reached the fortifications. The attacks were made at 8:00 p.m., after dark, in one of the most dramatic and heroic moves of the Siege of Yorktown, and proved to be a definite turning point in operations. Redoubt 10 was attacked by 400 Americans drawn from Lafayette's 1st Division and commanded by Lt. Col. Alexander Hamilton, who, being the senior officer, had claimed this honor, when the assignment was first given to another. He was assisted by Ltcol Jean-Joseph Sourbader de Gimat, Ltcol John Laurens and Major Nicholas Fish. The detachment moved at the prearranged signal: the explosion of six shells. American soldiers carried unloaded muskets, as they advanced in the dark, as the task at hand had to be done with bayonets. Reaching their objective, they charged without waiting for the elimination of the abatis surrounding the redoubt, thus saving a few minutes, an interval that could have been costly. The Americans reached the redoubt and began hacking at the wooden British defenses with their axes. A British sentry raised the alarm and then fired on the Americans. The Americans responded by charging their bayonets at the redoubt. They crossed the abatis, crossed a ditch and climbed the parapet to the redoubt. The Americans fought their way into the redoubt, falling into the craters created by the preparatory bombardment. British fire was heavy, but the Americans overwhelmed them. Someone at the front yelled, “Hurry up guys! The fort is ours!" The British lobbed hand grenades at the Americans with little effect. The men in the trench stood on the shoulders of their comrades to climb into the redoubt. Bayonet fighting overwhelmed the British in the redoubt and nearly the entire garrison was captured, including the redoubt's commander, Major Campbell. In the assault, the Americans lost 9 killed and 25 wounded.

As the Americans made their way to Redoubt 10, a group of 400 French soldiers led by Colonel William Deux Ponts, with Baron de l'Estrade second in command, launched an assault on Redoubt 9 from the temporary end of the second parallel. But they were stopped by the abatis, which had not been damaged by artillery fire. The French began hacking at the abatis and a Hessian sentry leaned out and asked who was there. When there was no answer, the sentinel opened fire as did the other Hessians on the parapet. French casualties mounted as the detachment halted until the abatís were cleared. Then the cry went "to the redoubt", the French soldiers responded and then tried to scale the redoubt. The Hessians attacked the French climbing the walls, but the French fired a volley and drove them back. The Hessians then took up a defensive position behind some barrels, but threw down their weapons and surrendered as the French prepared a bayonet charge, the redoubt was theirs. However, losses totaled nearly 25%, including 15 killed. The entire operation took less than half an hour. Immediately after the capture of the two key redoubts, the troops moved to resume work on the second parallel. Before morning this line was extended to the York River and incorporated British Redoubts 9 and 10 on the parallel. On October 15, Ebenezer Wild recorded: “The works were carried on last night in such a spirit that in daylight we found the parallel [line] extending to the river on our right and almost finished. The batteries are being erected with great expedition”. With this turn of events, Cornwallis knew that he must act and act quickly or all would be lost. The net had tightened; and the destruction of his positions, plus illnesses and casualties among his troops, made his situation critical, even dangerous.

Against the second fully functioning allied parallel, he couldn't hold out for more than 24 hours. On the night of October 15/16, Cornwallis ordered an attack on the second parallel. This was dropped, 350 strong, under Ltcol Robert Abercrombie at a point near the center of the line. It was a sortie to attack Allied lines and pin down the French and American guns. The allies were asleep and unprepared. The British party planted several cannons on the parallel and then planted the cannons on an unfinished redoubt. A French party came and drove them from the Allied lines and took them back to Yorktown. The British had been able to nail six guns, but by morning they had been repaired. The bombardment resumed with American and French troops competing to see who could do the most damage to the enemy defenses. On the night of 16/17 October, Cornwallis ordered all of his troops across the river to Gloucester Point. Troops could break through Allied lines and escape to Virginia and then march on New York. The effort was futile due to a shortage of boats, and a storm that broke out as they returned to pick up more soldiers, making evacuation impossible. The fire on Yorktown from the Allies was heavier than ever as new artillery pieces joined the line. Cornwallis spoke with the officers about him that day and they agreed that his situation was desperate. On the morning of October 17, a drummer appeared, followed by an officer waving a white flag. Cornwallis' situation was desperate. Casualties (dead, wounded, and missing) during the siege reportedly numbered approximately 552 for the British, 275 for the French, and 260 for the Americans. Of these totals, more than a quarter were killed in action. Yorktown was surrounded at close range, relief had not yet come, and the enemy was superior in men and firepower. In short, his position was untenable. Surrender was now the only alternative. Cornwallis himself reported: "At that time we could not fire a single gun...Therefore I proposed to capitulate."

When the British flag of truce was seen by Allied officers on the morning of the 17th, the incessant and devastating artillery fire ceased. It had been continuous since 9 October, except for short intervals when batteries were moved or a flag of truce passed between the lines. Cornwallis's letter, which was immediately transmitted to Washington, stated: "I propose a cessation of hostilities for 24 hours, and that each side designate two officers to meet at Mr. Moore's house and establish the terms of the surrender of the posts of York and Gloucester”. Washington responded that he would give the British general 2 hours to present final terms. Around 4:30 p.m., Cornwallis responded. Washington found his proposals partly satisfactory, and in reply he stated that the British could expect that: "The same honors will be bestowed as those bestowed by the British on the American garrison at Charles Town in 1780." Arrangements to resolve the differences were made during a meeting of commissioners at Agustín Moore's house at the rear of the first parallel. The commissioners were Lt. Col. Thomas Dundas and Major Alexander Ross, representing the British; Viscount de Noailles representing the French; and Lt. Col. John Laurens for the Americans, met there on October 18 and, after a heated and lengthy session, drafted the Articles of Capitulation. On the morning of October 19, Washington reviewed the draft and, after some modifications, had the articles transcribed. The document was sent to Cornwallis for his signature, with a deadline of 11:00. Cornwallis duly signed, as did Captain Thomas Symonds, representing British naval units at York. The Allied commanders, Washington and Rochambeau, appear to have signed the document at captured British Redoubt No. 10.

The Count of Barras, appointed to act in place of the Count of Grasse for the French fleet, also signed for the Allies. The articles stipulated that troops, sailors, and marines should surrender as prisoners of war. Officers were required to retain their handguns and private papers and property. The soldiers were to be held in prison camps in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. Cornwallis and some of the officers were to be allowed parole and the sloop Bonetta was to be made available for the British commander to carry dispatches to Henry Clinton, after which she was to be handed over. At noon on October 19, two redoubts southeast of Yorktown were occupied by Allied troops, one by an American unit and the other by a French detachment. At 2 p.m. the British Army, dressed in egg uniforms and led by Brigadier General O'Hara (Cornwallis was ill), marched out of Yorktown along the York-Hampton Road to the tune of an old British march. titled “The World Turn'd Upside Down”. In the vicinity of the current National Cemetery, O'Hara arrived at the head of the Allied column. He seems to have sought out the Comte de Rochambeau first, but was diverted to Washington. Washington, in turn, sent it to Major General Lincoln, who accepted the sword from him, the sign of defeat and surrender, and then returned it. Following this, the British Army marched down Surrender Road between columns of Allied troops, Americans on the British left (east) and French on the British right (west), towards Surrender Field, where the formal surrender was made. “…we came straight to a flat field or a large meadow, where…we marched…regiment after regiment, piling up muskets and laying down all weapons…” wrote one of the British soldiers. Thus the siege of Yorktown was over, the climax of the revolution had passed, and the United States could look toward a free and independent state. A new nation was born!

French casualties were 60 killed and 194 wounded and American casualties were 28 killed and 107 wounded: a total of 88 killed and 301 wounded. British casualties from the siege were 156 killed, 326 wounded, and 70 missing. Cornwallis surrendered 7,087 officers and recruits at Yorktown when he capitulated and another 840 sailors to the British fleet on the York River. Another 84 prisoners had been taken during the assault on the redoubts on October 16. Given that only 70 men were reported missing, this would suggest that 14 of the men officially listed as dead had been captured. This gives a total of 142 killed, 326 prisoners wounded, and a further 7,685 prisoners. After the surrender, the British units returned to Yorktown. After 2 days off, the ranking and junior officers were taken to prison camps in western Virginia and Maryland. Both Washington and Rochambeau invited their distinguished prisoners to their tables, and for several days camp dinners were the fashion, the English attending as guests, except Tarleton, with whom the Americans refused to sit at table, on account of the atrocities committed by his troops in North and South Carolina. American units from the Allied armies began the march back to the Hudson around November 1. The French, for the most part, remained on the peninsula until the spring and then went to Rhode Island, after wintering at Yorktown, Williamsburg, Hampton, and other nearby points. Grasse sailed for the West Indies shortly after the siege ended. The British expedition, which was to relieve Cornwallis, reached Virginia waters in late October, too late to be of any use. General orders from Washington stated that free blacks in the area in the aftermath of the Battle of Yorktown could go where they pleased, while slaves who had followed the British Army were to be returned to their owners. But the turmoil of war provided some slaves with the opportunity to gain their freedom in various ways.

Some slaves represented themselves as free, while others offered themselves as servants to French and American officials. General orders from Washington made it difficult to return the slaves to their pre-war status. The war was technically over and major operations were suspended, with only minor fighting taking place while the outcome of negotiations was awaited. When news of Yorktown's capitulation reached London, the parliamentary opposition succeeded in overthrowing the pro-war government led by Frederick North, Lord North.

The war was really over. It had lasted for more than eight years, 104 blood-soaked months to be exact. As is the custom with wars, it had lasted much longer than its architects on both sides had anticipated in 1775. More than 100,000 American men had enlisted in the Continental Army. Countless thousands more had seen active duty in militia units, some for only a few days, some for a few weeks, some repeatedly, if their personnel were called into service again and again. The war had a terrible cost. The estimate is that 25,000 US soldiers perished, although the figure is low. Not only were the casualty figures reported by American leaders, like those expounded by British generals, almost always inaccurately low. No one would know precisely how many militiamen were lost in the war, since the records in the militia units were not as good as that of the Continental army nor was it as likely to survive. While it may have something to do with the number of soldiers who died in battle, or from camp sickness, or while in captivity, the totals for those who died of other causes can only be a guess. One man in 16 of military age died during the War of Independence. Of those who served in the Continental Army, one in four died during the war. Unlike in later wars when many soldiers came home with disabilities, relatively few disabled veterans lived in post-revolutionary America. Those who were seriously injured in the war rarely returned home. They died, usually from shock, blood loss, or infection. Some survived, of course, and for the rest of their lives faced partial or complete loss of vision, a weak leg, a limb without hands or feet, or emotional scars that never healed.

Not only soldiers died or were injured. Civilians died from diseases unwittingly spread by soldiers, and not a few at home died in the course of coastal raids, Indian raids, partisan warfare, and siege operations. There is no way of knowing how many civilians died as a direct result of this war, but it numbered in the thousands. The British also paid a heavy price in blood in this war, which was proportionately equal to the losses among the American forces. The British sent over 42,000 men to North America, of whom 25%, or approximately 10,000 men, are believed to have died. Some 7,500 Germans, out of a total of some 29,000 sent to Canada and the United States, also died in this war in the North American theater. Due to the paucity of surviving records, casualties among Loyalists who served with the British Army have never been established. However, it is thought that 21,000 men served in those provincial units. The most complete survival records would be those of the New Jersey volunteers, who suffered 20% fatalities. If their death toll, which was below the regulars and Germans, is typical, some 4,000 Provincials who fought for Britain would have died of all causes. It therefore seems likely that around 85,000 men served the British in North America in the course of this war, of whom approximately 21,000 perished. As was the case with American soldiers, the vast majority, approximately 65%, died of disease. Just over 2% of men in the British Army succumbed to the disease annually, while over 3% of German soldiers died each year from the disease. It is believed that up to 8,000 additional redcoats died in the West Indies, and another 2,000 may have died in transit to the Caribbean.

Up to 1780 the Royal Navy reported losses of 1,243 men killed in action and 18,541 from disease. Serious fighting raged on the high seas for another two years, so it is likely that more than 50,000 men bearing arms for Britain perished in this war. The French army lost several hundred men during its nearly two years in the United States, mainly to disease, but the French navy suffered losses of nearly 20,000 men in battle, captivity, and disease. Spanish losses brought the total death toll among those who fought in this war to over 100,000 men, between the Galvez expedition and the naval warfare. Annapolis became the temporary capital of the United States after the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783. Congress held its sessions at the seat of state between November 26, 1783 and June 3, 1784. On December 23 In 1783, in one of the nation's great statesmanship acts, General George Washington voluntarily resigned his military commission to the Congress of the Confederation at the State House in Annapolis, Maryland, returning to private life on his plantation at Mount Vernon. During his resignation speech to Congress, Washington recognized "the peculiar services and distinguished merits of the gentlemen who have joined me during the war, especially those who have continued in the service to the present time, as worthy of notice." favor and the patronage of Congress. Scholars would describe Washington's resignation in a phrase that echoed the classic Republican ideals that animated the founding generation: "The Virginian, like the victorious Roman soldier Cincinnatus, went home to plow but would see himself in the future go back to wearing the purple of the government”.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

Following the end of the American War of Independence, by the Treaty of Paris of 1783, England was forced to undergo an accelerated process of economic change that transformed its largely agrarian economy into an industrial one that saw the rise of a economically prosperous middle class that was supported by fundamental economic, institutional and social changes. While Spain, saw the rise of Sociedades Económicas de Amigos del País (Economic Societies of Friends of the Country) that aimed to stimulate the economic and intellectual development of Spain. These associations allowed improvements in agriculture, livestock, industry, professions and the arts in territories such as Catalonia (Royal Catalan Society of Friends of the Country), Vascongadas (Royal Basque Society of Friends of the Country) or even in the Philippines (Royal Society Economic Association of Friends of the Country of Manila). In colonial territories such as Australia, Brazil, Alta California or Louisiana, their objective was to explore and exploit local natural resources. However, France was bankrupt: The agricultural problems caused by the weather together with the piracy actions by the English Privateers led to a significant increase in poverty. By 1785, around a third of the French population lived in poverty, approximately 8 million people, which was mainly motivated by the displacement of the rural population towards the cities, which in most cases ended up contributing to the growth of the groups of mendicants who thronged Paris, Orleans and other major cities. Although the French followed the English in mechanization, England's own competition in the cotton and textile industries brought difficulties that were greatly aggravated when the Anglo-French trade treaty of 1786 opened the French market to British products beginning in mid-1787, where cheaper and superior quality British goods undermined domestic manufactures and contributed to the severe industrial depression underway in France in 1788.
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However, England using the British East India Company would end up carrying out a military action in Africa led by Sir Banastre Tarleton, Colonel of the British Green Dragons during the American War of Independence. Tarleton would land in the Cape Dutch colony with a force of dragoons, using tactics comparable to those applied in Carolina. Tarleton was appointed Governor General of the Cape Presidency where he used his friendship with John Graves Simcoe to get hundreds of families of loyalists who served under the military command of both to emigrate to the colony with the aim of putting the Dutch population in a clear minority. Tarleton would be a wide promoter of the so-called Tarleton Policy, a policy aimed mainly at building a caste system in much the same way as in the territories of the Spanish Empire. In the upper part were the English or inhabitants of the island of Great Britain, in second position, were the European whites, in third place were the freed blacks, in fourth place were the slaves and natives. The Cape Presidency would stand out for using its military strength with training based on the experiences of Tarleton's Green Dragons, Simcoe's Rangers even Benedict Arnold's American Legion. The labor of Indian or African slaves provided the physical cornerstone for the creation of farms, factories and homes, these jobs could be anything from quiet where they were seen to serve their masters in luxurious colonial houses mostly with a Colonial Georgian style due mostly to the abundant presence of loyalists from Carolina, Georgia or Virginia, others, on the other hand, were forced to work going into mines, quarries, farms or factories with dangerous security conditions where the lack of security caused deaths due to illness, injuries, accidents and in many cases In cases of abuse by their supervisors, the demand for labor only increased with this and to supply it, expeditions were carried out that received the name of Chevauchée in reference to the tactics used in the Hundred Years' War.
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While southern Africa was bowing under the British corporate yoke. British General Charles Cornwallis, Earl Cornwallis was appointed in February 1786 to serve as Commander-in-Chief of British India and Governor of the Fort William Presidency. Cornwallis reduced nepotism and political favoritism, instituting the practice of merit-based promotion also called meritocracy. This practice was combined with a general centralization of the British India government where judicial and policing issues in company controlled territories were a confusion of different standards which were also applied inconsistently or arbitrarily, Cornwallis imposed criminal and judicial rules alongside other issues in a Code of Laws that would be called the Cornwallis Code that served to begin to harmonize the different codes then in use. However, he also institutionalized racism in the legal system as well-educated gentlemen of European origin were widely thought to be superior to others, including those who were the product of mixed relationships in India. This, however, contrasted with the benevolent and somewhat paternalistic attitude that Cornwallis had towards the lower classes as he was interested in improving their condition, going so far as to introduce legislation to protect the native weavers who were sometimes forced to work with pitiful wages by of unscrupulous company employees, while eliminating child slavery and even introducing a reliable standard currency by building a mint in Calcutta. However, Cornwallis found himself wielding the command saber again when the Third Anglo-Mysore War broke out. The war was mainly motivated by the result of the previous one and a substantial support from France using its equivalent of the BEIC (French East India Company), the FEIC instead sold muskets, cannons and allowed Tipu Sultan to acquire French military advisers to change for a small price.
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Although the imported equipment allowed for a gradual but substantial improvement in the firepower of the average Mysorean soldier, the European-style training and organization, especially from France, was a process that took far longer than Tipu Sultan was willing to wait. and decided. to start the conflict, even against the advice of his French advisers from the FEIC. The conflict was an engagement where select units of Europeans supported by large numbers of natives fought the other way, this made a status quo which held for some time until Tipu harnessed his more effective rocket artillery than the usual British European cannons. , to cause chaos in the tight and closed formations of the European troops. This would lead to greater use of light infantry which had no problem dispersing and reducing casualties. However, a third contender would enter the Indian Ring when the Spanish East India Company began to support Tipu through the direct sale of arms, gunpowder and supplies, something easier to do thanks to its proximity to the Philippines, Australia or the Japan itself. At one point, the SEIC would end up renting Ronin Regiments (mercenaries) of Japanese nationality or Philippine Sepoys. These Regiments trained and equipped according to Spanish European standards, had a reputation for skilled and disciplined fighters but were perceived as crude and barbaric due to their high sense of personal honor and religious beliefs, however, it is estimated that around five thousand soldiers of the SEIC fought in the Mysorian ranks, coming to be seen in the native populations that were put to the sword as rapacious and brutal troops, a notable element in the difference of the Ronin was the use of Japanese swords as melee weapons when they were not using the bayonet, obtaining a katana became a curiosity that gave a certain status among the French or British Companies, and the only way to get it was to take it from a dead Ronin.
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The war finally ended when in a three-way attack on the Mysore territories by the Maratha, Hyderabad and Company forces led by Cornwallis. Tipu Sultan was forced to sign a peace treaty at Seringapatam where Mysore ceded about half of its territories to the other signatories. Peshwa acquired territory up to the Tungabhadra River, the Nizam received land from Krishna to the Penner River, and the forts of Cuddapah and Gandikota on the southern bank of the Penner. The East India Company received a large part of the territories of the Malabar coast of Mysore between the Kingdom of Travancore and the Kali River, and the districts of Baramahal and Dindigul at the time that the rajah of Coorg gained its independence although it was strongly subordinate to the Company. Due to the impossibility of paying the compensation of 550 lakhs rupees at once, he was forced to hand over two of his three sons as hostages of war. Which would be kept in a golden cage where they would be educated so that in the event of being returned, they would be supporters and followers of the British East India Company. However, the real chaos would be in France.
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In order to find a means to pay the expenses caused by the war, Louis XVI appointed the Genevan banker Jacques Necker, who in order to avoid raising the gabelle (taxes), resorted to loans. Until the interest on the debt could not be satisfied without raising taxes. In 1781 Necker was dismissed, being appointed in his place Charles Alexandre de Colonne, who to contain the crisis, managed to convince Louis XVI to summon the Notables (delegates of the nobility and high clergy). The meeting took place in 1787, but when its representatives observed that the financial reform harmed their privileges, they refused to sanction it. In France the nobility formed 1.4% of the population and was organized into 3 groups.
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• Court nobility that were about 4,000 who lived in Versailles thanks to the pensions granted by the monarch. Most were broke, living beyond their means.​
• Provincial nobility who lived on feudal rights, many were bankrupt and raised rents for their impoverished peasants, they were despised by those at court and hated by the peasants.​
• Robe nobility who were in charge of the bureaucracy, opposed everything that harmed their interests.​

As for the clergy, it was made up of the high clergy (bishops, abbots, cardinals, etc.) who were of noble origin and lived a luxurious life at the expense of tithes, and the low clergy (priests and religious orders), of peasant origin and who lived on the “congrue portion” or subsistence ration. On August 8, 1788, and in the midst of great commotion, Louis XVI was persuaded to convene the Estates General, which had not met since 1614. But on December 27, 1788, under pressure from the Third Estate, King agreed to double the number of its deputies. In reality, in fact this did not seem to change anything, since each of the three orders was given one single vote at the time of joint voting. And so, with this system, the nobility and the clergy were the ones who decided, since their respective positions were generally very far from those of the Third Estate. What the people wanted was a constitutional monarchy, under which the representatives could meet periodically, guaranteeing the supply of food. The Estates General were convened in Versailles on May 5, 1789. The representatives of the Third Estate (formed by the bourgeoisie, the urban popular classes, and the peasantry), refused to form a separate group, and invited the nobility and high clergy to deliberate with them. But since only a few were willing to accept, the representatives of the Third Estate declared themselves in the National Assembly. Ten days later, at the famous ball game, they swore an oath not to part until they had drawn up a new constitution. In order to avoid this, Louis XVI ordered the deputies of the privileged orders to meet with the commoners, but at the same time to avoid disorders; he gave orders to the Marquis de Broglie to mobilize the foreign regiments under the command of the 60-year-old Marshal Broglie. The Swiss general Baron de Besenval was in command of 5 regiments with some 6,000 troops camped on the Champ de Mars.
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The idea of using foreign troops instead of nationals, came mainly because Louis XVI since he did not trust the nationals, among which were the Swiss Regiments of Reinach, Castella, Chateauvieux, and Salis Samade; the German Regiment from Bouillon and Nassau, French Regiments from Metz, Valenciennes, and Provence; the Royal Allemand, Royal Cravate, and Mestre de Camp Général Cavalry Regiments; the Delfin and Royal Dragoon Regiments; Hussars regiments of Esterhazy, Bercheny and Lauzon. Meanwhile, the city of Paris, which then had 700,000 inhabitants, was in great turmoil due to various circumstances. The harvest of 1788 had been very scarce, which caused the price of bread to skyrocket in July 1789. To this must be added a significant contraction in trade due to the War of Independence in the United States, which led to layoffs and lower wages. The homeless spread like an alarming plague and with them the thieves. The cities were afraid of being looted by these bands of criminals, who were said to be recruited by aristocrats to intimidate the Third Estate. In the midst of these circumstances, a revolt of industrial workers broke out who destroyed a decoration paper factory in Paris, while the peasants refused to pay more seigneurial taxes or taxes, even to the extent that the Parisians tried to arm themselves to protect his city, even more so when garrison troops were being directed from Paris to Versailles, unguarding the city. All this agitation exploded when on July 12, 1789, a 29-year-old named Lucie-Simplice-Camille-Benoist Desmoulins, eldest son of Jean Benoît Desmoulins, lord of Bucquoy et de Sémery, lieutenant-general of the bailliage de Guise (Picardy) upon learning of the dismissal of finance minister Jacques Necker, called for the people to demonstrate in front of the Royal Palace.

Camille Desmoulins, in an impromptu harangue, addressed the mob with the following terms: “Citizens, there is no time to lose; Necker's dismissal is the signal for St. Bartholomew's Night for patriots! Tonight, Swiss and German battalions will take the Field of Mars to massacre us; There is only one solution left: take up arms!” The liberals took advantage of the deplorable situation of the mob to achieve their ends. The problems of famine had degenerated into raids on stores and shops in wealthy neighborhoods or even under military authority, the hunger produced by the high price served as a motivation to move, while the thought that wealthy speculators were to blame who hoarded the bread and motivated the high prices. This situation of revolt was further harassed by rumors of looting in the countryside by organized bandits, rumors brought by numerous vagabonds from the countryside that considerably increased insecurity. This climate received the name of The "Great Fear", which led to the voters of Paris (the group of delegates who had elected those who would represent the city of Paris in the States General), met in the town hall of the capital and decided to establish themselves as a new municipal power. They began to form a "National Guard", which would be the shock force of the new institutions and would maintain the "new order" in the streets of Paris, but this guard had no weapons, except for swords and spears, even private crossbows or muskets. . This benefited when, on July 12, a confrontation broke out between a crowd of Protestants and the Royal-German Cavalry Regiment, under the command of the Prince of Lambesc in the Louis XV square. Lambesc would order his troops to charge the angry mob, scattering but wounding dozens and killing a dozen between the sheer force of the steeds and the saber blows used.
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The Regiment of Gardes Françaises (French Guards), which was destined as a permanent garrison in Paris, found itself in a dilemma because they fraternized with the popular cause but their oaths to the King were also important to them. With the start of the first riots at the beginning of July, an order was given to confine him to his quarters, but Lambesc, distrusting the Gardes Françaises on logical pretexts, decided to send a total of sixty men on horseback to protect him in front of his headquarters on the street Chaussee d'Antin. However, the measure only served to exacerbate the Gardes, who expelled the cavalry group, killing two soldiers and wounding three more, despite the fact that the officers of the French Guard made futile attempts to withdraw their men. Among the men of the guard, there would be a young Luis Felipe de Orleans, always a supporter of the Revolution who served as an officer of the Guard. The staff officers of the Gardes Françaises Regiment, seeing the situation, decided to clean their hands by giving authority to the non-commissioned officers who would end up putting the regiment at the service of the voters of Paris. The citizen revolt then had an experienced military contingent at its service, who had fought in America, definitely on the popular side. The next day, July 13, the Parisian crowd wanted to arm themselves and went to the Hôtel de Ville (City Hall) to ask for weapons. Jacques de Flesselles, who had become the highest municipal authority, decided to organize the National Guard, with the aim of maintaining order, using the Gardes Françaises as a nucleus of officers and veterans to create an elite unit. However, military discipline was soon abandoned and autonomous popular militias spread throughout the city, identified only by a cockade in the colors of Paris, red and blue, but without weapons or ammunition. To equip this militia, the mutineers looted the Garde-Meuble, popular name for the Hôtel de la Marina, where old weapons and a collection of antiquities were stored. Looting had spread through the city.

However, while the crowds looted the available and insufficiently defended military warehouses, a militia of the voters of the Town Hall made their way to Les Invalides, which contained large stocks of weapons stored in the building complex. The delegation asked Sombreuil to hand over the thirty thousand muskets stored in the cellars of the Invalides. The governor argued that he would need the approval of Versailles, due to his military oaths; meanwhile his half-hearted retirees were being ordered to begin deactivating the weapons in their possession. Subsequently, Sombreuil agreed to the revolutionaries' demands to hand over his garrison without attempting armed resistance, saving him a bloody fate as his counterpart governor of the prison-fortress of the Bastille. Inside Les Invalides, in his basement they found 28,000 rifles, 12 cannons and a mortar, but with very little ammunition. The military forces camped on the Champ de Mars did not act to defend or preserve peace, the soldiers refused to attack the French population, so the popular revolution could continue without problems. Soon after, the revolutionaries learned that cannon and gunpowder are stored in the Bastille, and headed there. In the morning, a delegation headed by the lawyer Thuriot met with Launay. They demanded the delivery of the cannons and gunpowder, Launay explained that there were no cannons or gunpowder and allowed several people to visit the fortress and verify that there was nothing. But in the afternoon, another group of revolutionaries approached the Bastille, Launay went down to talk to them as he had done before, but he is immediately assassinated, the assailants murdered the three guards inside and freed the prisoners The heads of the murdered were put on a pike and the mob went to the Hôtel de Ville (City Hall).
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At the Town Hall, the crowd accused Jacques de Flesselles, provost merchants of Paris or precursor to mayor, of treason. A show trial was staged at the Palais Royal and he too was executed. In addition to the prisoners, the fortress housed the files of the Lieutenant général de police (Lieutenant General of the Police) of Paris, which were subjected to systematic looting. It was only after two days that the authorities took action to preserve the remains of that file. Beaumarchais himself, whose house was located directly opposite the fortress, did not hesitate to seize documents. Denounced, he had to restore them later. At 8:00 a.m. on July 15, 1789, at the Palace of Versailles, at the time of his awakening, the Duke of Rochefoucauld-Liancourt informed Louis XVI of the storming of the Bastille. "But is it a big riot?" asked Louis XVI. "No Sire, this is a great revolution." The duke replied. The situation in Paris, a great movement, seeing entrenched streets with barricades built with cobblestones, furniture and cars and even improvised pikes. At the same time, the elite troops stationed around the capital are increasingly affected by revolutionary propaganda and defections to the people are increasing. At one point, the colonels of these regiments informed the King that they could not be of use to the uprising as they lacked sufficient forces to be effective. The royal troops were then dispersed to their border garrisons. But then the Marquis de Lafayette, who had fought in America, was given command of the National Guard in Paris. Jean-Sylvain Bailly, leader of the Third Estate, was elected mayor of the city by voters gathered at the Hôtel de Ville and a new municipal government structure was established. On July 17, the Count of Artois, accompanied by Jules de Polignac and some great lords of the court, was the first emigrant abroad, moving to the electorate of Trier, where his maternal uncle Clement of Saxony reigned. The Marquis de Bouillé, Charles Alexandre de Calonne, the Prince de Bourbon-Condé, and most of the courtiers soon followed.

Finally, in the city of Rennes (Bretagne) the troops went over to the side of the rioters with the cry of "Vive le tiers" (Long live the people). The same scenario occurs from Strasbourg to Bordeaux, from Caen to Briançon, from Lorraine (Thionville) to the Midi via Burgundy (Auxonne). The situation led Louis XVI to go to the headquarters of the Paris Commune, validating its decisions (in particular, the formation of the National Guard) and gave orders to the regiments of regular troops to return to their barracks far from the capital. The Constituent Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, based on the American Declaration of Independence and inspired by the principles of the Enlightenment on August 26. But on October 5, thousands of women, animated by the cry of hunger, marched towards the Court and its King in the famous Palace of Versailles; 800 men followed them. This motley crowd armed with swords and rifles was arrested by the King's bodyguards, the Swiss guards and the Flanders regiment. At night, the army shoots; and the insurgents defend themselves, the Versailles militia (reserve soldiers) intervene together with the people. The royal troops prefer to retire to their barracks. The confused mass in the morning turned into a heroic commando that lit fires, even eating a horse that had died in the previous confrontation. The echo of the combat would reach Paris; thousands of armed men gathered around City Hall, where elected officials were hesitating. Suddenly, the logical objective came out, without a given order: to Versailles! Along the way, numerous reinforcements often obviously among the most determined revolutionaries completed the column. When he arrived at Versailles, the King was firm and refused to receive General Lafayette, who commanded the National Guard. On October 6, around 06:00, the demonstrators, after a very watery night, entered the courtyard of the castle.
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A confrontation took place with the guards, two guards were killed, and they rush to the royal apartments. At 11:00 a.m., the Assembly met, chaired by Mounier, and they decided to follow Louis XVI to Paris. At 1:00 p.m., the King left Versailles for Paris accompanied by the entire royal family. He at the head of the immense procession of more than 30,000 National Guard men, each with a pique bread at the point of his bayonet. Then the women escorting wheat carts and cannons, behind the unarmed Guards de Corps and the Swiss Guards. At the end, the carriage of the royal family marched escorted by Lafayette, followed by other carriages that carried some deputies and then most of the national guards and the rest of the protesters. The royal family was escorted to the Tuileries Palace, where they took up residence. From then on, the King and the National Assembly sat in Paris, watched over by the National Guard and threatened by riots. Royal power was therefore extremely weakened. France was still a monarchy, but legislative power passed to the Constituent Assembly. The specialized committees of the Assembly had the upper hand over the entire administration, which cares less and less for the King's power. The ministers were no longer more than technical executors supervised by the Assembly. However, the King retains executive power. The laws and decrees voted by the Assembly were only valid if the King promulgated them. In addition, the mayors and other agents of the Old Regime administration remained in office until the formation of a new administration. Until the summer of the following year, the mayors who had not resigned would continue to exercise their functions, although their scope had been considerably reduced. The most important problem was the economic one, since France was bankrupt.
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On November 2, 1789, at the proposal of Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun, who was the mistress of Necker's daughter, Madame de Stäel, the property of the clergy was "put at the disposal" of the nation for the extinction of the public debt. In addition, the bishops and representatives of the clergy had to be chosen by representatives of the people. They became national assets to be sold in assignats (lots) to make up for the state deficit. Necker got the better of him, securing huge tracts of church property, as security for his promises to pay in gold and silver, but as there was neither, the notes were refused, following a great deal of confusion. Necker fled the Country. Given the urgency of the financial situation, the Constituent Assembly makes national property the guarantee of a document that holders can exchange for land. First used as treasury bills, they received a forced rate in April 1790 to become royal currency. Therefore, 400 million assignats (lots) in 1,000 pound titles were issued: this would be the beginning of a strong period of inflation. This would be followed on February 13, 1790, when religious vows were abolished and religious orders abolished, except, provisionally, hospitals and teachers. This already caused problems with the Vatican but little mattered to the provisional French government, but the anti-religious legislation hurt Louis XVI to the quick, leading him to say "I would rather be king of Metz than govern France under similar conditions." Shortly after, the municipalities carried out the inventories in the following months and often claimed the libraries that will be used to constitute the first funds of the municipal libraries. The sale of national goods began in October, although it greatly benefited the bourgeoisie, which had significant funds to buy quickly.
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The anti-religiousness that flooded led to the fact that shortly after Louis XVI began to think about fleeing, not to loyal Normandy or Brittany as Mirabeau had suggested, but to Metz where the royalist émigrés were. In this he was ardently supported by his wife Marie Antoinette, daughter of the Austrian Emperor Leopold II, who continued to perform charitable functions and attend religious ceremonies, but focused most of her time on her children. An important event that would mark the future of the monarch would be when on April 19, 1791, the kings decided to leave Paris to spend Palm Sunday at their country residence in Saint-Cloud, they were surrounded by a crowd that prevented them from leaving and he even showered them with insults. What led the King not to shy away from publicly declaring himself a prisoner; while in private, urged on by his wife, he decided to plan an escape. Plans for a royal elopement between the Count of Mirabeau and Count Axel von Fersen, a friend of Queen Marie Antoinette, had previously been discussed, but Mirabeau's death on 2 April 1791 put an end to that discussion. With the Saint-Cloud fiasco, Marie Antoinette sought the help of Count Axel von Fersen, who revived these plans with vigour. In June, he bought a Berline and brought it to a patio at Eleanore Sullivan's residence on Rue de Clichy in Paris. The escape was arranged to take place on June 20, coinciding with a particular changing of the guard. The plan was to escape at night and travel undercover to the nearest border town, Montmédy, some 287 kilometers east of Paris; 20 hours of non-stop travel could be enough. There, the King would launch a proclamation to denounce the abuses of the Revolution. At 10:00 p.m. on June 20, 1791, the Queen took her children to Fersen in secret. She then returned to the living room, as if nothing had happened. Soon after she retired to her bedroom, gave her maids instructions for the next day, and went to bed. But as soon as she was left alone, she dressed in a simple gray suit, covered her face with a veil and left through some hidden doors of the palace. The King, for his part, had to stay conversing with the courtiers until 11:30 p.m. He then went to sleep, but ran away. Luis, Marie Antoinette, her two children, and Fersen finally met at two in the morning, two hours late. They were in a new, huge and luxurious carriage, which comfortably accommodated the five fugitives plus the princes' governess, two chambermaids, the queen's hairdresser and other assistants, with trunks full of clothes, crockery, bottles of wine and other luxuries. It was not exactly a discreet entourage, but even so, it left Paris without arousing suspicion.
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The leak was discovered at 08:00 hours. At first, some tried to make believe that the King had been kidnapped by counterrevolutionaries, but at noon it was discovered that Luis had left a document explaining the reasons for his escape. The authorities reacted by ordering the arrest of anyone trying to leave the kingdom. Something that could be seen as impossible since there were a multitude of roads that left the kingdom even the extension of the kingdom. The fugitives traveled under false identities: the Marquise de Tourzel, governess to the princes, posed as a Russian aristocrat, the Baroness de Korff, while the queen and the king's sister would pretend to be her maids; the king, for his part, was the servant Durand. They changed horses at Bondy, half an hour from Paris. There, by the will of the king, they separated from Fersen. They continued without incident to Châlons, where they arrived at 6:00 p.m. They stopped for lunch and had a damaged wheel, which took them half an hour to repair, which meant that they arrived at Pont-de-Somme-Vesle two hours late, hours that were further delayed when the Royal Family neglected to the secrecy as Louis chatted with peasants while horses were changed at Fromentieres and Marie Antoinette handed out silver plates to a helpful local official at Chaintrix. In the town of Châlons the people greeted and applauded the royal group as they left but when they arrived at the small town of Varennes-en-Argonne, troops under the command of General François Claude de Bouillé, the Marquis de Bouillé who were waiting to escort them to the heavily fortified royalist citadel of Montmédy, disappeared either due to the tardiness of the royal family or even neutralized by peasant militias. Varennes-en-Argonne was only 50 kilometers from Montmédy but they arrived there after dark and stopped on the outskirts and The news of the king's escape had already spread and the town was in turmoil.
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One of the most excited was the local postmaster, Jean-Baptiste Drouet, who had seen the queen long ago, when he was in the military. When he took a look inside the carriage he recognized Marie Antoinette immediately and also realized that the supposed servant Durand had the same features as the king, as depicted on the banknotes that were in circulation at the time. While the royal carriage continued on the road, Drouet, taking another route, arrived before them at Varennes where he had given the warning and had the procurator, Sauce, the highest authority in the place since the mayor was absent, examine the papers to travelers. Initially, Willow declared that the passports were in order and there was no reason to detain the carriage, but Drouet slammed his fist on the table and replied: "They are the king and his family, and if you let them go abroad you will be guilty of high responsibility treason". Willow bowed; Waiting to verify the identity of the travelers, he put them up in his own house. There Louis XVI gladly accepted the bread and cheese with gluttony that the host's wife offered them to recover. In the midst of that, Louis XVI could no longer hide his identity. He declared to everyone that he was the monarch and asked them to let him continue to Montmédy. Just then a detachment of German hussars from the 4th Hussar Regiment appeared in the town ready to rescue the king, even if it was with saber blows. But Louis XVI feared for the safety of his family and wanted to wait for more troops to arrive. However, against the will of Louis XVI, the second lieutenant in command of the Hussars who responded to the name of Michel Ney, decided to take him even if he dragged. Establishing a perimeter, they loaded the monarch and his family into their wagon under escort and left just as revolutionary militias led by two of the many commissars the National Assembly had sent in all directions to arrest the king, arrived at Verdannes.
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Left: Second Lieutenant Michel Ney from 4th Hussar Regiment
Center: Prince Heir Louis (XVII) Charles of France
Right: Sargeant Joachim Murat from the National Guard​

Second Lieutenant Ney, would order two hussars to go ahead looking for reinforcements in case they were attacked by the revolutionaries. Something that would come true when fifteen kilometers from Varennes-en-Argonne and thirty-five kilometers from Montmédy, groups of revolutionary militiamen, in some cases cavalry units of the National Guard, clashed with the hussars. The commanding officer of the National Guard troops was Joachim Murat, a sergeant who had a reputation for vehemently expressing republican views, denouncing his less patriotic comrades and even going so far as to change his name to Marat. Ney and Marat would come to clash swords throughout the trip until ten kilometers from Montmédy, Murat was forced to withdraw in front of the Monarchic reinforcements who, upon hearing the news that their monarch was in trouble and persecuted, came to the rescue. However, during the combats apart from sabers and cavalry lances, carbines and cavalry pistols were used: several shots ended up hitting the carriage and one ended up killing the King, but his death was not discovered until the carriage arrived at Montmédy. The death of Louis XVI caused his son Louis XVII to be proclaimed King, while he appointed the Count of Artois as Lieutenant General of the Kingdom and his mother Marie Antoinette of Austria as regent. After the flight from Varennes, the opposition of the revolutionaries to the monarchy became more and more virulent, but when Emperor Leopold II learned of the death of the King of France, he declared that the "assassination of a king at the hands of revolutionary rebels, jeopardized directly the honor of all reigning sovereigns and the security of governments. And on August 27, together with King Frederick William II of Prussia, they signed the Declaration of Pillnitz, Saxony, in which the monarchs stated that they were willing to unite with other European monarchs in support of Louis.
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This declaration was interpreted by the French National Assembly as a declaration of war by the European powers, but on September 1, 1791, the tensions provoked the anger of the revolutionaries against the counterrevolutionaries, which were made up of monarchists, Catholics or even dissidents. , exploded in the so-called September Massacre: A ten-day event where mass executions were carried out between September 1 and September 10, in Paris the majority of the prison population of the Prison of l was murdered. 'Abbaye, Châtelet Prison, Carmes Prison, Bicêtre Prison, Salpêtrière Prison, La Force Prison and Conciergerie Prison. The first massacre occurred when a group of prisoners who were to be transferred to the prison de l'Abbaye near Saint-Germain-des-Prés were met by a mob armed with pitchforks, pikes, knives and axes. Immediately, the crowd pounced on the prisoners, killing them all before going to the prisons to continue their task, brutally and atrociously but systematically executing the prisoners without distinguishing between political prisoners (nobles, refractory priests and former Swiss guards) and common law. One of the most famous victims and used as propaganda would be Maria Teresa of Saboya-Carignano, who identified herself as Princess of Lamballe. She married Louis-Alexander, Prince de Lamballe, heir to the greatest fortune in France, at the age of seventeen, soon after becoming a friend and confidant of Queen Marie-Antoinette, earning a warning before her escape. Lambelle, was in La Force prison, which was attacked by radical revolutionaries who herded the prisoners before makeshift courts made up of revolutionary citizens, who tried and summarily executed them. Each prisoner was asked a series of questions, after which he was released with the words "vive la nation" ("long live the nation") or sentenced to death with the expression "take him to the Abbey" or "let him go", after which the condemned man was taken to a courtyard and where a crowd of men, women and children awaited.

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On September 3, Lamballe was taken to a courtyard along with other prisoners to wait to be brought before the court. After being brought before it, María Teresa was asked to "swear to love freedom and equality and to swear to hate the king, the queen and the monarchy". The princess agreed to swear freedom but she refused to denounce the monarchs. At this point, her trial ended with the following words: "Emmenez Madame" ("Take away Madame"). Her loyalty to the royal family outweighed her own sense of self-preservation. Dressed in a pure white gown, Lamballe was immediately led out into the street, where a group of men who had previously been imprisoned in the Bastille awaited, Maria Theresa was raped before being violently blinded to be paraded through Paris tied with a gold necklace. dog, for hours she was subjected to humiliation to the point that her breasts were cut off along with other types of bodily mutilations. Her naked and bruised corpse—an amalgamation of pale, red, and purple—was eviscerated and decapitated, her head finally being impaled on the point of a pike. A large number of witnesses would see his head paraded through the streets on a pike while his body was dragged by the mob shouting "la Lamballe!", but the real atrocity was the fate suffered by his remains being subjected to an even greater sick degeneracy that included necrophilia and other types of perversions that would make decent men pale, but by now most people were liberated mental patients. The international reaction to this fact made the Habsburg Monarchy, the Kingdom of Prussia, the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the United Provinces and the Kingdom of Spain declare war on the French Republic. The first of the French Revolutionary Wars had begun.​

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Perhaps it is one of the most brutal and graphically explicit chapters, but it is the French Revolution. It was not clean. It wasn't pretty. It was not fair. Thousands died and in periods of instability and lawlessness atrocities occur. The death of Louis Sr. occurred to me as a way to avoid torture of poor Louis Son, who was tortured, malnourished and beaten daily while he was locked up. Even in the trial against Marie Antoinette, it came to be used as a crime that Marie Antoinette, her own mother, masturbated him and made him participate in sexual games. He was a child who did not know what was happening around him and such things show how crazy and brutal the situation was in France during the Revolution.

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[Paladín Wulfen]

The End of the War of Independence of the United States, brought with it that the young Republic was a nation free of foreign control. However, the newly created United States was financially fragile; Britain relinquished control of the region, but the native nations did not take part in the negotiations, and the new United States was no longer bound by British treaties with the native nations. Brigadier General Allan Maclean at Fort Niagara reported that the native nations could not believe that the King would give his land to the United States, nor that the United States would accept them. This led to an increase in hostilities that were not feasible with the much-needed peace to reduce military spending. In the midst of such a situation, Shay's Rebellion broke out. Daniel Shays was a veteran of the American Revolution who left the Continental Army on October 14, 1780, following the Execution of Major John Andre. Known for holding the rank of company commander, he had some reputation in the locals, but upon returning to his farm he found that many of his fellow veterans and farmers were just like him, summoned to court for unpaid debts, which he could not find. pay because he had not been paid in full for his military service. the veterans claimed they were treated unfairly after their release, and that businessmen were trying to squeeze money from small landowners to pay off their own debts to European war investors, though many rural Massachusetts communities first tried to petition the the legislature in Boston, the legislature did not respond substantially to those requests. The situation worsened when James Bowdoin, a wealthy merchant, was elected as the 2nd Governor of Massachusetts.

Bowdoin, contrary to the more popular Governor Hancock, decided to raise taxes and with it the collection of back taxes along with additional property taxes to raise funds for the state portion of foreign debt payments. Such acts, combined with a general postwar economic depression and a credit crunch caused by a shortage of foreign exchange, wreaked havoc throughout rural parts of the state. Shay would end up leading with another veteran: Job Shattuck, an organization that would be christened the Regulators, a reference to the North Carolina Regulator movement that sought to reform corrupt practices in the late 1760s. This led to Bowdoin ending up ordering his arrest. of Regulator leaders, including Shattuck, who ultimately died while resisting arrest. Shattuck's death would end up radicalizing the organization, which began to organize an overthrow of the state government. Shays, Day and other rebel leaders would begin to organize their forces, establishing regional regimental organizations that were run by democratically elected committees to prepare for an uprising, the first major target being the federal armory in Springfield which contained a large supply of weapons and ammunition. . However, General Shepard, on Governor Bowdoin's orders, took possession of the armory and used his arsenal to arm a force of some 1,000 militiamen. This was done unaware that the armory was federal property, not state property, and did not have permission from Secretary of War Henry Knox. When the Regulators, in two contingents, advanced to Springfield on January 25, they found Shepard's militia waiting for them. Shepard first ordered warning shots over the heads of Shays's men, which was seen by the Regulators as an insult but also a reminder of the Boston Massacre nearly a decade ago. Almost without Shay being able to stop them, the Regulators charged the outnumbered militia with shouts and sporadic shots.

Shephard lacked time to order his two cannons to fire grape shots, so it soon turned into a melee in which the superior numbers and motivation of the Regulators prevailed, losing 400 dead between both sides, while General Shephard retired to Worcester. The Regulators militia saw their force fully equipped with muskets, bayonets and a few cannons, but their hostility only called for Federal troops led by the almost universally loved George Washington, who was the symbol of the American Revolution, of course. Throw off the British yoke, unify the warring nation, and fight for the freedom of the Thirteen Colonies. 5,000 men eager to fight under Greater Washington, who expected a quick victory even while fighting their national brothers. Washington accomplished his mission. But Washington was disgusted by how his nation had degenerated into something as corrupt, hypocritical, even tyrannical as King George's England. On George's orders, Shay and other major rebel leaders were executed for looting federal property, while Governor Bowdoin was ousted for abuse of the people of Massachusetts. George Washington began to look realistically at the letter he received on May 22, 1782 in Newburgh, New York. A letter written by Colonel Lewis Nicola. In the letter, Nicola proposed that Washington become the King of the United States, at that time Washington refused because it clashed with his republicanism, but with the vision of today. He viewed the Great Experiment as a botched experiment that needed to be fixed.

Washington's thoughts materialized in May 1787, during the Great Convention in Philadelphia. Numerous delegates and representatives including characters of social importance from the Thirteen States that made up the United States. The Convention was made under the pretext of reviewing the Articles of Confederation, although this would have an unexpected outcome when George Washington proposed the "Newburgh" Plan that would be supported by Alexander Hamilton. The Newburgh plan advocated that the solution to the problems of the United States was found in a strong central government focused on the figure of a Monarch; This monarch would be neutral between the various factions or interest groups that divided society: creditors and debtors, rich and poor, or farmers, merchants and manufacturers. The Monarch's rule would be followed by a bicameral chamber with an elected lower house and an appointed upper house. The lower house would be divided in proportion to the population of each state, while each state would have 2 seats in the upper house for equal representation. There would also be a Supreme Court made up of 9 judges appointed for life by the Monarch. Perhaps, the novelty was when in the event that the monarch dies without heirs, the Senate (Upper House) will vote, after a period of mourning, to elect a new Monarch. The monarchical and Republican disputes would be so intense because according to the words of the Jeffersonians "They did not fight to change a king three thousand miles away for a king three miles away", however Washington's reputation and popularity made it so that by September 1787 , George Washington was elected as King of the Kingdom of America. Although it was thought of changing the name of the nation to Empire, Washington refused. Even though his domains stretched from the woods of New England to the swamps of Georgia, from the shores of the Atlantic to the Mississippi River. George refused to allow his kingdom to have such a name as he would advocate a path similar to that followed by the Roman Empire.

This decision put Jorge on the same level as Jorge III of Great Britain and Louis XVI of France, even Carlos III of Spain. George Washington built a navy and army that was significantly more capable than the Revolution, with better morale, better food, equipment, even leaders, while ruthlessly reducing bribery and corruption, eliminating incompetent officers. The beginnings of Washington's reign proved to be monumental in shaping the country. Washington established a "Royal American Cabinet" that included a series of Secretaries ranging from War, Treasury, even State. In 1790, he formally authorized the establishment and funding of a military academy at Fort Clinton, this academy would be christened the Royal American Military Academy (RAMA) and would have a curriculum focused on mathematics, chemistry, physics, engineering, history, physical geography , philosophy, leadership including horsemanship together exercise. The following year, he would found the Royal American Naval Academy (RANA) in Annapolis, which would fulfill the same function as the RAMA but oriented to the navy. The first Director of the Academy would be John Paul Jones known as the "Father of the Royal American Navy". George Washington proved to be a capable administrator and a judge of talent and character, speaking regularly to department heads to get their advice. At Hamilton's suggestion, he improved or established a number of sources of revenue for the national government, such as royalties, excises, canal and highway tolls, shipping fees, and others. All attractive as "indirect" taxes versus direct taxes, such as property or income taxes. This would be followed by the implementation of a series of moderate tariffs on imported goods, particularly those from Great Britain.

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Products that were flooding American markets, to serve both to protect burgeoning American industry from unfair competition and to increase government revenue. The funds obtained would be reinvested in industrial subsidies to grow US manufacturing and also to build internal improvements such as canals and highways to improve trade between the states. A third initiative was the sale of much land in the Northwest Territory to interested citizens who allowed the colonization of the same territory. These economic measures would have a tremendous impact on the economy and politics of the Kingdom of America. However, Washington had to face the problem of Slavery, which had been in progress since before the Revolution first by the Quakers and then by the Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage abbreviated as the Pennsylvania Abolition Society. The Society came into conflict with the senators from the south, who blocked any attempt to abolish an institution that was important to their plantation economy. After a contentious debate, Senate leaders shelved the proposals without a vote, setting a precedent in which the Senate generally avoids discussing slavery. That didn't stop Washington from passing two slave-related laws, though: the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793; which made it a Royal offense to assist an escaped slave, and established the legal system by which escaped slaves would be returned to their masters, while the Slave Trade Act of 1794, which limited the Kingdom of America's participation in the transport of slaves by imposing quotas on the export of slaves from the country.

The first military action that the Kingdom of America would do would be the Tripolitan Intervention. An attempt by America, with the aim of ending Barbary piracy protected by the Barbary States who demanded a tribute per ship to guarantee immunity against pirate attacks, which they themselves sponsored. These pirate attacks, dating back to the time of the fall of the Roman Empire, were only reduced when the Spanish Emperors undertook cleansing and pacification campaigns that in themselves were more religious genocide and destruction than anything else. With the change of the Spanish dynasty, Spanish attention shifted away from that front and quickly the Muslim rulers of Tripoli and other regions made the capture of merchant ships and the enslavement or ransom of their crews a very lucrative method of gain wealth and naval power. The Trinitarian Order, founded in France together with the Mercedarian Order in Spain, revived their special mission of raising and disbursing funds for the relief and rescue of prisoners from Mediterranean pirates. However, Barbary corsairs led attacks on the Royal American Merchant Navy in an attempt to extort ransom for the lives of captured sailors and ultimately tribute from the Kingdom of America to prevent further attacks, as they did with various states. The situation worsened on July 25, 1788 with the capture of the schooner Maria and the Dauphin. The Tripoli Regency would demand $700,000 for each ship and crew, unfortunately the American envoys were only given a budget of $40,000 to achieve peace. Diplomatic talks to arrive at a reasonable sum for tribute or for the ransom of captured sailors struggled to advance. The crews of the Maria and Dauphin remained enslaved for over a decade, soon joining the crews of other ships captured by the Barbary states.

In 1795, Tripoli had about 115 American sailors plus 200 retained civilian citizens, including the prosperous Bostonian merchant Ann Bent. Despite the fact that captivity in Tripoli was a form of slavery, prisoners could become rich and achieve a status higher than that of a slave. The proof was John Lawrance Simmons, who rose to the highest position a Christian slave could achieve in Tripoli, becoming counselor to the bey (governor). Even so, most of the captives were forced to perform forced labor in the service of the Barbary pirates and in extreme conditions that exposed them to parasites and diseases, even Ann Bent was placed in the Bey's harem while pregnant. When news of the captivity reached America, the Americans lobbied for direct action by the government to end piracy against Kingdom of America ships. The first test as monarch for George Washington was set: He in response argued that the job of the American Royal Fleet was to protect our commerce and punish the insolence of any attacker, by sinking, burning, or destroying his ships and vessels wherever they were found. Faced with the refusal to pay, the pasha declared war on the Kingdom of America, not through formal written documents, but in the usual Barbary manner of cutting down the flag pole in front of the Consulate of the Kingdom of America. Before learning that Tripoli had declared war on America, Washington sent a small squad. composed of three frigates and a schooner, under the command of Commodore Richard Dale. He carried presents and letters to try to keep peace with the Barbary powers. However, in the event that war had been declared, Dale was instructed to "protect American ships and citizens from possible aggression."

The Royal American Navy was not challenged at sea, but still, deploying many of the navy's best ships to the region throughout 1796. RAS Argus, RAS Chesapeake, RAS Constellation, RAS Constitution, RAS Enterprise, RAS Intrepid, RAS Philadelphia, RAS Vixen, RAS Monarch, RAS Congress, RAS Essex, RAS John Adams, RAS Nautilus. Throughout 1796, he established and maintained a blockade of the Barbary ports and carried out a campaign of raids and attacks against the fleets of the cities. The turning point in the war was the Battle of Derna where former consul William Eaton, a former army captain who used the title "general", and American Royal Marine Corps (ARMC) 1st Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon They led a force of eight US Marines and five hundred Spanish mercenaries on a march across the desert from Tunis to capture the Tripolitan city of Derna. This was the first time the Royal American flag had been flown in victory on foreign soil. The action would be commemorated in a line from the Marines' Hymn: "the shores of Tripoli". The capture of the city gave American negotiators leverage to ensure the return of the hostages and the end of the war. Tired of the blockade and raids, and now under threat of a continued advance on Tripoli proper, the Bey signed a treaty ending hostilities. In agreeing to pay a $60,000 ransom for American prisoners, the government made a distinction between paying tribute and paying ransom. At the time, some argued that buying sailors from slavery was a fair trade to end the war. Emissary William Eaton, diplomat Tobias Lear and others felt that Derna's capture should have been used as a bargaining chip to obtain the release of all American prisoners without having to pay a ransom. The First Barbary War was beneficial to the reputation of the Royal American military command and warfare mechanism, which until then had been relatively untested. The First Barbary War demonstrated that the Kingdom of America could wage a war far from home, and that American forces had the cohesion to fight together as Americans rather than separately as Georgians, New Yorkers, etc.

Perhaps one of the most outstanding events that would mark the Reign of George Washington, would be the creation of the Premier Grand Lodge of America. Masonic lodges were a phenomenon that emerged in the early 17th century. Originally made up of guilds and associations of working stonemasons, they soon became somewhat aristocratic like the Anglo-American lodges focused on the monarchy, aristocracy and the church. George Washington would have been a Mason since 1752 when he was initiated into the Fredericksburg Lodge. These lodges were indirectly connected to attached regiments of the British Army and later to patriotic groups and figures such as Paul Revere, Joseph Warren, even James Monroe. These Lodges served to form a commitment to support each other and provide sanctuary for fellow Masons if necessary. The group's long-term brotherhood and secrecy served as a vehicle of exclusion, preventing British spies from delving into their networks. But Freemasonry did not end with the Revolution. George Washington knew that the lodges of Maryland, New York, New Jersey, and Boston, as they continued their social gatherings, networking, and opportunities for charity, would shake hands under the table and praise secret symbols. Which from the outside would not be seen in such an inoffensive way. Therefore, Washington decided to form the Premier Grand Lodge of America, a way to control Freemasonry in America and avoid the threat of a civil war motivated by the Lodges. However, perhaps the most contentious point that arose at the beginning were his theological views that clashed with Catholicism or Lutheranism. These facts would motivate the most radical or adventurous Freemasons not to be afraid to participate in controversial foreign adventures such as an attempted uprising in Louisiana or in the Spanish Caribbean.

On July 16, 1790, the city of Washington DC was established in the Constitution of the Kingdom of America to serve as the nation's capital. Washington, DC, formally the District of Columbia, also known simply as Washington or just DC. DC was built by choice of George Washington along the Potomac and Anacosti rivers, on land ceded by Maryland and Virginia to differentiate and distinguish itself from the rest of the states. The geographical position of the capital was linked to the controversy that Alexander Hamilton and the northern states wanted the new government to assume the debts of the Revolutionary War, and Thomas Jefferson and the southern states that they wanted the capital to be located in a location friendly to slave-owning agricultural interests. The District included two pre-existing settlements in the territory: the port city of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, and the port city of Alexandria, Virginia, founded in 1749. The port city of Alexandria and its surrounding area were notable for having property owned by George Washington and his family, including Mount Vernon, Washington's personal home and plantation, were only seven miles from Washington DC. With the site selected, Washington appointed Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant in early 1791, charged with laying out a plan for the new city on an area of land in the center of the territory that lies between the northeast bank of the Potomac River and the northwest bank of the East Branch of the Potomac. L'Enfant would work on the so-called "Plan of the city destined to the permanent seat of the government of the Kingdom of America..." where the layout of the city would be centered on a grid system, in which the center would be the building of the Capitol. L'Enfant would present a vision of a bold modern city with grand boulevards and ceremonial spaces reminiscent of another great world capital: Imperial Rome.

When the plan came into use, it underwent minor changes to the city layout with the approval of L'Enfant, who allowed the straightening of the longest avenues and the removal of Place No. 15 from L'Enfant's original plan. child In L'Enfant's plan and which was maintained, there was a landscaped esplanade 122 meters wide, which was to run approximately 1.6 km on an east-west axis in the center of an area. A narrower avenue was designed to connect the "house of Congress" (the Capitol) with the "house of the King" (the White House). However, America had to face the Western Confederacy created to defend against the United States and then the Kingdom of America. The confederation was a loose association of mainly Algonquian-speaking tribes in the Great Lakes area. The Wyandots (Hurons) were the nominal fathers, or the main tribe guaranteeing confederacy, but the Shawnees and Miamis provided the bulk of the fighting forces. Other tribes in the confederation included the Delaware Confederacy (Lenape), Council of Three Fires (Ojibwes, Odawas, and Potawatomis), Kickapoos, Kaskaskias, and Wabashs (Weas, Piankashaws, and others). In most cases, an entire tribe was not involved in the war; Indian societies were generally not centralized. Individual villages and warriors and chiefs decided on participation in the war. About 200 Cherokee warriors from two bands from the Overmountain towns fought alongside the Shawnees from the start of the Revolution through the years of the Indian Confederacy. In addition, the Cherokee leader of Chickamauga (Lower Town), Dragging Canoe, sent a contingent of warriors for a specific action. Some warriors from the southeastern Choctaw and Chickasaw tribes, who had been traditional enemies of the northwestern tribes, served as scouts for the United States during those years, but that changed with the end.

Still opposed to the Kingdom of America, some British agents in the region sold arms and ammunition to the Indians and encouraged attacks on American settlers. Alexander McKee, a British agent born to a Shawnee mother, was a central figure in the confederation. He worked to unite the various Native American nations and bands in the region, but also represented the interests of Great Britain. British Lieutenant Governor John Simcoe, a veteran of the US Revolutionary War, was delighted with the failures of the United States and hoped for British participation in the creation of a neutral buffer state between America and Canada. In 1793, however, Simcoe abruptly changed policy and sought peace with the Kingdom of America to avoid opening a new front in the French Revolutionary Wars. Simcoe treated Kingdom of America Commissioners Benjamin Lincoln, Beverly Randolph, and Timothy Pickering cordially when they arrived at Niagara in May 1793, seeking an escort across the Great Lakes to avoid the fate of John Hardin and Alexander Truman in 1792. War parties launched a series of isolated raids in the mid-1780s, resulting in increased bloodshed and mistrust. In April 1786, a militia from Vincennes attacked a village on the Embarras River, forcing the Piankeshaws to move away and consolidate near the Vermilion River. Over 400 Piankeshaws and Weas returned with a war party in July, but were persuaded not to attack Vincennes. That fall, Generals George Rogers Clark and Benjamin Logan led two columns of Kentucky militia in punitive raids against Native American villages north of the Ohio River. Clark's force, considered the main column, left in September and marched north along the Wabash River into the Illinois country.

He was hampered by logistical problems caused by the scarcity of water in the river, and when he reached the mouth of the Vermilion River in October, he was faced with a mutiny and mass desertion. Clark returned with the remnants of his force to Vincennes, his reputation in ruins. Meanwhile, General Logan recruited and trained for his secondary column of Federal soldiers and mounted Kentucky militia against various Shawnee towns along the Mad River. The Shawnee nation was divided in its response to settlers from the Kingdom of America, but the Kentucky settlers made no distinction between hostile and friendly villages. Shawnee villages along the Crazy River were defended mainly by noncombatants while warriors hunted or raided forts in Kentucky. Logan burned the native towns and food supplies, and killed or captured numerous natives. Against Logan's orders, Captain Hugh McGary assassinated an elderly Shawnee chief named Moluntha, who was considered a friend of the Kingdom of America and had even raised a striped flag to welcome Logan's men. Logan continued to 7 other villages, killing, torturing, raping, or capturing dozens of villagers, including women and children. The militia also looted his property and burned his crops before returning to Kentucky. Logan's raid devastated the Shawnee nation, whose survivors fought that winter over destroyed crops, but also united the Shawnees against the Americans. Reports of the Logan Raid alarmed the Confederate council in Detroit in November, and Shawnee raids into Kentucky were reported in December 1786. Native American raids on both sides of the Ohio River resulted in increased casualties. . In the mid-to-late 1780s, American settlers south of the Ohio River in Kentucky and travelers north of the Ohio River suffered approximately 1,500 casualties. The settlers retaliated with attacks on Indians.

In 1789, the new Secretary of War for the newborn Kingdom of America, Henry Knox, argued that Congress had provoked Native Americans by claiming possession of their territories. The following year, the new king of America, George Washington, and Secretary of War Henry Knox, ordered General Josiah Harmar to launch a campaign, a major Western offensive into the country of the Shawnees and Miami. General Harmar's ultimate goal was Kekionga, a large Native American city that was important to the British commercial economy, protecting a strategic port between the Great Lakes Basin and the Mississippi Basin. Washington had, as early as 1784, told Henry Knox that a strong American post should be established at Kekionga. However, Knox was concerned that an American fort at Kekionga would provoke the Indians, and denied Saint-Clair's request to build a fort there. Saint-Clair, in 1790, had told Washington and Knox that "we shall never have peace with the Western Nations until we have a garrison there." Western native leaders, meanwhile, met at Kekionga to determine a response to the Harmar Fort Treaty. Harmar's reputation had preceded him, so many of the Kentucky and Pennsylvania militiamen were "substitutes" (men paid to take the place of the men they were called to serve). Many of the experienced Indian fighters did not want to serve under Harmar in the state militias, they were paid $3 a day, leading Warner to point out that for a typical farmer; this would mean neglecting his farm and leaving his family and friends behind him to go on a dangerous mission in the northwest frontier for 60 days, during which time he would earn a total of $60 for his troubles.

Most farmers would not go voluntarily if called, and when called would hire substitutes, who came from the lower elements of American society in their stead. Warner wrote that US Army soldiers were recruited from the lowest elements of American society, but they served long term and were well trained. By contrast, Harmar had only two weeks to train his Kentucky militia and only a few days to train the Pennsylvania militia before he set out on October 1, 1790. Harmar managed to muster 1,300 militiamen and 353 regulars to loot and destroy. Kekionga (present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana), the capital of the Miami Indians, while the Kentucky militia under the command of Major Jean François Hamtramck would create a diversion by burning villages on the Wabash River. Before leaving on his expedition, Harmar was faced with disputes among the various militia commanders over who should command whom, with Colonel James Trotter and Colonel John Hardin of the Kentucky militia openly feuding with each other. Shortly before the expedition began in September 1790, Knox sent Harmar a letter accusing him of alcoholism. Harmar, who was heavily influenced by the Blue Book for Prussian-style troop training, marched his men in a formation that would have been appropriate for Central Europe or the Atlantic coast of the American kingdom, but not in the wilds of the Northwest. This led to his men becoming bogged down, averaging about 10 miles a day. Harmar had hoped to reach Kekionga to capture the British and French-Canadian fur traders, whom he called the true villains of the war because they provided the Miamis with arms and ammunition, but his slow progress prevented that. To Harmar's surprise, Little Turtle chief of the miamis refused to fight, preferring to retreat and burn his villages.

On October 19, a scouting party of about 400 mixed forces under the command of Colonel John Hardin was lured into an ambush near the village of Le Gris, losing 129 soldiers in one of two defeats that has been dubbed Hardin's Defeat. The next day, another scouting party under Ensign Phillip Hartshorn was ambushed, but Harmar did not move to help them or recover his remains. Finally, on October 21, 1790, a mixed group of militiamen and regulars under Colonel Hardin established attack positions at Kekionga and waited for reinforcements from General Harmar, who never arrived. Instead, Little Turtle's forces overwhelmed Hardin and forced the American forces to withdraw in the second battle known as Harmar's Defeat. With 3 straight losses, over 300 casualties, and low morale, Harmar withdrew to Fort Washington. Following Harmar's defeat, Knox changed his mind and ordered St. Clair to fortify Kekionga the following year. Because they were both present when Harmar's army arrived, this was the first full military operation shared between Miami leader Little Turtle and Shawnee Blue Jacket leader. It was the largest Native American victory over American forces until the following year, and it emboldened the Native nations within the Northwest Territory. The following January, Indian forces attacked the settlements in the Big Bottom massacre and the Siege of Dunlap Station. Washington ordered Major General Arthur St. Clair, who had been President of Congress when the Northwest Ordinance was passed and was now serving as Governor of the Northwest Territory, to mount a more vigorous effort by the summer of 1791 and build a series of forts along the Maumee River. . The hastily assembled expeditionary force had considerable trouble finding adequate supplies, receiving undamaged materials from Philadelphia, and finding qualified merchants.

After gathering men and supplies, St. Clair was somewhat ready, but the troops had received little training. Meanwhile, Lieutenant Colonel James Wilkinson led raids along the Wabash River, intending to create a diversion that would aid St. Clair's march north. At the Battle of Kenapacomaqua, Wilkinson killed 9 Wea and Miami, and captured 34 Miami as prisoners, including a daughter of Miami war chief Little Turtle. Her daughter who died after two months of being beaten and raped by the soldiers who were guarding her who allowed other soldiers and volunteers to take it out on her daughter. Many of the confederate leaders were considering peace terms to present to the Kingdom of America, but when they received news of Wilkinson's raid, they prepared for war. Wilkinson's raid had the opposite effect, rallying the tribes against St. Clair rather than distracting them. During what would be four years from 1791, General Mad Anthony Wayne commanded the American Army, a well-trained and motivated force that, using total war tactics, waged a war that would eventually drive the natives into Canada or beyond the Mississippi.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

Prepare for another Revolutionary Chapter. This maybe is a bit explicit or cruel even sad... but Dessaline was a monster in my opinion and i don't gonna defend it.​

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With the death of Louis XVI and the rise of his underage son; Louis XVII. A conflict began that saw almost all the countries of Europe confront Revolutionary France, this only increased political and social tensions in Paris, however the Bourbon royalists located in border territory, were supported by Austrian, Spanish supplies even English. On April 20, 1792, the Assembly voted almost unanimously to declare war on Austrian Emperor Francis II, beginning the First Coalition War. Armand Louis de Gontaut, Duke of Lauzun, and Duke of Biron, known as Biron and who was deputy to the Estates General by the nobility of the seneschalty of Quercy and was affiliated with the revolutionary cause, was sent by the Constituent National Assembly to receive the Army of Flanders oath, and was subsequently appointed to its command. The army of Flanders had 20,000 troops and had the mission of monitoring the Austrian armies, along with the army of the North under Marshal Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, Count of Rochambeau. They decided to carry out a force reconnaissance in the direction of Mons and in the direction of Tournai. One commanded by Biron himself and the other by Marshal Théobald Dillon, Count of Dillon, an Irishman in the service of France, in the Army of the North under the command of Rochambeau. Dillón left Lille meeting in Baisieux, the first town of Hainaut, the Austrian major-general Louis-François de Civalart, the Count of Haponponrt, who was camping on the heights of Marquain with 3,000 men. Imperial scouts attacked the French vanguard quite heavily, indicating that the general wanted a pitched battle. However, Dillon had been ordered to avoid any confrontation. Seeing the enemy advancing against him, Dillon gave the order to withdraw to Baisieux in accordance with the orders received to avoid confrontation.

Some signs of insubordination that had appeared among his soldiers since his departure from Lille, showing that he had little confidence in them. Some protested that they had not fired a single shot. In the first retrograde movement made by the French, they were pursued by the Austrian colonel, Baron de Vogelsang, who had 3 guns, who opened fire at a great distance, the shots not even reaching the last of Dillon's army. However, the distrust of the soldiers towards their aristocratic generals and the fear caused the horsemen who were marching in the rear to panic, causing them to rout shouting "Every man for himself, we are betrayed". This movement and the shouts spread the confusion among the infantry troops, who joined the flight, abandoning the 4 cannons. Ammunition wagons and baggage wagons were also abandoned by the carters, who mounted their horses and fled. The entire army joined the rush to the road, fleeing towards Baisieux. General Theobald Dillon tried in vain to round up the fugitives before the enemy caught up with them. Turbulent shouts and insults were uttered against the general who was hit by a pistol shot from one of his soldiers. It was then that the Imperials emerged. In the general alarm, the panic of the completely disorganized troops who crossed Baisieux and continued to flee headlong towards Lille. As soon as they reached the city, a considerable gathering of soldiers from the different regiments that make up the garrison formed at the Porte de Fives. Colonel of Engineers Pierre-François Berthois, M. de La Rousselière, Dillon's second in command, was arrested by soldiers in a blind rage, who hung him on one of the battlements of the place and then dismembered, and also cut the throat of 3 or 4 enemy prisoners.

The wounded General Dillon, returning wounded in a wagon, was slaughtered with bayonets. The soldiers then ripped his body from the car, dragging it through the streets to the Grand Place where they threw him into a bonfire. Arthur Dillon, brother of Théobald Dillon, lodged a complaint with the Assembly. However, the murderers were not identified and therefore punished, however the general's widow obtained a pension to raise her children. For his part, the Marquis de Biron carried out the reconnaissance in force in the direction of Mons. On April 28, Biron set out in 3 columns, he commanded the central one, Serignan the right and Crespin the left, they arrived at Quiévrain, just on the other side of the Franco-Belgian border, there they faced Austrian forces under the command of the Austrian Field Marshal Baron de Beaulieu, attacking the Austrian forces that were in the city, who were surrounded and fled, they took 100 prisoners, 6 guns and 7 ammunition wagons. The French encamped in the city and Biron exalted by the success and planned to take the city of Mons and eventually Brussels. The next day, he continued advancing in 3 columns, leaving 1 volunteer battalion at Quiévrain. On April 29, the French forces approached Mons, where Marshal Beaulieu was waiting for them with some 3,000 troops and 10 cannons entrenched on the heights of Bertaimont. An exchange of artillery fire and reconnaissance attacks ensued to discover the Austrian forces, and Biron judged that his forces were not strong enough and decided to withdraw. He being pursued by 500 hunters on foot and on horseback. On April 30, when his troops were passing through Quiévrain again, about 30 men were shot down by enemy hunters, a false alarm of an Austrian attack caused the soldiers to panic and they fled to Valenciennes in disorder. These two actions were the first clashes in the First Coalition War, and highlighted the lack of discipline of the French Revolutionary Army.

By 1792, Revolutionary France was not prepared for war, the treasury was empty, chaos reigned in the army, and the people suffered a fit of collective hysteria. The rumor spread that the chiefs of the army of aristocratic origin were in cahoots with the enemy, and on May 29 the dissolution of the Royal Guard was decreed. On June 8, the recruitment of 20,000 national guards was approved, which would converge in Paris on July 14, to commemorate the storming of the Bastille. In the first days of July, the allied armies were concentrated on the borders of France, the external threat united all the political forces and on July 11 the Legislative Assembly decreed the general mobilization, an appeal was made to all the French with the phrase: "Citizens, the homeland is in danger!". The following day a decree was issued to create new battalions which was read in all the squares of France. Solemnly in Paris 15,000 volunteers presented themselves. Such a decree unleashed a campaign of agitation that focused its attacks against the monarchy and the aristocracy. In the midst of this state of agitation, on July 25, the Duke of Brunswick, head of the Allied army, issued a manifesto, drawn up by an émigré absolutist French nobleman, in which he threatened to kill all National Guardsmen who defended Paris or took reprisals against the royal family. Its diffusion in France contributed to exalt the popular movement to the point that many Royal Guards would end up fleeing to Montemedy to form part of the Garde du Corps, who would stand out for their icy ferocity in combat, becoming known as the "Frères de Saint Louis". Waving a white flag with the red fleur-de-lys emblazoned on it, the mere rumor that the Garde were in the area was enough to unsettle the bravest of revolutionaries.

The rumor that spread through Paris that the King had died and sentenced any Revolutionary to death, accelerated the plans for the insurrection. The initiative was taken by the cordeliers, the heads of the federated national guards and the leaders of the Parisian sections where the sans-culottes predominated, who since July 26 had formed a kind of committee that would meet again on July 4 and 9. August. This last day it was decided to start the insurrection, after learning that the Legislative Assembly had rejected the request of the sections for the dethronement of the King. At dawn on August 10, two columns of federated national guards and sans-culottes set out for the Tuileries. The first with some 5,000 troops came from the left bank of the Seine and the second of about 15,000 troops, under the command of the wealthy brewer Antoine-Joseph Santerre, from the eastern sections of the capital, the number increasing as they advanced. At that time, the defense of the royal palace was already organized by some 800 Swiss guards, who had been joined by more than a thousand national guards loyal to the Legislative Assembly and a few hundred volunteers from the old Royal Guard who did not flee to Montmedy. The artillerymen were positioned on Pont-Neuf (New Bridge) with the instructions of the department to prevent the union of these columns, but Manuel, the city secretary, asked them to withdraw and passage was then authorized. The loyal forces seemed sufficient to face the 20,000 men that the two columns of insurgents added up, but the arrest of their leader, the Marquis de Mandat at 07:00 hours by the insurgent Commune proclaimed by the rebels, deprived them of a unified command, which would prove fatal. The Swiss guards and the volunteers defending the Tuileries refused to surrender despite the fact that the King and the royal family were no longer in the palace, so the fighting began.

The Swiss guards killed several hundred rebels, when they tried to flee through the gardens they were mowed down by the insurgent forces, the wounded were finished off with bayonets and pikes, and only about 150 managed to reach the Assembly. When the insurgents entered the palace, they murdered the servants, considering them traitors, and then cut off some heads from the corpses and displayed them on their pikes. Some 60 Swiss City Hall prisoners were massacred there. Others would die in prison as a result of their injuries. As a transitional government and in agreement with the insurgent Commune, a Provisional Executive Council was set up, made up of the former Girondin ministers and the cordelier Georges Danton, who held the portfolio of Justice. An extraordinary court was also formed, likewise at the request of the insurgent Commune, which would be in charge of judging the crimes of the court. On August 17, General Lafayette criticized the growing influence of the radicals, writing a letter to the Assembly from his post, ending the letter by demanding that these parties be "shut down by force." He was wrong for the moment, since the radicals totally controlled Paris. Lafayette went there, and on June 28 he gave a fiery speech before the Assembly denouncing the Jacobins and other radical groups. In his place, he was accused of deserting his troops. Lafayette appealed for volunteers to fight the Jacobins; when very few people showed up, he finally understood the mood of the public and left Paris in a hurry. Robespierre called him a traitor and the mob attacked and burned his effigy. Lafayette was imprisoned by the royalists near Sedan, when they recognized the famous Lafayette. Although Louis and Marie Antoinette had ever met Lafayette, it had been before the French Revolution. The king now saw him as a dangerous promoter of rebellion, so he decides to imprison him to prevent him from overthrowing other monarchs.

In the midst of the chaos, the greatest danger resided in the Revolutionary Army, which had 82,000 troops, not counting the border garrisons. However, Lafayette, who was in Sedan, learned of the storming of the Tuileries and ordered General Arthur Dillón (cousin of Théobald Dillon), who was in Pont-sur-Sambre, and General Charles François Dumouriez, who was in the maulde field. , march on Paris. The first, who was a royalist, accepted, the second, who was a friend of the Girondins, refused to obey. Learning of the mutiny, the Assembly sent commissars to Sedań unaware that it was in royalist hands, but they were taken prisoner and imprisoned on Dillon's orders. Others were dispatched on August 18, giving Dumouriez command of the army of the North. At the same time, Luckner, who was in Metz and a friend of Lafayette's, also refused to accept the decree, receiving a visit from various commissars with orders to replace him with General François Christophe Kellermann and send him to Châlons to take charge of the troops. second line. However, one of Luckner's senior officers executed the commissars before shouting "We are soldiers of the King of France. And the King of France needs us where he needs us to be." Such a situation caused 17,000 men occupying the section between Montmédy and the Vosges to go into royal service while Dillon commanded 16,000 men and did the same. In total, the royalists had 43,000 soldiers spread out along the border. These forces supported the invasion of the allied forces formed by 3 armies. The problem in the allied army was the difference in criteria between King Frederick William and the Duke of Brunswick. The king sympathized with the allies, including the situation of the young King Louis XVII, while the duke hated them. As for the strategy, the King was in favor of going directly to Paris, where the people would receive their king with open arms, while Brunswick was in favor of capturing the border fortresses in that campaign, where he would establish warehouses and winter , getting ready. the bell. for the following year. He dreaded the idea of marching into France in the fall, leaving behind unconquered strongholds.

The German writer and thinker Johann Wolfgang von Goethe would accompany the allied army at the invitation of Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, who commanded a regiment of Prussian cuirassiers. On August 12 at dawn, Prussian light troops reached French territory. On August 15, the Prussian army arrives at the camp between Sierck and Luxembourg, and General Clairfayt, leading the Austrians, establishes contact with the French royalist forces, which allows them to have a core of troops that know the terrain. With the capitulation of the fortress of Verdun, which had previously been in revolutionary hands on September 2, the road to Paris was opened. Some ministers began to think of leaving the capital on the same day, but Danton launched into the Assembly: "To defeat you, gentlemen, we need boldness, still boldness, always boldness, and France is saved." The allies to go to Paris had to take Reims, which was a formidable revolutionary stronghold and was one of the most important cities in France. The city was surrounded by a wall, and the River Vesle flowed through the city from southeast to northwest. On September 10, the allied army began the movement, and established the camp in sight of Reims, which they called Drecklager (field of filth). The allies reconnoitred the French positions, which they considered too strong for a frontal attack. What caused the Allied artillery to start a bombardment aimed at weakening the revolutionary defensive lines during several hours of bombardment. The intensity of the bombardment caused the revolutionary French troops to enter the walls in a panic.

The Allied army squandered the opportunity and did not attack, allowing the revolutionary commanders to restore order while the Allied regiments, led by the French royalists, began to advance. Advancing blindly through the mist on the cold morning of September 20, without the mist, it would have been easy to see the defensive advantages of the site but the allied troops were unaware of the state of the defenses, as the allied troops advanced they ran into a small force revolutionary who occupied a farm but who were driven out when the Prussian hussars took care of them. Through a quick interrogation, the hussars discovered that the defensive lines had been pushed back to the walls, so through a corridor with the information, the rest of the allied troops advanced more motivated, some for the desire to take revenge and others for possible looting. . However, when the fog lifted the revolutionary defenders saw how the allied formations were advancing in closed columns. When General Dumouriez saw them, he put his cap on the point of his saber and began to shout "Long live the nation!" His soldiers imitated him and put their caps on the points of their bayonets and shouted "Long live the nation, live France, live our general! a clamor that lasted several minutes from the walls. This was followed by an artillery attack that would last for several hours, the enemies were separated by a distance of 1,000 meters, a long distance for the guns of the time, also the clayey ground was so soaked that the projectiles did not ricochet, but instead they were buried in it. Allied soldiers and officers were forced to crouch and seek cover as cannonballs passed their sides causing several officers to be killed or seriously wounded. The Revolutionary artillery fired about 20,000 shots to the point that the cannons overheated. Seeing the situation, Dumouriez came to the conclusion that he could only do one thing: counterattack.

Accumulating first the cavalry and then the regular infantry and finally the volunteers. While the fire and smoke from the cannons hid the movements near the gates, the revolutionary troops moved into position armed with their muskets and in some cases with sabers and lances. A thick cloud of smoke covered the outer field as the French artillerymen ceased firing, Brunswick and his staff seeing the cessation of artillery as a good time to launch an attack, and the Duke sent his infantry forward. They advanced several hundred meters, when they began to hear "vive la France" while they saw rows of regular infantry uniformed in white together with volunteer militias in blue with the revolutionary cavalry ready to charge. Allied and royalist officers identified the regulars as professional troops of the old royal army and were not mere peasants with no military experience. In view of the situation, Brunswick turned to those around him and said "Gentlemen, you see what kind of troops we have to face, those French only wait for us to advance to charge against us." He decided to hold a council of war in which he said "We must not attack here", and added "the assault will possibly fail and in case of success we would get little with it" the duke told his staff. King Frederick William did not object. "The Cry of Reims" became a legendary moment in French history. The soldiers would fight not for the king, but for his nation. Although their battle was successful, Dumouriez agreed that his situation was dangerous. The next day, a messenger went to Paris to request more reinforcements and ammunition. Allied troops instead intercepted herds of cattle and supply wagons. Meanwhile, the peasantry resisted helping the invaders. The Prussian deserters informed the French that they had been reduced to eating dead horses.

Far more deadly than French weapons were the invisible pathogens that spread dysentery through coalition forces. The deadly outbreak of what the French called la couree Prussienne was serious enough to earn a place in the medical literature of the 19th century. Of course, the role of microbes in causing disease was unknown, and this epidemic during the Reims campaign was often blamed on soldiers eating immature grapes and potatoes. To no avail, army surgeons treated patients by bleeding them or dosing them with rhubarb, ipecac, or even lemonade. Approximately 12,000 of the allied army of 42,000 men came down with dysentery, and a large part of them died. On September 25, General Veneur was taken prisoner during a French raid. At the personal request of Federico Guillermo II he was released, Dumouriez took the opportunity to send a memorandum to the King, stating the reasons for ending the war, he also sent coffee and sugar, knowing that he lacked them. Brunswick was quick to embrace the idea, upon receiving disturbing news from Poland. On September 27 he received a second memorandum on the separation of Prussia from Austria, which was rejected by the King. On the night of September 30 to October 1, Brunswick broke camp at the Lune and deftly withdrew his army to the bank of the Meuse, apparently Dumouriez let them pass by the Argonne. In early October the Prussians abandoned Verdun. Dysentery and long and insecure supply lines finally induced the coalition army to abandon France entirely on 23 October. The government in Paris appointed Dumourietz commander-in-chief of the French armies, and authorized him to carry out his plan to conquer the Austrian Netherlands. On November 6, the forces under his command defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Jemappes.

Instead, the royalists embarked in the Austrian Netherlands bound for Saint-Domingue; the richest French colony in the Americas thanks to the immense profits generated by slave labor in the sugar and indigo industries. The arrival of the royalists was a break in the dreams of the rich criollo landowners who wanted to take control of the island and create favorable trade regulations to promote their own wealth and power and restore the social and political equality granted to the criollos. Dominicans. Louis XVII's young age and his dependence on his mother made Creole aristocrats such as Vincent Ogé, Jean-Baptiste Chavannes and the former governor of Saint-Domingue Guillaume de Bellecombe try to give them superior interests, but the superiority of Marie Antoinette and the ignorance of Louis XVII was not at all pleasant for the Creoles who had to face an even more violent uprising by the Maroon communities made up of thousands of slaves who escaped into the mountains and then raided isolated plantations to free family and friends. However, the situation became so difficult that when representatives of the National Republican Assembly from Paris secretly arrived in Saint-Domingue, it was not difficult for them to unleash several riots to wrest control of Saint-Domingue from the royal government. By then Louis XVII was ten years old and his mother was the one who actually ruled Saint-Domingue at the time that thanks to the help of royalist sympathizers, they managed to escape with a part of the French treasury that allowed them to maintain their wealthy lifestyle even build in Port-au-Prince, a palace from which he gave lavish parties in this Palace that drew the attention of the world, however the slave rebellions continued and the Queen would end up indirectly promoting slavery by allowing Spanish merchants dedicated to trade of slaves made a fortune.

However, the Metropolitan Revolutionary support for the Creole rebels led to the start of a winter-spring offensive in the northern province on January 30, 1796, where eighty-thousand rebel slaves and revolutionary sympathizers were secretly trained in the jungles and jungles of the mountains. The Campaign of 1796 was led by Toussaint Louverture, Benoit Joseph André Rigaud however it was Louverture's protégé Jean-Jacques Dessalines who would lead the charge, gaining a reputation for his "take no prisoners" policy and for burning houses and entire villages. down to the foundations. Dessalines applied the tactics to defeat the French ordered by Toussaint where he applied a Total War including Scorched Earth, Dessalines becoming famous for his orders that all Europeans almost without exception be shot. Such measures, though, would raise problems between Toussaint and Dessalines, but the effectiveness would be quite high to the point that many Europeans would flee the country, even leaving the royalist side to flee to Revolutionary France. In view of the success achieved by the revolution, England from Halifax sent a fleet led by the 64-gun flagship HMS Europa (under the command of Captain George Gregory), and made up of the captured French 14-gun sloop Goéland (commander Thomas Wolley ) and the schooner Flying Fish (Lieutenant Colonel John Whitelocke); He arrived ten days later without meeting resistance with the intention of supporting the French Royalists. The arrival of the British saw how in the first two months they lost 40 officers and 600 men in the campaign, their troops being reduced to 828 soldiers, most of them sick with tropical diseases. Worse, the neutral inhabitants of Saint-Domingue (whites, mulattoes and blacks) refused to join their ranks. While Louverture quickly takes control of an important territory in the north zone.

At Christmas the British are forced to withdraw when their open sympathy for blacks caused them to be viewed with suspicion by the French royalists. However, the British ended up relegated to providing financial and military support in the form of supplies such as guns and gunpowder along with food. British support, on the other hand, only hindered the royalist defense, which was further weakened when the last companies of royalist professional and veteran troops were defeated by Dessalines, who through meticulous and well-executed planning, managed to get rebel troops to begin infiltrating the slaves. and blacks freed in the royalists to later attack key buildings such as barracks, command posts, even minor fortifications and weapons stores with the so-called Slave Granades; glass bottles filled with a flammable substance such as lamp fuel, alcohol, or a similar mixture and an ignition source, such as a burning cloth wick, held by the bottle stopper. Such weapons were effective because the abundance of liquor was remarkable and they could be created anywhere in less than five minutes, in the end even the areas considered safe were also attacked. It is estimated that in Port-Au-Prince, slaves fed up with the white yoke ended up setting fire to fourteen mansions and in the resulting riots, a company from Gardes was shot while the Royal Palace where Louis XVII lived and his mother Marie Antoinette received the impact of several Slave Grenades that luckily did not cause great damage. The Port-Au-Prince riots saw rebel guerrillas and slaves entrenched in seized and fortified houses and buildings while facing the royalist counter-attack with all weapons at their disposal. The threat of an uprising in the capital much like Paris saw the defenses on the front line weaken allowing Toussaint to give Dessalines the authority to advance.

Almost like a tidal wave, Dessalines advanced with all the forces under his command, forcing the royalists to mobilize all available forces to combat the Dessalines offensive, although the royalist troops fell back, they did so at an immense price of destruction. The regular soldiers of Dessalines forged a legendary reputation that came to receive the Nsumbi (Voodoo Demon) because they fought without the possibility of withdrawal or surrender, refusing to be helped or replaced by new units. Something the Royalists couldn't do either. The fighting was very hard and the destruction suffered by the cities due to the use of artillery and incendiary weapons was very great, but perhaps the most outstanding thing was the use of the machete as a melee weapon. The machete, often used to cut rainforest undergrowth and for agricultural purposes (cutting sugar cane, for example), became the most iconic tool and weapon of the Revolution to the point that the most dramatic example of its use was with the Battle of Ile de La Gonâve when Toussaint ordered to take the island and five thousand Nsumbi in rafts and canoes crossed the strait to land on the island that was garrisoned by the Corps royal d'infanterie de la marine (royal infantry corps of the navy). The royal infantry corps fought against the rebels until they ran out of ammunition and then they began to use their bayonets or tools such as axes or swords, however 152 royalist soldiers would end up surrendering to the Nsumbi forces however this surrender was denied when the Nsumbi ended up beheading to the royalists and sent the oldest ships to Port-Au-Prince loaded with gunpowder and with the heads of their soldiers on spears or sharp sticks while their bodies adorned the masks. The fire in Port-Au Prince denied the port's ability to accommodate ships and was a prelude to what would happen if Dessalines arrived.

The horrendous casualties and suffering suffered by the royalist units began to be noticed and many soldiers and nobles ended up starting to desert to Spanish Santo Domingo. In the midst of these events, Toussaint would be betrayed by Dessalines, when Toussaint began to speak with the British to allow the withdrawal of the French Royal Family, however Dessalines publicly accused of such an act and Toussaint would end up being arrested and interned in an unknown prison, Toussaint would end up dying of exhaustion from the forced labor he was forced to do, malnutrition due to the scant food and water he could consume, pneumonia due to prison conditions, and possibly tuberculosis. Dessalines assumed command of military operations and due to his reputation he established a despotic regime where the military ruled everything. Seeing the control that the revolutionaries had in Saint-Domingue, Dessalines gave a speech where he demanded "unceasing vigor in the attack to the heart of Port-Au-Prince". On March 9, 1767, Dessaline's forces reached Croix des Bouquets, the last line of defense before Port-Au-Prince, where royalist troops made a last stand and held the city through fierce fighting for 10 days. . By this time, the royalist troops that fought at Croix des Bouquets were undisciplined and had problems with supplies in the face of corruption in the rear. The Royalists finally withdrew from Croix des Bouquets on 19 March after having inflicted heavy losses on Dessalines, the arrival of Royalist troops in the capital looking mostly battered and leaderless, plunging the city into anarchy comparable to the that was in Paris, when there was the storming of the Bastille. Rapid rebel advances raised concerns that the city, which had been fairly peaceful during the war and whose people had endured relatively little suffering except guerrilla bombings, would soon come under direct attack led the more paranoid to prophesy a retaliatory bloodbath. After decades of slavery.

News of Dessaline's troops executing royalist army officers, Roman Catholics, intellectuals, businessmen and other suspected counterrevolutionaries by beheading and other executions. Most of the citizens of other countries allied with Royalist France wanted to evacuate the city before it fell, and many les blancs (plantation owners and a lower class of whites who often served as overseers or laborers, as well as artisans and merchants). ), especially those associated with the royal court or the previous government, also wanted to leave. However, the rebel garrison on Ile de La Gonâve blocked any ship leaving Port-Au-Prince, sinking ships full of innocent people or in some cases boarding them to make five-second trials before issuing their sentence. Ile de La Gonâve stood out for the immense number of deaths where there would be thousands of dead men hanging upside down, drowned in sacks, crucified, buried alive, while to further denigrate the slave-owning white man, the former slaves forced their former owners to consume feces while they were flayed with lashes. While women were subjected to collective rapes where women from twelve years old to old. When a royalist ship of refugees was trapped by the so-called Pirates of La Gonâve, the women tried to commit suicide and also end the lives of their daughters and sons by cutting their wrists, although, of course, they did not know how to do it effectively and in many cases had to ask for help from sailors who did not make sure of their luck and in their last moments of life, the dying women suffered the depravity and desecration of being a toy in cruel hands.

On the afternoon of April 27, Port-Au-Prince began to be hit by Dessalines' artillery, desperate to show that they were the first to attack Port-Au-Prince, so the cannons began to fire at enormous distances and only succeeded. reach only the districts located more to the northeast of the city. The only defenders of the French Monarchy were the Maison Militaire du Roi de France (military household of the king of France) who acted as a bodyguard but was made up of veterans motivated to defend the monarchy. Although there were Royalist detachments motivated by the efforts of a staff officer to impose some semblance of order amid the chaos, Royalist stragglers fell back as fast as possible and in some cases improvised combat units to engage in small combat. although ferocious wherever they were threatened. The retreating royalist forces found, to make matters worse, that all roads were blocked by increasingly terrified refugees. When the so-called Black Riders armed with machetes reached the outskirts of the city, the defensive batteries readied their 8-pounder Gribeauval cannon in order to engage the cavalry. Any kind of counterattack was repulsed and involved a cost of lives, gunpowder and in many cases meters. Motivated by patriotic fervor, at one point the civilians would protect the city but the common vision after a fight was to see how the militiamen bandaged their wounds, provisionally fixed their weapons and clothing and cleaned their weapons, before starting to run to another street or avenue. Tragic scenes occurred when in a field hospital, volunteer nurses from any social stratum: peasants, bourgeois, aristocrats, even nobles and foreigners, tried to save lives. One of the latter found her lover from the Garde du Corps among the seriously wounded who had just entered. She "embraced him, she placed the young man's head on her lap and she remained with him until she died of a serious injury to her skull."

Like all royalists, they had lost their possessions and had just lost the cause for which they fought. This fact, combined with their visceral hatred of the Revolutionaries, made them formidable combatants during the Battle of Port-Au-Prince. For most of the battle, ad-hoc volunteer units defended their combat zones as best they could even looting friendly and enemy corpses alike, treating only their own with respect, but impaling dying enemies for added provocation. The soldiers, who had not received any rations for five days, raided the houses abandoned by their owners. Some were so tired that, after eating what they found, they fell exhausted in any bed with their uniforms still full of dirt. In these cases they plunged into such a deep sleep that they were only awakened by the arrival of the enemy or the appearance of enemies who proceeded to kill them brutally. A courtier of the court who managed to survive until the arrival of the Spanish forces would write: "the children, armed with wooden swords and sticks, with their long legs, their hair cut short on the nape of their necks and their intense bangs, scream, jump, jump and they make gestures of stabbing each other... It is something eternal, which can never be eliminated from the condition of the human being. While their fathers fight with peasants and merchants and their mothers learn how to cut their wrists to avoid being the toy of a black demon, created by his own arrogance and superiority." The constant background noise caused by the artillery barrage tested the nerves of the citizens. They were able to verify that the expression "the thundering of the cannons" was not one of the bombastic commonplaces typical of war, but a completely accurate description. The noise spread and rumbled everywhere—and especially in the backyards of buildings—as if it were a storm.

The last moments of Port-Au-Prince were filled with agony and suffering because Marie Antoinette decided to sacrifice her son, while the fortified exteriors of the Palace were defended by courtiers firing muskets, royal guards with bandaged wounds and drunken women who would rather die fighting than die. commit suicide or even be the toy of what they called "A disgusting Black Monkey". A luck that they would avoid in her favor, but while Marie Antoinette managed to save her son by causing his death and burning her body to avoid desecrating her as they did with Lambelle. Instead, she would be caught up as the rebels stormed in, bathed in French blood, and proceeded to loot the palace. She would be caught by her hair and dragged to a bedroom where she would suffer for hours the fate of being desecrated and humiliated to the point of her mental breakdown. Later, she would walk through the dilapidated streets of Port-Au-Prince dressed as a slave to be presented to the Monster who proceeded to exhibit her as Rome did Vercingetorix and other enemy kings along the avenue of the Eternal City. But Maria did not die peacefully. She would suffer for weeks until a Spanish army led by Federico Carlos Gravina and Nápoli, would land in Saint-Domingue and in less than six months would manage to capture and hang Dessaline. Marie Antoinette would be found mentally broken, after suffering an experience so traumatic that according to the prisoners, she was made only for the amusement of Dessalines who promoted a white genocide in what he called Haiti, the territory that Saint-Domingue compromised. Marie Antoinette's death was a major tragedy for France and Austria.​

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

While Spain assumed control of the Colony of Saint-Domingue, undertaking a campaign that would be known as "El Machetazo" baptized by Admiral Gravina. The campaign served as a strategy of mass intimidation against any Revolutionary syndrome or slave uprising that could arise in their Viceroyalties, being common to destroy the guerrillas, massacre the Haitian people: it becomes an objective to destroy cities and towns with Spanish soldiers burning houses, breaking people's morale with widespread mass rape, shooting and torture, copying Japanese methods, such as drinking water to death through a funnel placed in the mouth. The Spanish soldiers were ruthless as they were exterminating men, women, children, prisoners and detainees, presumed guerrillas and suspected of helping the guerrillas and children from the age of ten onwards; The predominant idea that the Spanish soldier had is that the Haitian is no better than a dog. A realistic French philosopher who would accompany the expedition would write: "The Spanish acted in Haiti just as their ancestors did three hundred years ago under the orders of Christopher Columbus with the Taino. It is common to see dogs capable of hunting and killing wild boars, wolves even bears, accompany the Spanish soldiers and persecute the black guerrillas." Such action, however, was done without the Metropolis not seeing the true scope of the atrocities, the vision of the Spanish aristocrat or bourgeois about the Campaign of Saint-Domingue was that the Spanish troops were fighting a revolution that became a rebellion of slaves and that the slaves were killing their superiors in heinous ways while believing in pagan religions (Vodoo), Saint-Domingue was destined since the troops reached Port-Au-Prince to become part of the Spanish Santo Domingo unifying the island and Although the French Republic complained, Spain would.

However, in France, the victory at Reims motivated the revolutionaries to launch an attack on all fronts. In the south, the army under the command of General Jacques Bernard d'Anselme, with a force of 13 to 15 thousand men, crossed the Var River and invaded the county of Nice on September 28, which belonged to the kingdom of Sardinia, an ally. from Austria. He forced the city of Nice to surrender the next day at 4 pm, despite implacable resistance from the Sardinian troops of General Thaon de Revel. That important conquest gave him 100 pieces of artillery, 5,000 rifles, a million cartridges, a frigate and a corvette armed with their cannons, which were in port, and a well-stocked naval arsenal. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the army stationed at Nice on November 7, and continued, but with less success, the course of his operations. The rains, the snow, the misery in which his soldiers found themselves, who lacked clothing, shoes and ammunition, forced him, after an unnecessary attack on Saorge, to limit himself to the occupation of Sospel and to take care of the outbuildings in the vicinity of that city. In November 1792, General Anselme built the Saint-Laurent bridge over the Var. Government orders and the need to provide resources for his army made him give up this city. Along with Admiral Truguet, he formed a plan to seize Oneille. The naval army appeared before this place on the 23rd of November, and a parliamentarian was immediately dispatched to urge the magistrates of this city to open the gates to them. But this delegation was greeted by shots that wounded the officer and killed seven people around him. The city was bombarded the same day and taken the following day, and the French only abandoned it after having sacked it and burned it to the ground. But then disorder reigned in the army, which no longer observed any discipline, and indulged in all kinds of violence and depredations towards the inhabitants of the county of Nice.

These abuses revealed the Barbets, these peasants and shepherds defenders of the Catholic faith and the freedoms of their lands. General Anselme was accused of lacking the energy to suppress these excesses. He published in December 1792 a memorial justifying his conduct, in which he attempted to show that he had repressed the plunder. He rejected the indigence of his troops at Montesquiou and protested the purity of his republican sentiments. The commissioners sent by the Convention to examine his conduct were far from satisfied with the reasons he gave. On the contrary, they blamed all the disorders on her weakness and his neglect. He was recalled to Paris on December 16 and provisionally replaced by General Brunet. He left Nice on the 23rd and was suspended from his duties by the representatives on December 27th. Another French success was the daring expedition from Alsace to Germany by Adam-Philippe, Count of Custine, who was popular with his subordinates who called him the "general with the moustache" leading the newly created 14,300-strong Army of the Vosges. He crossed the border on September 29 and attacked Speyer the same day and conquered it the following day, capturing nearly 2,500 prisoners and 55 artillery pieces. This conquest opened the doors to the Palatinate. As a reward for his victory, he was appointed General-in-Chief of the Army of the Rhine on October 6, successively occupying Worms and Philippsburg without a fight, Mainz captured on October 21, and Frankfurt on the 22nd. On the Rhine, Custine helped spread revolutionary ideas through proclamations and imposed heavy taxes on the nobility and clergy. On November 8 he engaged a Prussian corps on the Lahn, but soon after was forced to evacuate Frankfurt and resort to Mainz against the Prussian army, fighting several engagements to check the advance of his opponents.

Ultimately, he managed to stay in that city, but victim of overwhelming rumors against him, he was forced to write to the revolutionary authorities to justify himself. He was defended in particular by Maximilien Robespierre during a session at the Jacobin club on December 12, 1792. However, he was suspicious in the eyes of the Committee of Public Safety, which summoned him to Paris in early 1793 to ask him explanations. Custine's innocence was quickly brought to light and he was allowed to return to his post. The recent aggressiveness of the French Republic was causing a change of attitude within the European courts. Tensions increased with the events of the September Massacre. The United Kingdom had welcomed the events in France. But quickly, he returned to his policy of European balance when France multiplied the annexations. The integration of Belgium and the opening of the Scheldt gave arguments to those in favor of the war in Great Britain. London could not bear that the financial center of Antwerp was in the hands of the French. On January 24, 1793, the French ambassador in London, Chauvelin, was ordered to leave the country. Also in France there were many supporters of the war against Great Britain. They feared British economic, commercial and colonial competition. On February 1, 1793, the Convention declared war on Great Britain and the United Provinces. France saw a conflict with the latter as a way to take over the Bank of Amsterdam. Britain quickly agreed with Russia to ban the import of grain from France. Lacking an army, England began a foreign policy that remained the same throughout the long conflict against France: paying continental powers subsidies to raise armies against France while the Royal Navy tried to stifle France by blockading and seizing France. of colonies.

Once Britain entered the conflict, the other powers scrambled to follow. Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the French Republic, which declared war on March 7. The Papal States, Naples, the Duchies of Parma and Modena, Tuscany, and Portugal soon followed. However, these states were not linked within a grand coalition, but were linked to Great Britain through bilateral treaties. France faced a host of threats in the spring of 1793: to the south Spain could mount an attack across the Pyrenees; Austrian and Italian troops were preparing for the spring campaign near Nice; a multinational army under British command was being prepared for operations in Flanders in conjunction with Habsburg forces; and the Allies boasted an army of 120,000 men along the Rhine. These combined forces numbered 350,000 men, while in France civil and political instability, workers' strikes and administrative collapse left the armies of the Republic without supplies. and without pay, suffering from low morale. In theory the French had about 270,000 troops, but the true figure was considerably lower and with morale at an all-time low, there was no telling what the next campaign might bring. To make matters worse, France also had to deal with the powerful Royal Navy, which was considered by all to be the most powerful fleet apart from the Spanish. With France already on the brink of bankruptcy, the prospect of losing her colonies and having her trade swept from the seas must have seemed like a nightmare. Charles François Dumouriez had the opportunity to drive the Austrians from the west bank of the Rhine in conjunction with the Army of the Center. Instead he followed a personal project of his, the invasion of the Dutch Republic. He hoped to go to war with the Dutch while keeping the kingdom of Great Britain neutral. However, the French government forced the side of him, declaring war on Great Britain on February 1, 1793 and ordering him to invade the Dutch Republic.

The Invasion of the Netherlands began with 15,000 foot soldiers and 1,000 French cavalry, soon to be reinforced. While the invading French army was puffed up with overconfidence, they believed themselves invincible. The National Convention was torn apart by bitter political struggles between the moderate Girondins and the extremist Jacobins. The army's supply system was breaking down through neglect. Dumouriez crossed the Dutch border on February 16, 1793. The Breda fortress fell after a quick siege from February 21 to 24, 1793. The 3,000 Dutch defenders, which included 2,500 foot soldiers and a regiment of dragoons, surrendered the city with its 250 cannons and were allowed to go free. The Geertruidenberg fortress with 150 cannons capitulated after a siege from 1 to 4 March. The Dutch garrison was released. Both Breda and Geertruidenberg had been tricked into resigning by the military engineer Jean Claude Le Michaud d'Arcon who gained fame designing Floating Batteries which were used in fighting on the Rhine. A small fortress at Klundert was captured on March 4 by 4,000 men. under Berneron. The small garrison put up a tough fight and had 60 killed before the 73 survivors surrendered. Sitting on the Dutch border, Dumouriez planned to cross and march through Rotterdam, Delft, The Hague, and Leiden to seize Amsterdam. On March 1, Coburg with a force of 39,000 men swept away René Joseph de Lanoue's 9,000 strong army at the Battle of Aldenhoven, the French lost 2,300 men, 7 guns against 50 Austrian casualties. The French abandoned the siege of Maastricht on March 3. Coburg slowly followed, and the French forces regrouped at Leuven. Dumouriez was slow to give up the Dutch project from him, but the French government insisted that he take charge of Belgium. Leaving Louis-Charles de Flers in command of the army of Holland, Dumouriez arrived in Leuven on March 11.

Dumouriez thought that the morale of his soldiers was too unstable for a retreat so he advanced on Coburg's army, seeking battle. In his haste, the French commander was unable to call in Harville's corps or the army of Holland as reinforcements. Previously, François Joseph Drouot de Lamarche had been expelled from Tengo, but on March 16 the French recaptured him after vigorous fighting. The French attacked Tengo with 10,000 soldiers, while Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen defended the city with 6,000 soldiers, 6 cannons, and 2 mortars. French casualties numbered 500, while their opponents suffered losses of 800 killed, wounded, and missing. Coburg withdrew his army back behind the small river Gete. Believing that his enemies were outnumbered, Dumouriez was very confident of success. A century earlier, the French had won the Battle of Landen on the same spot. The Battle of Neerwinden resulted in a signal Austrian victory, after which Francisco de Miranda, chief of the Northern army, blamed for the defeat, traveled to Paris to intrigue against Dumouriez. On March 23 there was a clash in the Pellenberg combat in which Coburg with 38,000 soldiers defeated Dumouriez with 22,000. The Austrians suffered 900 casualties, while the French 2,000. On March 24 the French army withdrew through Brussels. Dumouriez began calling in detachments of him, like Harville's corps. At this point Dumouriez opened negotiations with the Austrians. He offered to evacuate to Belgium if his armies were allowed to withdraw unmolested. The terms were accepted and the French armies withdrew to the fields behind the border. The Dutch army was allowed to march through enemy lines and took up position near Lille.

The Army of the Ardennes was deployed at Maulde, the Army of the North at Bruille-Saint-Amand, and the Belgian Army at Condé-sur-l'Escaut and Valenciennes. Geertruidenberg was evacuated on April 2 and Breda on April 3. Dumouriez was a monarchist at heart and despaired at the persecution of the royalists. He found the political situation in Paris chaotic and was even more appalled at the radicals' tendency to interfere with army commanders. Having negotiated with the enemy, Dumouriez offered to deal, and the Austrians dispatched Mack on March 25. The French commander proposed to take the army and march on Paris. That he would overthrow the National Convention, crush the Jacobins, and restore the Constitution of 1791. For their part, the Austrians vowed to stop his advance while he carried out his coup. But Dumouriez moved too slowly. On April 1, 4 commissioners and the minister of war Pierre de Ruel, Marquis de Beurnonville arrived at his headquarters to demand that the commander explain himself in Paris. The commissioners were arrested and handed over to the Austrians. Dumouriez tried to put the border fortresses in the hands of his adherents, but failed. Miaczinski botched Lille's kidnapping attempt and was later executed. Dumouriez believed that he could control the regular infantry and cavalry regiments. On the other hand, the volunteers and the artillery remained in favor of the National Convention. In one incident, Dumouriez was deposed and nearly arrested by Louis-Nicolas Davout with a battalion of volunteers. He then made the mistake of being seen with an Austrian escort and the gunners took the lead in refusing to obey him. Seeing that his plan had collapsed, Dumouriez defected to the Austrians on April 5, 1793. He was accompanied by the Duke of Chartres, Valence, several more generals, and some cavalry. Not being bound by the above agreement, Coburg prepared to invade France.

Ironically, Dumouriez's betrayal and defection gave the Jacobins complete power to take control of the armies. Before the Battle of Neerwinden, the army obeyed its commanders. Later, the mission representatives were given extraordinary powers over the army commanders. The generals could pay with their lives for defeat, but the real authority was held by the political operators. Meanwhile, the new war minister sent his agents to spy on the generals. These men were quick to report any complaints against the officers, which could result in disgrace or execution. Elements of this system remained in force even after Maximilien Robespierre was overthrown and guillotined. Dumouriez toured Europe in search of employment, serving in England. In early April, the Allied powers held a conference in Antwerp to agree on their strategy against France. Coburg was a reluctant leader and hoped to end the war through diplomacy with Dumouriez, who even issued a proclamation declaring himself the ally of all friends of order, abjuring all projects of conquest in the name of the emperors; he was immediately forced to recant by his political masters. The British wanted Dunkirk as compensation for the costs of the war, and proposed to support Coburg's military campaign, first attacking Condé and Valenciennes, and then moving on to Dunkirk. On the Rhine front the Prussians besieged Mainz, which lasted from April 14 to July 23, 1793, and at the same time mounted an offensive that spread across the Rhineland, absorbing small and disorganized elements of the French army.

Meanwhile, in Flanders Coburg began to invest the French fortifications at Condé-sur-l'Escaut, reinforced by the Duke of York's Anglo-Hanoverian corps and Alexander von Knobelsdorff's Prussian contingent. Facing the allies, although his men desperately needed rest and reorganization, Dampierre was hampered and controlled by the envoys on mission. On April 19 he attacked the Allies across a wide front at Saint-Amand, but was repulsed. On May 8 the French tried once more to relieve Condé, but, after fierce fighting at Raismes, in which Augustin-Marie Picot de Dampierre, Commander-in-Chief was mortally wounded, the attempt failed. The arrival of York and brought Coburga's force to over 90,000 men, allowing Coburg its next move against Valenciennes. The French discouraged after the death of their commander Dampierre, they were tired and disorganized. Furthermore, he had been further weakened by the detachments sent to serve in the war in the Vendée. Although new levy recruits were being assigned one of 300,000, many of these deserted or were unfit for duty. The new temporary commander François Lamarche realized that all that could be done for the moment was to withdraw to an entrenched camp at Famars and the fortress of Valenciennes. The allies under Coburg moved to besiege Valenciennes, but first wished to expel Lamarche de Famars in order to clear the way and prevent any intervention by the French. Coburg's forces had recently been augmented to 90,000 by the newly arrived Anglo-Hanoverian contingent commanded by Frederick, Duke of York, and the Prussian Knobelsdorff. It was decided that the 26-year-old Duke of York would lead the main attack. This is perhaps surprising, since for many of the British troops it would be his first action against Republican France.

The Battle of Famars was another defeat for France where having neutralized Famars' camp, Coburg was free to begin the siege of Valenciennes. Once again, the Duke of York was given the lead role in command of the siege, supported by Ferraris. The subsequent siege of Valenciennes saw the town razed to the ground by heavy Allied artillery fire, the defenders of Valenciennes held out as long as they could but, despite their stubbornness, it was necessary to give way. Valenciennes capitulated on July 28, allowing the soldiers who were still defending the city to leave with the honors of war minus their weapons and ammunition and with the promise not to fight against the allied armies. Although Valenciannes fell, the allied regiments entered a heap of ruins under which it was difficult to recognize Valenciennes. By August 1793, the Coalition army under the command of the Austrian Prince of Coburg had taken Condé, Valenciennes, and Le Cateau in northern France. The allies planned to lay siege to the city of Cambrai as planned. However, the British government, notably Prime Minister William Pitt and War Secretary Henry Dundas, ordered the Duke of York to take with the Anglo-Hanoverian army the coastal port of Dunkirk, possession of which would be a good military base and a valuable asset. exchange currency. Dunkirk was defended by 8,000 men under José Souham, the defenses were thought to be in a poor state of repair and vulnerable to capture. The Duke of York concentrated his forces at Menen and divided them into two corps: 22,000 British troops under his command would go directly to invest the city of Dunkirk, while 14,500 troops under Marshal Freytag consisting of Hanoverian troops and 10 British Escons had to protect his left flank.

The Duke of York made his way to Dunkirk, and pushed Souham's men back into the city, taking the Rosendaël neighborhood on August 24, then began digging trenches to besiege Dunkirk from the eastern side. The siege looked like it might be a protracted affair, as York had neither siege artillery nor manpower to properly encircle the city. Arriving at Poperinge on August 20, Hessian troops under Freytag drove the French from Oost-Cappel and Rexpoëde back to Bergues. This fortified city was surrounded and Wormhout and Esquelbecq were taken. He then established a cordon of military posts in the towns, with his left at Poperinge, his right at Houtkerque. The Freytag order was divided into a series of small posts in the occupied towns. Freytag was an experienced commander in the light troops, but at Hondschook his confidence in the cordon system of outposts was to prove fatal. The Austrians occupied a strong position from which they were driven out in disorder, and with heavy losses. As a consequence of this victory, the siege of Dunkirk was lifted. Houchard planned to use the forces concentrated in Cassel's camp against the Duke of York and drive him away from Dunkirk. In early September Houchard learned of Custine's execution in Paris, which sent him into a downward spiral and allowed the mission representatives virtually a free hand. On the 5th reinforcements arrived from the Rhine bringing the forces at Cassel to 45,800 men. On the same day Freytag, fearful of the accumulation of French forces in front of him, sent two detachments to seize Arneke, which was duly stormed, although a British colonel was taken prisoner. Houchard was probably aware that an encircling attack on York's communications would be the most effective strategy, but under pressure from the representatives, he resolved instead to launch a direct attack on Freytag's thin line.

The attack that received the lines would be so confused that Freytag was wounded and captured, along with the future Duke of Cambridge. The latter soon escaped, thanks to the help of his young aide-de-camp at Scharnhorst, but Freytag remained a prisoner in French hands until Walmoden, suspecting that his commander might be in danger, arrived with his column at Rexpoëde and took command again. city and disperse Jourdan's troops and nearly capture Houchard in turn. The panic was so severe that some of the French ran all the way back to Cassel. After the Battle of Hondschoote, instead of continuing in the direction of Veurne, he turned sharply to the right on September 10, following a plan that Lazare Carnot, the member of the Committee of Public Safety who had special responsibility for conducting the war, had made. established in a letter of 5 September. The plan was aimed at the relief of Le Quesnoy, who was still holding out at this time. Houchard, therefore, was to march on Tournai and take that fortress. But to that end he had to deal with the Dutch troops around Menen (as they would otherwise threaten his left flank near Tournai). The Dutch troops had withdrawn from Ypres, as it was considered indefensible due to lack of provisions, and towards Menen and Halluin, where they were concentrated. A further retreat to Kortijk was contemplated and launched on 10 September, but on the way Hereditary Prince Wilhelm-Frederick of Orange-Nassau was informed that Coburg had succeeded in forcing Le Quesnoy's capitulation. Therefore, he could post a force of 14,000 Austrians under Beaulieu to reinforce the Dutch along the Leie. This convinced the Dutch commander to remain in position. The three French generals lost valuable time at Bailleul in preparation, but their presence remained hidden from the Dutch.

On the morning of September 12, two columns of French troops under Dumesny and Hédouville finally left Bailleul for Menen, marching along the left bank of the Leie River. At Bailleul, Dumesny's division numbered 10,000 soldiers and Hédouville's division numbered 6,500 men, including chasseurs on foot led by Claude-Sylvestre Colaud. These troops advanced east along the north bank of the River Leie towards Wervik, forming the French left attack. Meanwhile, Béru's division with 10,000 to 11,000 soldiers moved north from the camps near Lille, forming the right attack. The Lille division divided into a left column under Jacques MacDonald, a central column led by Béru, and a right column under Pierre Dupont. Furthermore, South Coburg had meanwhile captured Le Quesnoy on 11 September, allowing him to move forces north to help York, and win a signal victory through one of Houchard's divisions at Avesnes-le-Sec. As if these disasters were not enough for the French, news reached Paris that in Alsace the Duke of Brunswick had defeated the French at Pirmasens. The Jacobins stirred with a ferocity that caused panic. Laws were imposed that placed all lives and property at the disposal of the regime. The Battle of Menen saw how the vast French numerical superiority guaranteed their victory causing heavy casualties to the Dutch army. At the end of September Coburg began to invest Maubeuge, although the Allied forces were very stretched. The Duke of York was unable to offer full support as his forces had been greatly weakened, not only by the campaign, but also because Dundas in London had ordered the troops withdrawn and assigned to the West Indies. Houchard who would be arrested on charges of cowardice, tried and guillotined in Paris on November 17. He was relieved in command by Jean-Baptiste Jourdan.

On September 13, the Coburg army had accepted the surrender of the fortress of Le Quesnoy, defended by 4,000 Frenchmen. The Austrian army moved 24 km to the east and besieged Maubeuge and its 20,000-strong garrison, under GD Jacques Ferrand, on 30 September. Coburg assigned a 20,000-man Austro-Dutch army led by William V of Orange-Nassau to execute the siege, while François Sébastien de Croix de Clerfayt's troops covered the operation. Coburg arranged the troops of Clerfayt on the Avesnes-Maubeug road, in the south 5,000 soldiers were stationed on the banks of the Sambre river and 9,000 soldiers were located in the center on a wooded hill. The remaining 7,000 men defended the Wattignies Plateau on the left flank. The revolutionary army under Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, assembled at Avesnes-sur-Helpe, 18 km north of Maubeuge. The Public Salvation committee considered the attack a strong threat, so they sent the representative on mission Lazare Canot with reinforcements under Jourdan's orders. The long line of forest allowed the French army to camouflage themselves. On October 14, Jourdan and Lazare Carnot reconnoitered the Maubeuge front. They had a force of 37,906 infantry and 6,370 cavalry, a total of 44,276 troops. Meanwhile the garrison at Maubeuge was on the march. However, this part of the plan was aborted. Even without the garrison, the French had a numerical superiority of two men for every one Austrian. But the French were the undisciplined enthusiasts of the Battle of Hondschoote (where a month earlier they had beaten the British and Austrians). However the French managed to expel the Austrians, under the Duke of Coburg, lifting the siege of Maubeuge.

By 1794, the reforms motivated and introduced by Carnot quickly paid off. Conscription on an unprecedented scale had raised 1.5 million men since the introduction of the levy en masse, and the French republic had in the field 15 armies numbering almost 800,000 men. The armies of the Ardennes and the North, stationed in the northeast, numbered almost 300,000; the armies of the Rhine and the Moselle had 200,000 men; about 120,000 stood along the Pyrenees and the Italian border and the army of the interior numbered about 85,000 men. Carnot's strategy required that these vast new armies must live off the conquered land. Keeping them on foreign soil became a priority for the French government, which was concerned about the nation's depleting resources and about the potential political threat it might pose at the hands of a renegade commander. While the ranks of the revolutionary armies had grown beyond any army previously seen in Western warfare (excluding the armies that China or Russia could field if motivated), the number of Allied troops was rapidly declining, as was the coordination between them. . With only 430,000 men to deploy on all fronts, his forces numbered 180,000 in Flanders and 145,000 on the Rhine and were for the first time inferior to the French. Austria and Prussia were increasingly distracted by affairs in Poland. Russia's intervention in the Polish civil war caused them concern. Continued military setbacks and the influence of Republicanism in the politics of the smaller coalition states were causing them to reconsider their participation in the Alliance. Meanwhile, Britain was struggling to keep the Alliance alive through diplomacy and subsidies.

Prussia's best example illustrates the alliance's lack of cohesion: her promise to provide an army of more than 60,000 men by the following spring, but the campaign was never carried out. Austria, for its part, agreed to cooperate in an offensive through Flanders at the same time. On January 6, 1794, the Duke of Brunswick resigned as commander on the Rhine. For a fortnight the French had held the last position on the west bank of the river. Neither side actually took the offensive, and apart from the arrest and imprisonment of General Hoche, who had criticized this inactivity, nothing of note occurred on this front. Carnot decided to attack on both flanks of the Allied army, towards Ypres and Ghent at the western end of the front line, and towards Namur and Liège at the eastern end, cutting off British and Austrian supply lines. In contrast, the Allies, led by Emperor Francis II in person, decided to start the year with an attack on Landrecies (near Le Cateau), and southwest of the site of the great French victory at Wattignies in the previous October. The Allies advanced on April 17, driving the French out of their outposts around Landrecies. On April 20, the Prince of Orange drove the French from their positions on the left bank of the Sambre, and after a fight that cost him 1,000 casualties and the French 2,000, he opened the first siege works outside the city. . In the next two days, General Pichegru, in command of the French armies assembled for the great offensive, made several ineffective attempts to attack the Allies. Meanwhile, Saxe-Coburg set up its covering army in a semicircle 35 km long, protecting the force carrying out the actual siege. The Dutch veldleger or mobile army (about 16,000 strong), commanded by Prince Orange, was reinforced with Austrian infantry and auxiliaries under Count Baillet de Latour and Austrian artillery under Johann Kollowrat (about 4,000 strong).

On April 18, 1794, this corps left its camp near Cambrai and marched towards Landrecies. The 19th was spent on preparations and on 20 April the corps made a three-pronged attack on the fortress. Two columns marched through Fontaine-au-Bois and the Mormal Forest towards the Sambre River, where they took the villages of Hapegarde and Etoguis, and the reinforced camp of Preux-au-Bois within gun range of the fortress. The Swiss Guards of the De Gumoëns Brigade and the Hesse-Darmstadt Brigade distinguished themselves in this fight. The central column surpassed the redoubts and the ravelins of the exterior works. The garrison was forced to withdraw within its walls. Dutch losses were 23 officers and 358 troops. The mobile army immediately began to invest the fortress. Work began on a line of fieldworks running in front of the fortress, with their endpoints at the Sambre River, cutting off the fortress from land access. Two batteries were placed at the main approaches to the city, and work was prepared on a second compensatory trench system. The Hereditary Prince made the castle of Bousies his headquarters and the Austrian auxiliaries (Hungarians, Serbs and Croats), assigned to do the work on the entrenchments, built a camp in the Mormal forest. After April 20, preparations for the planned bombardment progressed slowly. The commander of the French Army of the North, General Jean-Charles Pichegru, was moving west in preparation for the start of the attack, but mass levying meant he had more than enough men to make an attempt to lift the siege. Three French armies were involved in this attack. To the east, General Charbonnier, with 30,000 men, was ordered to attack General Kaunitz, who held the eastern section of the Allied front line.

At Landrecies, General Ferrand, with 45,000 men taken from Guise, would attack the east and south of the covering force, while General Chappuis, with 30,000 men from Cambrai, would attack the Duke of York at the western end of the line. . The two attacks were not coordinated. At the eastern end of the line, General Fromentin, with 22,000 of Charbonnier's men, attacked the Allied positions at Maroilles and Prisches. The French eventually captured Prisches, cutting off communications between Alvintzy to the north and Kinsky to the south. Alvintzy was seriously wounded, and command fell to Archduke Charles, who led a counterattack that regained lost ground and drove Fromentin away. To the south, another 23,000 French troops pressed General Bellegarde, who was holding the line from Oisy to Nouvion. The Archduke's victory enabled him to send troops to Bellegarde's aid, and this attack too was repulsed. On the left, the Duke of York won a clear victory around the village of Beaumont-en-Cambresis (hence the alternative and somewhat imprecise name of the battle). There General Chappuis had advanced in two columns, and brought out the allies of Beaumont, Inchy, Troisvilles, Bertry, and Maurois. The French formed up near that position, facing east, ready to attack towards Le Cateau, hoping that heavy fog would obscure their movements. The mist cleared before the attack could be launched. The Duke of York realized that the left flank of the French force was exposed and thus vulnerable to a flank attack. The Duke concentrated all of his cavalry on his own right flank. This gave him a total of 19 Escóns, formed in three lines. This cavalry force moved around the French left (north) flank undetected. In an early clash with a French cavalry column, General Chappuis was captured, withdrawing the French commander early in the day. Allied cavalry reached the left flank of the French force undetected.

On April 18, 1794, this corps left its camp near Cambrai and marched towards Landrecies. The 19th was devoted to preparations, and on April 20 the corps made a three-pronged attack on the fortress. Two columns marched through Fontaine-au-Bois and the Mormal Forest towards the Sambre river, where they took the villages of Hapegarde and Etoguis, and the reinforced camp of Preux-au-Bois within gun range of the fortress. The Swiss Guards of the De Gumoëns Brigade and the Hesse-Darmstadt Brigade were prominent in this fight. The central column overcame the redoubts and the ravelins of the exterior works. The garrison was forced to withdraw within its walls. Dutch losses were 23 officers and 358 men. The mobile army immediately began to encircle the fortress. Work began on a line of field works that ran in front of the fortress, ending at the Sambre River, preventing land access to the fortress. Two batteries were placed in the main accesses to the city and the work of a second system of compensatory trenches was prepared. The Crown Prince made the castle of Bousies his headquarters and the Austrian auxiliaries (Hungarians, Serbs and Croats), in charge of the entrenchment work, built a camp in the Mormal forest. After April 20, preparations for the planned bombardment proceeded slowly. The commander of the French Army of the North, General Jean-Charles Pichegru, was moving west in preparation for the start of the attack, but the massive uprising meant that he had more than enough men to attempt to lift the siege. Three French armies were involved in this attack. To the east, General Charbonnier, with 30,000 men, was ordered to attack General Kaunitz, who controlled the eastern section of the Allied front line. The attack failed and the devastation of the fortress and the town was immense. Only one house remained intact.

The front of the attack was devastated. Around 2,000 people (both soldiers and civilians) were killed (a mortar bomb killed a woman and her eight children at the same time). But civilians participated in the defense, organized as bourgeois artillerymen and joined shoulder to shoulder with the Meuse and Moselle battalions that formed the garrison. Their wives cared for the wounded and helped the dying. The city would later collectively receive the Legion of Honor for bravery. Despite heavy losses, the garrison commander, General Roulland, at first refused repeated demands for surrender, possibly because he hoped that the French would launch a last desperate attempt to relieve the fortress. On April 29 a departure was rejected, and Roulland called a council of war of soldiers, as was sometimes done in the French Revolutionary Army. This council asked him to consider a surrender. Pressure from the council steadily increased and on April 30 Roulland relented: he called for a ceasefire. This was immediately granted, and followed by lengthy negotiations on a capitulation in terms. The negotiations were conducted by the Dutch General Bentinck and the Austrian Mack on the Coalition side and General Roulland on the French side. They led to the capitulation with honor of the French garrison on April 30. The garrison had been reduced to 5,000 men. They became prisoners of war in the Dutch Republic. The fortress was taken by the RIs of the Swiss and Dutch Guards. During the Battle of Landrecies on 26 April, the French General Chappuis was captured, along with a full set of Pichegru's plans for the offensive in the west, which included the siege of Menin to distract the forces from the siege of Landrecies. The Allied commander, the Prince of Saxe-Coburg, immediately sent reinforcements into the fighting and ordered the Count of Clerfayt to return north to Denain. On the night of April 28, Clerfayt reached Mouscron, bringing the number of troops present up to 10,000 strong.

The Battle of Mouscron saw the revolutionary French win thanks mainly to superior artillery which was decisive. The French royalists in Menen knew that they would be executed if they were captured. Therefore, on the night of April 30, the Menen garrison came out. After his initial successes at the battles of Mouscron and Menin, General Pichegru, commanding the French Northern Army, took up a position between Menin and Coutrai, on the left bank of the Lys, and then halted. This gave the Allies time to respond to the new French threat. By May 3, the Duke of York arrived at Tournai. Clerfayt and the Duke of York had about 40,000 men, divided between Tourani and Spierres. The Allied position, looking west, was to the south-east of the main French army: Spierres is approximately 10 km south-east of Courtrai. Pichegru had between 40,000 and 50,000 men in his main army, with a further 20,000 men under General Bonnaud at Sainghin, 8 km southeast of Lille (about 17 km west of the Allied left wing at Tournai). While the Allies were planning an attack on Courtrai, Pichegru decided to attack the main Allied lines in force. At the Battle of Willems, the French infantry was then exposed to repeated attacks by the Allied cavalry. In previous clashes French attempts to form cadre had been unsuccessful, but this time they were more successful. Nine cavalry charges crashed into the French squares, and the Duke of York was forced to send a British Brigade and four Battalions forward along with British artillery support, which managed to stagger the French squares, before let a cavalry charge scatter them. Although the French cadres were broken, their prolonged resistance showed that the new French army was becoming increasingly professional.

On May 11, the French attacked again. This time, General Souham attacked the center of Clerfayt's position at Courtrai, while Generals Malbrancq and Macdonald attacked on his flanks. Two French attacks were repulsed, but a third attack pushed back the Austrian left flank, which linked Clerfayt with the Duke of York's army to the southeast. With this flank broken, Clerfayt realized that he would have to withdraw and fell back towards Theilt. Estimates of casualties suffered during the fighting vary, with French losses at 700 and Austrians between 700 and 1,500. In the aftermath of this French victory, Saxe-Coburg and Francis II were forced to choose whether they wanted to concentrate against the French offensive at the Sambre or in Flanders. They chose to move west to join the Duke of York in carrying out an attack against the French. The French Northern Army, General Jean-Charles Pichegru, had 127,000 troops deployed from Dunkirk to the Ardennes, of which there were 77,800 in the sector attacked by the Austrians, framed in 3 divisions commanded by Generals Joseph Souham, Jean-Victor Moreau and Jacques-Philippe Bonnaud. Tourcoing's victory allowed the Army of the North to take Tournai on May 22 and the Army of the Ardennes to cross the Sambre River to jointly inflict defeat at the Battle of Fleurus on May 26. With the victory at Fleurus, Belgium was taken and Europe opened up to French armies. In the battle of Fleurus, the French had the help of a curious invention: a tethered hot air balloon to observe the battlefield. The balloon made a first observation during the siege of Maubeuge, on June 2, and was located in Fleurus on the plateau of the Jumet mill, near the Jourdan headquarters and representatives on mission, it rose to 300 meters. It had been created by the scientist Alexandre Charles, and the captain Jean-Marie-Joseph Coutelle.

The balloon company, created by a law of April 2, 1794, was composed of Captain Coutelle and Lieutenant Lhomond, their assistant, a sergeant major, a sergeant, 2 corporals and 20 soldiers with the balloon l'Entreprenant. During the battle, the balloon was in flight for nine hours, and during those hours it served to spot the Austrian troops, confirm that the city garrison was about to fall and, in short, report the position of troops and various information to French commanders. In fact, Jourdan himself used the balloon to view the battle from above, and gave some orders by dropping messages into sand-filled bags tied to strings that went to the HQ. After the battle of Fleurus, he received a second globe, le Martial, and followed the northern army, taking no part in any fighting. On June 23, a second balloon company was created under the orders of Coutelle with the two balloons: the Hercules and the Intrepid, and would join the Army of the Rhine in 1795. The first balloon company participated in the Egyptian expedition. Fleurus was not a particularly costly battle. Both sides suffered around 2,000 casualties, with the French taking 3,000 prisoners. Its true meaning was that it marked the point at which the Austrians finally lost interest in defending the Austrian Netherlands. During the following months, the allied armies retreated to the north and east, until at the end of July they finally separated. The Austrians headed east to defend Luxembourg and the Rhine line, while the British and Dutch headed north to defend the Low Countries. The demoralized Allied armies were only able to escape a potential trap in the Austrian Netherlands because the Committee of Public Safety ordered Pichegru and Jourdan to take Brussels and then concentrate on retaking the French border fortresses at Condé and Valenciennes.

The loss of Austrian support led to the collapse of the campaign. None of the other Coalition partners had sufficient forces in the theater to check the French advance, and they began to retreat north, leaving Brussels, which was captured by Pichegru on July 11. Jourdan pressed the entire Austrian line in repeated action during the first days of July, encouraging Coburg's withdrawal back to Tengo (Tirlemont) and beyond, while York withdrew to the River Dijle. Meanwhile, Jourdan took Namur on July 17 and Liège on July 27, abolishing the Prince-Bishopric of Liège. The demolition of St Lambert's Cathedral, in revolutionary eyes the symbol of clerical power and oppression, began. On July 27, 1794, a popular revolt against Robespierre took place, supported by the moderates who saw the path of the Revolution, increasingly exalted, as dangerous. The people, on the other hand, rebelled against the bourgeois condition of Robespierre who was a revolutionary at first persecuting moderates and even radicals such as Verlet, Leclerc and Roux. The members of the Convention succeeded in overthrowing and executing Robespierre along with other leaders of the Committee of Public Safety, ending the Reign of Terror, in which 10,000 people were guillotined. These political developments brought operations to a standstill pending political developments and new orders. The Austrian front extended in a Meuse-Ourthe-Amblève line, from Maastricht to Sougné, with supporting positions towards Houffalize and Saint-Vith. As of August 28, the new commander-in-chief of the Coalition was the Count of Clerfayt, since the British had pressured the Emperor to depose Saxe-Coburg, he had about 83,000 Austrians, of whom 28,000 were in the area between Esneux and Sprimont, with two strong detachments against Liège and Maastricht. The Austrian generals were very confident because they held all positions on the heights along the Meuse-Ourthe-Ambleve line.

Facing them was the French Army of the Sambre and Meuse, under General Jourdan, which had 115,000 troops, once General Scherer's corps had been incorporated, after having completed the siege of Valenciennes, and decided to continue the offensive. The right wing of the army was commanded by General Scherer, opposite him, the left wing of the Austrian army was commanded by General de Baillet, Count de Latour, originally from Virton. To reach the Austrian positions on the Sprimont plateau, the French had four valley approaches: from Remouchamps to Sècheval, from Aywaille to Florzé, from Emblève to Rouvreux, and from Halleux to Fraiture. Of course, the Austrian batteries defended these approaches, but the French also installed their guns on the opposite banks. The battle was preceded by numerous diversionary maneuvers across the front, requiring incredible troop movements along what is now the Belgian-French border. The French soldiers are advancing too fast and their supplies could not follow them along very impassable paths, and they had to wait. They reached Comblain-au-Pont on September 15 and it was then that the Austrians destroyed the bridge there. The strategists on the warring sides were puzzled, the Austrians thinking that an attack was being prepared on Maestricht and transferring troops there, while the French imagined that Liège was the Austrian target. On September 17, skirmishes developed in the valleys, while the French decided to attack simultaneously from Fraiture to Sougné to seize Sprimont. On September 18, at 0500 hours, the French artillery thundered across the front. The infantry advanced but were held back for a long time. Sougné was taken and the advance was resumed. Aywaille is burning. Fighting broke out at Montfort, Halleux and Martinrive. Sougné was a true fortress where General Lilien had placed his men from the center to the redoubt.

Guided by a shepherd from Montjardin, the French officers gathered their reserves and moved them through Nonceveux and Riveux to Hautregard. At the same time, the French cavalry attacked through Sècheval. Republican troops also cross the Ourthe at Hony as at Esneux. Harassed on all sides, the French took the HQ of the left wing of the Austrian army from Sprimont. The Austrian right, pursued by French cavalry, retreated to Beaufays and from there joined Chenée and Bois-de-Breux. The withdrawal was made in great disaster and in the process the villages of La Reid, Becco and others were looted. In the evening, General-in-Chief Clerfays gave the order to send the troops towards Herve, then, in the following days, towards Aix-la-Chapelle and on September 20, the Austrian army withdrew completely at the Roer River. The losses on both sides are difficult to quantify from French and Austrian reports because some want to extol their victory while others try to play down their defeat. They are estimated at 4,000 French casualties. It is probable that the Austrian losses were less than the French losses in view of the position they occupied, more favorable to defense than to attack. On September 19, the day after the Battle of Sprimont, the French army, 35,000 strong, arrived in Maastricht. Commander Jean-Baptiste Kléber establishes his headquarters at Neercanne Castle in Jekerdal. The city was defended by General Ernst Wilhelm von Klebeck with 7,000 troops, the city was besieged until November 4, when he surrendered. After the defeat of at the battle of Sprimont, Esneux or Ourthe on September 18, Jourdan pursued Clairfayt, and even slowed his march with the intention of urging the enemy to deploy around Aix-la-Chapelle. ; which would have allowed Scherer, rushing towards Verviers or Limbourg, to encircle him from the rear, cutting off his communications with Cologne.

But Clairfayt, informed of this danger by his scouts, again abandoned the 22nd, Aachen, and hastily withdrew behind the river Roër. This move allowed Kléber's division to invest in Maastricht. For a month Clairfayt had made the right bank of the Roër full of entrenchments. This position, whose center was in Aldenhoven, was protected by the Place de Juliers, offered great means of defense. The front was covered by the river Roër, an enclosed river like the Ourthe, not really wide, but swollen by recent rains. Its steep banks, higher on the right bank, almost everywhere dominated the left, giving the Austrian batteries a decisive superiority over the French. The destroyed bridges, the degraded fords bristling with frieze horses; finally, a large amount of artillery defended their passage and the approaches. The Austrian line was long and fragmented. The right, under Werneck's orders, extended as far as Roermond, near the confluence of the Roër and Meuse rivers. The center was at Aldenhoven, opposite Juliers, and the left, under the orders of The Tour, extended from Dueren to Niedeggen, where General Haddick was. Jourdan, who had followed the Austrians, deployed his army, the right wing, under Scherer at Cornelis-Munster; the center under his command and Kléber, with the left wing division, took charge of Maastricht, the siege of which could not begin until after the French had mastered the course of the Roër. But, in anticipation of battle, he was content to leave an observation corps of a few thousand men in front of this spot. Jourdan's army had 100,000 men. He divided it into four columns, for the attack, on the morning of October 2. The battle of Aldenhoven, or Jouliers, cost the Austrians some 4,000 dead or wounded, and 800 prisoners. The French army had lost 1,500 dead. The Battle of Aldenhoven ended the Austrian presence in the Low Countries.

Only the garrison remained at the fortress in Luxembourg City, which was besieged on 22 November. He was resisting for 7 months, a French army under the command of General Jean René Moreaux with about 35,000 troops, besieged the city defended by 15,000 troops under General Johann Wilhelm von Schroder with 15,000 men with 500 artillery pieces. They capitulated on June 7, 1795, and on June 12, 12,396 honorable men left the city, many of whom were Walloons who did not want to go to Austria, preferring instead to serve in the French army. Although virtually subordinate to the Austrian command, the Dutch and Anglo-Hanoverian forces broke away from the Austrian army and headed to protect the Dutch Republic. Mechelen fell on the 15th, Antwerp was evacuated on the 24th, the same day the Duke of York crossed the Dutch border at Roosendaal, while the Austrians crossed the Meuse at Maastricht. Three days later, Pichegru occupied Antwerp. After the fall of Le Quesnoy and Landrecies to the French, Pichegru renewed his offensive on 28 August, forcing York to withdraw to the Aa river line where he was attacked at Boxtel and persuaded to withdraw to the Meuse. By autumn, the French, with the help of Herman Willem Daendels's Dutch revolutionaries, had taken Eindhoven and stopped their pursuit at the Waal River. The Dutch Orangemen surrendered at Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc) on October 12, after a heavy 3-week siege. York planned an Austrian-assisted counteroffensive to relieve Nijmegen, but this was abandoned when the Hanoverian contingent fell back. On November 7, after a short siege, Nijmegen was found to be untenable and the city was also abandoned to the French. York made preparations to defend the Waal river line during the winter, but in early December he was recalled to England. In his absence, Count von Walmoden took charge of the allied army while William Harcourt was left in command of the British contingent.

At this stage, the Prussians were in peace talks with the French, and Austria seemed ready to follow suit. William Pitt the Younger angrily rejected any suggestion of negotiating with France, but the British position in the Dutch Republic seemed increasingly insecure. On December 10, troops under Herman Willem Daendels attacked across the Meuse River in an unsuccessful attack on the Dutch defenses at the Bommelerwaard. However, in the following days, temperatures plummeted and the Meuse and Waal rivers began to freeze over, allowing the French to resume their advance. By December 28, the French had occupied the Bommelwaard and the Altena Lands. Brigades from Delmas's division, under Herman Willem Daendels and Pierre-Jacques Osten, moving at will, infiltrated the Dutch water line and captured fortifications and towns along a 35 km front. As the French vanguard troops crossed the Waal River, the British and Hessian forces made successful counter-attacks at Tuil and Geldermalsen, but on 10 January Pichegru ordered a general advance across the frozen river between Zaltbommel and Nijmegen and the Allies were forced to retreat behind the Lower Rhine. On January 15, the Anglo-Hanoverian Army withdrew from its positions and began a retreat into Germany, through Amersfoort, Apeldoorn, and Deventer, in the face of a heavy snowstorm. On January 16, the city of Utrecht surrendered. Dutch revolutionaries led by Krayenhoff pressured the Amsterdam city council, on January 18, they handed over the city, which he did just after midnight, sparking a pro-French Batavian revolution. Earlier that day, the incumbent William V, Prince of Orange and his followers had fled into exile in England. The Dutch revolutionaries proclaimed the Republic of Batavia on January 19, and in the midst of a great popular celebration in Dam Square, they erected a tree of liberty.

In the afternoon, the French troops entered the city and were cheered on by the people. On January 24, the capture of the Dutch fleet at Den Helder followed. The British continued their retreat north, poorly equipped and poorly dressed. By the spring of 1795 they had left Dutch territory entirely and arrived at the port of Bremen in Hanover. There they awaited orders from Britain. Pitt, realizing that any imminent success on the Continent was virtually impossible, finally gave the order to withdraw to Britain, taking with him the remnants of the Dutch, German, and Austrian troops who had withdrawn with them. York's army had lost more than 20,000 men in the two years of fighting. On the embarkation of the bulk of the British Army for England in April 1795, a small body under General Dundas remained on the Continent until December of the same year. The surrender of Luxembourg on June 7, 1795 concluded the French conquest of the Low Countries, thus marking the end of the Flanders campaign. Prussia signed a separate peace with France on April 5, surrendering all her possessions on the west bank of the Rhine (Pruel Guelders, Moers, and half of Cleves). The Coalition fell apart even more when Spain went over to the French side in exchange for French possessions in America. Great Britain decided to use her sea power to try to take over the French colonies in America although this was too late.

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

The war of the First Coalition in Europe saw how the French built several satellite states of the French Republic, being a continuation of the policy of creating sister republics in the neighboring territories of France. The policy adopted in the United Provinces that became the Batavian Republic was revolutionary and liberal, as well as very unstable, since several coups d'état took place during its short existence. Precisely the great political instability and the many coups d'état prevented the normal functioning of the country and its institutions. One of the few revolutionary policies that came to fruition was the abolition of the last remaining vestiges of feudalism in the former United Provinces. Nor could the Batavians carry out their project of establishing a democratic Constitution (with universal suffrage and a single Assembly) due to the interference of the French Directory, which was not interested in establishing a State with decision-making capacity and contradicting the interests of French foreign policy. In Italy, thanks to the brilliant command of General Napoleon Bonaparte, the Ligurian and Cisalpine Republics were established, which were satellites to the will of the Directory to economically exploit Italian territory to finance the wars in France that recognized French hegemony and with aspirations over the territory from the neighbors A notable fact would be that as the French revolutionary troops traveled through the enemy territories, they were living off the land, which included looting cattle, crops and any means that supplied the army in the campaign, this fact was accompanied by crimes that included rapes and murders. defenseless women and children; looting of cities and towns, without forgetting the indiscriminate burning of churches in front of the anti-clerical revolutionary.

Following the Treaty of Campo Fornio on October 17, 1797, which marked the end of the First Coalition, the victorious conclusion of Napoleon's campaigns in Italy only left Great Britain against the French. The French planned to invade England to establish a series of Republics (England, Wales and Scotland) naming Napoleon Bonaparte as head of the French army in England in October 1797, dedicating himself to planning since then how to invade the English coasts. After studying the operation for months, he discovered that the UK was excellently well protected by the Home Fleet, the naval squadron that guarded the English Channel, and that at that time it had better capabilities than the French Revolutionary navy. In February, Bonaparte came to the conclusion that in order to defeat the British one must first damage their economy, causing a loss of resources that harms them later; since the powerful Royal Navy required large sums of money to maintain itself, and if England neglected its fleets due to budgetary precariousness, it could be vulnerable in the short term. Napoleon proposed to the Directory that, instead of an invasion of England, the Middle East should be invaded, in order to cut the maritime and land trade routes with India from the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea to the Mediterranean; which would be a severe blow to the English economy, which would have a negative impact on its war effort. This undertaking would be possible because both the Turkish Ottoman Empire and its Mamluk vassals, owners of the lands to be occupied, were militarily inferior to France. The Directory, also thinking of removing the uncomfortable general from the country, agreed to give him the means he needed for his campaign, which would be prepared in the strictest secrecy so that the English could not send fleets to the Mediterranean, which was still considered a Spanish Sea thanks to the positioning of the Spanish naval bases: Cartagena, Palma de Mallorca, Cagliari, Syracuse and Tunis together with the support of the Order of Malta that offered anti-piracy and anti-Islamic proselytizing support.

From the beginning, Bonaparte required the presence of scholars in his expedition, with whom he will form a Commission of Sciences and Arts, since he insisted that his will also be an expedition of scientific conquest, in accordance with the ideals of the Enlightenment. He also justified this campaign arguing that it will serve to export the French Revolution to Egypt, freeing the Fellahin peasants from the yoke of the Mamluks. On April 12, Napoleon was appointed commander of the future French Army of the East, which would be in charge of carrying out the conquest of exotic Mamluk Egypt. In little more than a month, Napoleon had managed to secretly organize a force that he considered more than sufficient to occupy Malta and wrest Egypt and Palestine from the Ottoman Empire. The Army of the East is made up of 5 divisions commanded by Desaix, Dugua, Reynier, Bon and Vial with 14 half-brigades with 32,000 infantry, including 1,140 engineers, sappers and pontoons; a cavalry division commanded by Murat with 7 cavalry regiments with 2,700 horsemen; 171 cannons and mortars served by some 3,000 artillerymen, and a body of 480 guides. In total, about 36,180 men. Most of them did not know where they would be mobilized. In addition, Napoleon had aides-de-camp such as his brother Louis Bonaparte, Duroc, Eugène de Beauharnais and the Polish nobleman Sulkowski. The artillery consisted of siege artillery with 35 guns with 600 rounds per piece; 72 field (17×12, 2×11, 35×8, 6×5, and 12×4) with 500 shots per piece, 24 howitzers (4×8 and 20×6); 40 mortars (15×12, 4×10, ); with 248 wagons of ammunition. The Commission for Sciences and Arts of the Army of the East is made up of 153 of the best scientists and artists in France, including 21 mathematicians, 17 engineers, 13 naturalists, 10 writers, 8 draughtsmen, 4 architects and 3 astronomers, in addition to 22 printers equipped with presses and Latin, Greek or Arabic characters.

They ignore their destination, and they have only been told things like where they would "conquer glory and knowledge." On the Mediterranean coast of France, a large fleet discreetly gathered, distributed among several ports so as not to attract attention. It was made up of 455 ships escorted only by 4 frigates and 13 ships of the line (1×120, 3×80 and 9×64) in which some 16,000 men served, 2×34 and 8 Venetian frigates, under the command of Vice Admiral François- Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers. Just a few days before the departure date, the ships would congregate in the ports of Toulon and Genoa. Napoleon arrived in Toulon on May 9 to oversee the last phase of the operation. At 06:00 hours on May 19, the French fleet leaves the Toulon dock towards Malta, its first objective. The living conditions on board the ships were uncomfortable for military or civilians due to overcrowding and a shortage of food. Napoleon traveled on the Orient (120), the flagship of the squadron and one of the most powerful ships of the moment. French newspapers speculated on the mysterious fate of the fleet, reporting that it was heading for Ireland to attack Britain from there, a hoax perhaps spread by Bonaparte; What is certain is that these rumors puzzled British spies, who were speculating on India as other possible destinations for the French expedition. On June 7, 1798, Nelson set sail with his fleet, in pursuit of the French navy. On June 9, the French fleet carrying Napoleon's Army of the Orient landed on the northern coastal strip of the Mediterranean island of Malta, ruled by Hompesch, Grand Master of the Order of the Knights of Saint John, who had his headquarters in the walled city of Valletta. From the flagship of the French squadron, the Orient (120), Bonaparte requested permission from the Valletta authorities to moor his ships in the port and refuel with water. The Grand Master convenes a council of war and called all the knights to arms, who rushed to garrison the walls of the capital.​

After arduous deliberations, Hompesch allowed the French to bring their fleet closer to the port in groups of no more than 4 ships at a time; it is true that about 200 knights were French and did not wish to fight compatriots. Napoleon embarked in a small boat and spent the rest of the day visiting the coastline and the outer fortifications. He realized that the cannons were old and made of iron. The Maltese forces were 2 battalions of 500 men; 200 Grand Master's Guards, 250 galley men; 250 troops from ships; 200 gunners or battery guards; in total 1,900 regular troops. This figure rose to 2,900 men, adding 800 hunters, 200 miners and sappers (recruited when necessary from the Maltese quarries); and a militia force estimated at 10,000 men. As Bonaparte would later write in his diary “the island is well endowed… there were 1,200 artillery pieces, 40,000 rifles, a million pounds of gunpowder in the square… The wheat reserves were very considerable; there was enough to feed the city (Valletta) during three years of siege”. On June 10 the French infantry made several landings. The landing in the bay of San Pablo in the north of Malta was carried out by troops under the command of Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers. The Maltese offered some resistance but were quickly forced to surrender. The French managed to capture all the fortifications overlooking St Paul's Bay and nearby Mellieħa without any casualties within a few hours. Casualties for the defenders consisted of one knight and one Maltese soldier being killed, and around 150 knights and Maltese were captured. The French force that landed on the island of Gozo was commanded by Jean Reynier. Gozo was defended by a total of 2,300 men, consisting of a company of 300 regulars, a regiment of 1,200 coastguards, and 800 militiamen.

The landing began around 1:00 p.m. in the Redum Kebir area in the vicinity of Nadur, between the Ramla Right Battery and Sopu Tower. The defenders opened fire on the French, and were aided by artillery from the batteries at Ramla and Sopu tower. The French managed to advance to higher ground despite the fire. The batteries at Ramla were taken, and the French managed to land the rest of their troops. Casualties among the invasion force was a sergeant major shot dead during the landing. The defenders took refuge in the Citadel, which surrendered at nightfall. The French captured some 116 artillery pieces. A force commanded by Louis Desaix landed at Marsaxlokk, a large bay in the south of Malta, the French managed to capture Fort Rohan after some resistance. After the capture of the fort, the defenders abandoned the other coastal fortifications in the bay, and the French landed most of their forces unopposed. Forces led by Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois landed in and around Saint Julian's. A galley, 2 galleasses and a sloop from the Order's navy set sail from the Grand Harbor in an attempt to prevent the landing, but their effort was futile. 3 Battalions landed, and were met by some companies of the Malta regiment who offered resistance before withdrawing to Valletta. French forces surrounded the city, linking up with Desaix's troops who had successfully landed at Marsaxlokk. The hospital defenders attempted a counter-attack by repulsing the French, who began to withdraw. The Hospitallers and Maltese advanced but were ambushed by a battalion of the line and were driven back in chaos. The French then began a general advance, and the defenders withdrew into the fortified town. With Valletta surrounded, Vaubois led some of the troops to the ancient city of Mdina, where the remaining militia had withdrawn after the landings.

Bonaparte offered the grand master a one-day armistice to surrender the capital. The fame of the French army and its Revolution had reached the island, and there were many Maltese who did not want to fight. At a town council in the Bishop's Palace, it was decided that resistance was futile and they agreed to capitulate if the religion, liberty and property of the people were respected. At around 12:00 noon, the terms had been agreed to by the representatives and Napoleon on the ship Orient, and the city capitulated to Vaubois. Malta would become part of the Republic of France, the Grand Master would receive a compensation of 300,000 francs, although he would have to cede the positions of power to the knights of French origin. The properties of the members of the Catholic Church and the Order would be respected under penalty of public death for those who broke that respect. Napoleon landed in Valletta on June 13, and stayed on the island for six days, spending the first night at the Banca Giuratale and then staying at the Palazzo Parisio. Thus ended the 268 years of government of the Order of Saint John in Malta, but not before raising certain complaints and displeasure on the part of the Spanish government, which is very close to Malta. Napoleon recognized that he would not have taken the capital without help from the interior, due to its magnificent fortification, and he installed himself in the Palazzo Parisio, naming General Varbois governor of the square, whose first task was to organize a commission to administer it. A few days after the capitulation, the grand master and many knights left the island, taking with them some possessions, including some relics and icons. The Order would flee to Carthage until it decided to be affiliated with the Spanish government as a semi-autonomous Militant Order. Such a leak would make Napoleon break his word and order the preparation of an inventory that includes the goods and assets of the treasure of the Order of Saint John, its palace and the churches, and ordered that everything that was not on the list or "it is essential for the cult" was requisitioned and shipped on the Orient and the Seriuse.

Jewellery, valuables and coins from the Order's treasury and churches were looted; the silver was melted down into bars and shipped. A few days later Napoleon already had a fortune that amounts to a quarter of a million pounds. Later the Order would be expropriated of its lands and income. The record of the looted wealth in Malta after the conquest of the island by French troops would be: Treasury of the church of San Juan 420,438 Ecus of Malta (59,953 in diamonds, 97,470 in gold, and 263,025 in money). Treasury of the church of San Antonio, dependent on the Order of San Juan 8,663 Ecus of Malta (703 in diamonds, 550 in gold, and 2,410 in money). In the palace of the grand master 52,976 Ecus of Malta (2,334 in gold and 50,642 in money). In the bank of the Island of Gozo 7,578 Ecus of Malta. Malta was a crucial link for France that will allow her navy to close the Mediterranean to the Royal Navy and supply her future conquests. However, in France it will not sit well at first, as not all of the government was aware that Malta was a target. Napoleon will have to justify his occupation to Talleyrand, French Foreign Minister. Bonaparte left a garrison of 4,000 soldiers in Malta, although he recruited 600 inhabitants with whom he formed the Maltese Legion, which would embark with the army of the East. Within three months, the Maltese rose up against the occupiers and took control of most of the islands with British help and Spanish volunteers. The French garrison at Valletta and La Cottonera held out the resulting blockade for two years, before Vaubois surrendered to the Spanish in 1800, making Malta a Spanish territory, the English being forced to cede as Malta was too near Sicily.

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On June 18, Napoleon left the island. Soon the British admiralty found out where the French fleet was and sent after it the squadrons of Nelson and Admiral Jervis, who was near Gibraltar ready to close the passage of the Strait. On June 22, a schooner from Ragusa informed Nelson of the eastward departure of the French from Malta on June 16. After consulting with his captains, the admiral concluded that the French objective must be Egypt and headed there to begin the pursuit. Nelson insisted on taking a direct route to Alexandria with no detours because he believed the French had a five day lead, when in fact it was only two. On the night of June 22, Nelson's fleet overtook the French in the dark, unaware how close they were to their objective, partly also because of the fog. Thanks to having taken the direct route, Nelson arrived in Alexandria on June 28 and discovered that the French were not there. Following a meeting with the Ottoman commander Sayyid Muhammad Kurayyim, Nelson ordered the British fleet to head north on 30 June. It reached the Anatolian coast on 4 July and then turned west towards Sicily. On June 28, Napoleon revealed to his men that Egypt was the destination of his campaign. On July 31, the French Army of the East arrived in Egypt. Concerned by Nelson's closeness, Bonaparte ordered an immediate invasion; The troops landed by means of an amphibious operation in the Marabut bay, whose planning due to haste would be quite deficient and as a result 20 soldiers would drown. The French Army of the East, once landed, marched from Marabout for five hours to reach the port city of Alexandria. The rear of the column was assaulted by a party of Mamluks, capturing several soldiers and bartenders, to later subject them to all kinds of harassment: the men and women would be raped and beaten to later be sold as slaves without knowing more than their luck.

Before Alexandria, the French general Menou organized the assault on the triangular fort and the outskirts, while the divisions of Kléber and Bon entered the city through the Pompey and Rosetta gates. Resistance was light and by early afternoon the fighting had ended. General Menou received seven wounds while crossing the ramparts. Bonaparte offered an agreed surrender and freed 700 Arab slaves from Malta. During the rest of the day, Napoleon's troops distributed among the inhabitants printed copies of the revolutionary propaganda pamphlets that he himself had produced; in which it was said that the arrival of the French obeyed the will of Allah, who sent them to free them from the rule of the Mamluks, a minority military caste that had subjugated the fellhains, the Arab peasants of Egypt, for centuries. Bonaparte will observe with pleasure how the Egyptians welcomed the revolutionary ideals, hoping that they would tolerate the French and even help them fight against the Mamluks. Bonaparte then led the bulk of his army inland. He entrusted his naval commander, Vice Admiral Brueys, with the task of anchoring in Alexandria Harbor, but soundings indicated that the harbor channel was too narrow and shallow for the largest ships in the fleet. Consequently, the French selected an alternative anchorage in Aboukir Bay, 32 km northeast of Alexandria. The Egyptian army was composed of the Mamluk forces numbering 9,000 to 10,000 cavalry and about 20,000 infantry auxiliaries, and the Ottoman governor's forces composed of sipahi (sepoya) cavalry and Janissary infantry totaling about 20,000 strong.

On the other hand, there were the Bedouin Arabs from the desert tribes who were mainly engaged in harassing the columns and the fellahins who were armed with farming tools. The best troops were the Albanian and Libyan mercenaries, who were mainly infantry. The Mamluks preferred to persist in a traditional fighting style rather than adapt to new methods of warfare. Murad-Bey, then in charge of military affairs, tried to adopt a Western-style conversion policy. To face a possible return of the Ottomans, Murad decided to provide the Mamluk army with a river fleet, which must prevent any invasion by the Nile. The river was the economic heart of Egypt, and it had to be preserved from the invaders. However, the Mamluks were barely seamen, they had to recruit mercenaries to run the flotilla which would cause a lot of damage to the French. Murad entrusted the organization of his fleet to a Greek mercenary converted to Islam, Nicolas Papas Oglou. The crews were made up of Greek mercenaries and faithful to their leader. For artillery, Murad also turned to Greeks from Zante, the three Gaeta brothers, who had converted to Islam and even became Mamluks. They organized a cannon foundry near Murad's palace, and managed to provide Murad with light artillery. However, this artillery was very poor compared to the European one. The guns were mounted on marine mounts, which were made to fire at large, hard-to-miss targets, such as a ship. Mamluk field guns were also of very poor quality because they are made of iron. Therefore, the range was less and with intensive and prolonged firing, the iron tended to melt much faster. The guns were handmade and difficult to maneuver. Although the Mamluks are undertaking some reforms, they could not establish a tactic that would combine all the corps, that is, cavalry, artillery, infantry and the river flotilla.

This lack of combination would be fatal for them. Each corps operated independently in battles. In his thought pattern, cavalry was still the key element in defeating the enemy. In Europe, the cavalry was no longer the main breaking point. From Agincourt, the infantry increasingly tended to dominate the battlefield. After landing at Marabout, completely surprising the Mamluks and leaving a garrison in Alexandria, 25,000 soldiers and 35 light guns of the French Army of the Orient under Napoleon began a march south along the west bank of the Nile, to reach El Cairo, the capital of the Mamluk government. Degua and Murat's divisions advanced through Abukir, Roseta and up the Nile to Rahmaniya where they would join up with the main army. But the French had not been prepared to withstand the climatic rigors of the country. Their European uniforms gave them stifling heat, accentuated by the weight of the equipment. Their diet was mainly dry biscuits, so they soon began to go thirsty. The Arabs poisoned the wells and the French fell ill shortly after with dysentery and cholera among other ills, many of them ending up questioning why Bonaparte punished them by leading them to that hell; some ended up committing suicide out of despair. On July 9, many soldiers planned to rebel and Napoleon managed to impose discipline, warning that deserters would be shot; General Mireur was found dead. The Mamluk beys or governors react by calling their fellahin peasants to arms. Bey Ibrahim concentrated around Cairo some 40,000 warriors, but mostly on foot and armed in the Turkish style, with sabers, axes or spears, but very few with muskets, and what is worse, they lacked military training.

On July 3, shortly after the French landed, Bey Murad mobilized a force of cavalry, which, despite appearing exuberant in colorful clothing and jeweled weapons, were similarly equipped to infantry, although each mamluk usually carried 2 pairs pistols. A flotilla under the command of Captain Perree made up of the xebek Le Cerf, 3 gunboats and 1 galley, was sailing along the Nile parallel to the army, and on June 13, was attacked by an Egyptian flotilla of 7 djermes (Egyptian vessels of 2 or 3 masts) manned by Greek sailors, attacked the French. In a short time, the 2 gunboats and the galley had to be abandoned by the French when they were outnumbered, leaving only the xebec and the third gunboat, which were loaded with civilians and soldiers who had abandoned the other ships. These were attacked from the Mamluk flotilla, along with small Turkish guns and cannon from the shore. However, Xebek Le Cerf scored a well-aimed shot at the Mamluk flagship, which caught fire and exploded. By this time the Mamluk ground forces were about to charge again, but the explosion sank part of the flotilla, leaving the forces grounded. On land, after hearing the first shots of the naval battle, he ordered his troops to attack the town (Bon's division), garrisoned by a few cannons and 4,000 fellahines, meeting the enemy advancing from the south head-on. Bonaparte had about 20,000 men divided into 5 divisions. Desaix's and Bon's divisions faced the enemy while Reynier's, Dugua's and Vial's divisions lined up as far as the river. Mourad-Bey had between 3,000 and 4,000 cavalry, supported by 20 guns and 2,000 Janissaries on foot.

To repulse the Mamluk cavalry, which greatly outnumbered the French cavalry, the French formed their divisions into infantry squares 6 to 10 ranks deep with a small group of cavalry and baggage in the center, with the artillery in the center. the corners. For about the first three hours, the Mamluks rode in a circle around the squares, looking for an opening to launch their attacks. Then, when the French and Egyptian flotillas had finished their battle and moved away, the Mamluks attacked. These were immediately stopped by fire from the French artillery and infantry. The Mamluks regrouped and attacked a different square, but were again stopped by French artillery and infantry, but always out of rifle range. As a result the 14th Dragoon Regiment was unable to catch up with them in pursuit, and for the most part the cavalry remained within the squares. After an hour's defense, Napoleon ordered his troops to attack the village to relieve the naval flotilla, pushing back the Mamluks who were eventually forced to retreat. The Mamluks left about 1,000 dead and wounded, while the French had 20 wounded and 9 dead. On July 15 they left the village of Shubra Khit and five days later they had reached Omm el Dinar, at the tip of the Delta, where the Nile divides into two branches. On the 21st, with the first rays of the sun, the army left Omm el Dinar at 2:00 a.m. after breaking camp, and 12 hours later, at 2:00 p.m., they arrived at the village of Embabeh, at the height from Cairo. On July 21, the beys Murad and Ibrahim met the French near the pyramids of Giza, deploying 6,000 of their good horsemen and 8,000 inexperienced infantry on the west bank of the Nile; They positioned another 7,000 fellahins and 40 artillery pieces in the fortified village of Embabeh, while on the other bank 18,000 fellahins waited on foot under the command of Ibrahim-Bey. Murad had made a big mistake in placing his troops on the left bank of the Nile, saving the French from having to cross the river under fire to attack it.

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Ibrahim-Bey would have to cross the Nile River to help if something went wrong for Murad-Bey. When General Bonaparte was informed about the position of the enemies and the advantage that the two beys had given him, he decided to engage in a decisive battle. Around 2:00 p.m., Bonaparte first saw the town of Embabeh, about 13 km away from Giza and its pyramids. After giving his troops only an hour to rest, Bonaparte was ready for battle at 3:00 p.m. To harangue his demoralized troops, Napoleon reminds them that they will go down in history: – “Soldiers…! From the top of these pyramids, forty centuries contemplate you…!” After 12 hours of marching under the hot Egyptian sun, the tired, hungry and thirsty French soldiers saw the Mamluk army in the positions Bonaparte wanted them to be, and the great pyramids of Giza before them. Knowing that Mamluk tactics were based solely on massive frontal charges by his brutal cavalry force, Napoleon ordered his 5 infantry divisions to deploy in a square, each side defending a half-brigade in 6 deep ranks, in the front ranks the soldiers carry fixed bayonets. Inside each box, the carriages of impediment and the cavalry were located, the artillery in the corners of the boxes. The French cadres form an oblique line in a northeast-southwest direction, with Bon's division on the left wing, to the northeast near the Nile, the Vial, Dugua and Reynier Divisions in the center, and the Desaix Division on the far left. right, southwest ahead. Napoleon with his staff stood with his staff in Dugua's Central Division, which gave him the greatest protection against any flank attack and at the same time allowed him to see the two divisions on either side.

The French divisions advanced south in echelon, with the leading right flank and the rear left flank protected by the Nile. The French troops had additional support from a flotilla of 15 riverboats, manned by 600 sailors under the command of Captain Jean-Baptiste Perree. Desaix's division approached the village of Biktil, and Desaix sent a small detachment of cavalry and grenadiers into the village, they climbed on the flat roofs of the houses and began shooting at the Mamluks, while Bon's division headed into the village. from Embabeh, which was fortified and held with infantry and some old cannons. At 3:30 p.m., the impressive Mamluk cavalry under Murad-Bey bravely charged the French cadres of Reynier and Desaix. They were forced to split into three columns to pass between the two squares, gripping the reins in their teeth as their pistols were fired at them, but the defenders' close-knit volleys broke up the assault before they could come up and use their scimitars. The horsemen turned to regroup, but began to receive fire from the cannons of Dugua's cadre, having to move away to start another attack, repeating the scene several times. The most important thing for the French was to maintain their solid infield formations. If the square broke through on one side, things would be very difficult for them, and hand-to-hand combat would favor the Mamluks. The French held fire until the screaming Mamluks approached to a distance of a few yards, so that not a single cartridge was wasted. Dead and wounded men and horses began to pile up around the French squares, but the Mamluks continued to attack for about an hour despite their heavy losses. Although the Mamluk cavalry charges were largely unsuccessful against the cadres of Bonaparte's divisions, they repeated the tactic over and over again, as if determination could overcome French firepower.

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At times during the furious attack some Mamluks managed to break into the square, only to be mowed down by bayonets and rifle butts. The Greek Mamluk, Hussein, charged a square, making his way inside, receiving several wounds, but survived and would join the French army later. However, this suicidal bravery of the Mamluks could not help them against the continuous fire of the experienced European troops. As the Mamluks continued to charge and fall back, a curious encounter took place. A white-bearded Mamluk rode his horse mockingly making challenges in front of Bon's painting, on the far French left. Lieutenant Nicholas Desvernois stepped out of the box to accept the challenge. Like two medieval knights on a field of honor, they faced each other and closed the distance. Desvernois's first pistol shot dismounted the romper. Crawling on his hands and knees, his beard trailing the ground, the Mamluk used his scimitar to slice off the legs of the lieutenant's horse. The battle continued on the ground until Desvernois's saber struck the Mamluk's head, incapacitating him. The soldiers ran out of the square to finish off the overalls with the butts of their rifles. Desvernois was richly rewarded. The numerous pieces of gold sewn into his enemy's clothing and a magnificent sword, inlaid with gold on the hilt and rhinoceros horn scabbard, became the property of the victor. Before long, the corpses of hundreds of Mamluks and their mounts surround the French cadres, hardly suffering any damage apart from a spear or pistol shot. A little later Bonaparte ordered Vial's division to support Bon's division in its attack on Embabeh. Under the covering fire provided by his river flotilla.

The French were attacked by cannon hidden in the village. But the guns, which were mounted on fixed mounts that prevented them from moving across the battlefield, proved ineffective in stopping the attack. Bon formed several columns that stormed the town and took it, driving the horsemen towards the Nile and cutting them off from their fellahin infantry. Some 1,000 Mamluks drowned, and another 600 are shot dead trying to reach the eastern shore. After another hour of fighting, the Mamluks realized that their way of fighting was inferior to that of the French, with more modern weapons and tactics; so continuing the battle with such a great disadvantage would only increase his massacre, opting to retreat. Some 3,000 horsemen and 2,000 Mamluk warriors are killed or wounded, while the Army of the East has 29 soldiers killed and some 260 wounded. The army of the beys withdrew divided: Murad fled to the south and Ibrahim to Sinai, Lower Egypt was left defenseless. On the same afternoon of July 21, the bulk of the French army moved towards Giza, arriving with the last light of sunset. During the night, within sight of the pyramids, the soldiers drank, sang, and danced in celebration of victory; while in Cairo its inhabitants fearfully awaited what fate was going to bring them. Those who had enough wealth would buy a donkey or a starving camel, load their wealth and possessions on it and try to escape from the city; only to fall into the hands of bands of Bedouins and deserters, who stole everything they owned, raped the women, and in many cases murdered the men after sodomizing them. Bonaparte had arrived at Giza under his escort, and had spent the night in one of Murad-Bey's mansions. When he got up the next morning, he could see from his window the walls of Cairo, undoubtedly the most populous city in Egypt, with more than a quarter of a million inhabitants (similar to Vienna or Moscow), of which about 50,000 they belonged to the civil service of the Ottoman administration.

These were considered very dangerous by the more orthodox Islamic religious, who saw in them a new social class that seemed to have less respect for Islamic traditions than was due. The imams of Cairo will decide to surrender the capital without a fight, Napoleon entered Cairo on July 24, and took residence in the palace of Muhammad Alfi-Bey, an ostentatious building with magnificent gardens whose ponds and pools communicated directly with the river Nile. Napoleon allowed his soldiers to visit the pyramids and enjoy great freedom to mix with the population. Bonaparte did not want to waste time, and by July 27 the new administrative system tested in Alexandria was introduced in Cairo; a diwan (council) directed each province, supported by an agha (police chief), all of them under the supervision of a superintendent, a high-ranking French officer, in charge of collecting taxes from merchants and taxes on the transport of merchandise . Hygiene measures that the French considered absolutely essential for public health (cleaning the streets, lighting houses at night, closing cemeteries located in the center of Cairo, etc.) were flatly rejected by the Egyptians, who they saw such measures as a provocation. The conversion of the Cheraibi mosque into a tavern, and the new equal status given by the French to the Copts (Egyptian Christians, considered inferior by Muslims) would lead to an inevitable confrontation when the French transgressed any Islamic religious law. The reaction would undoubtedly be violent.

Nelson's fleet reached Tripoli on July 19, where it obtained the essential provisions to continue its mission. On 24 July the resupply of the fleet was completed and, having determined that the French must be somewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean, Nelson again set out for the Morea. On July 28, when he was in Coroni (Morean peninsula), Nelson was informed by Troubridge of the French attack on Egypt and headed south towards Alexandria. His advance guard, consisting of the Alexander (74) and the Swiftsure (74), finally sighted the French transport fleet at Alexandria on the afternoon of 1 August. The French squadron consisted of 13 ships: Orient (120), Franklin (80), Guillaume Tell (80), Tonnant (80), Guerrier (74), Timoleon (74), Conquerant (74), Aquilon (74), Spartiote ( 74), Peuple Souverain (74), Heureux (74), Mercure (74), Genereux (74); 4 frigates Diane (48), Justice (44), Artemise (36) and Serieuse (36). The fleet was commanded by Admiral Brueys D'Aigalliers, formed in a line close to the coast, with all their guns pointed at the open sea and sheltered by shoals, in such a way that they cannot be flanked and attacked from the rear, forming a true battery. floating of 1,194 guns. Aboukir Bay is a 30 km wide coastal indentation that stretches from the town of Aboukir in the west to Rosetta in the east, where a mouth of the Nile River is located. In 1798, the bay was protected by the west by long rocky banks that penetrated 4.8 km into the bay from a promontory on which the castle of Aboukir stood. A fortress located on an island between the rocks protected the rocky banks. The garrison of the fortification, equipped with at least 4 cannons and 2 heavy mortars, was manned by French soldiers. Brueys had reinforced the fortress with bombards and gunboats, anchored among the rocky shoals to the west of the island in an optimal position to support the head of the French line.

He deployed his ships in two lines, in the first line the 13 ships of the line with the Orient (120) in the center, and in the second line the 4 frigates, the sloops Salamine (18) and Railleur (18), the bombard Hercule and the Oranger and Portugaise gunboats, to avoid being engulfed. The 150 meters of space between each ship in the first line was wide enough for a British ship to break through and break through the French line. Also the French ships had only provided for the use of the guns on the sea side, leaving the guns on the other side fastened. At 2:30 p.m., the English fleet reached the bay. Nelson plans to concentrate his attack on the first ships of the Gallic line, to have a 2 vs 1 superiority at first. He hopes to destroy the French vanguard or at least outrun it, to outflank their formation and attack them from both sides. Nelson had 14 ships of the line: Vanguard (74) which was the flagship, Orion (74), Culloden (74), Bellerophon (74), Minotaur (74), Defense (74), Alexander (74), Zealous ( 74), Audacious (74), Goliath (74), Theseus (74), Majestic (74), Swiftsure (74), Leander (50); and the brig Mutine (18). In total it had 1,130 guns. At 4:30 p.m., Nelson's squadron began to maneuver to place half of his fleet in the open sea, attacking parallel to the vanguard of the French line. Meanwhile, several British ships, headed by Goliath (74), whose captain, Foley, had a map of Aboukir Bay that indicated that the actual depth of the shoals was greater than that known to the French. The wind changed direction and blew from the northwest, which benefited the British and hurt the French, who moved away from the shore. This caused him to leave enough space for Goliath (75) and the ships that followed, Theseus (74), Audacius (74), Orion (74) and Zealous (74) to flank the French formation passing between Guerrier ( 74), which was the first ship of the French formation, and the shore.

Around 5:30 p.m., Goliath (74) managed to overtake Guerrier (74) followed by Theseus (74), Audacius (74), which attacked the first three French ships. The frigate Serieuse (36) with the bombard Hercule tried to prevent the maneuver. The convention on naval warfare of that time stipulated that ships of the line not attack frigates in case there were ships of the same size that they could face; but when the frigate opened fire against the Orion (74), and this fired at it, it left it completely dismantled and would later sink. In total, 5 English ships managed to surround the French line, cannonading it from the narrow arm of the sea that separates them from the shore; while other English ships, led by Nelson's Vanguard (74), attacked her from the open sea, slowly annihilating her for the rest of the afternoon, the French being caught between two fires. At 18:45 hours, the first five ships of the French line were shelled on both sides by 8 British ships, suffering very serious damage, while the rest of the French formation was practically inactive. At around 8:30 p.m., a splinter struck Nelson's forehead, whose right eye was already damaged. The splinter caused a small tear in the skin that left him blind for a few moments. The admiral fell into the arms of Captain Edward Berry, who took him inside the ship. Nelson, sure that the wound was serious, shouted: "They have killed me, give my love to my wife", and called his chaplain, Stephen Comyn. The Vanguard's surgeon, Michael Jefferson, immediately examined the wound and informed the admiral that it was a simple tear and sutured the wound. Nelson then disobeyed Jefferson's orders to stay at rest and returned to the deck. Around 9:00 p.m., the French ship Guerrier (74) lowered her flag, practically destroyed. The French captain of the Tonnant (80), Commodore Aristide-Aubert du Petit-Thouars, stood out for his courage in the hard fighting that took place when he led his crew until he bled to death, without his legs and one arm.

The Tonant (80) would surrender at 23:45. At 9:30 p.m., the fifth French ship Peuple Souverein (74) was attacked by Defense (74) and Orion (74), was dismasted and withdrew towards land. The British ship Leander (74) turned and took up its position, splitting the French line in two and shelling the Franklin (80) from the stern, causing very serious damage, and the Orient (120) from the bow, which in turn was attacked. by the Leander (74) by the stern. Bellerophon (74) approached Orient (120) and released a broadside that partially riddled her hull, disassembling some pieces on the lower deck. Orient's response meant a carnage on the English ship, dismasting it almost completely. In this exchange of shrapnel, the Englishman received the worst part, since after 20 minutes he was adrift, and involuntarily approached at gunshot. With half her crew out of action and Captain Darby himself badly wounded, Bellerophon (74) was an almost immobile target. Two more volleys from the French ship at point blank range left her flat as a pontoon. Of her 590 men, nearly 200 were casualties. The Alexander (74) managed to position itself in line and discharged 30 double shots that ruined the rear gallery and part of the shrapnel wounded Admiral Aigailliers in the thorax. In less than 3 minutes, another volley littered with corpses. The French flagship was under fire from 3 British ships the Alexander (74), Swiftsure (74) and Leander (50). Orient (120) was apparently receiving a coat of paint on her hull and some of her canisters still remained open, being highly flammable and caught fire in the battle. Once the fire started, the British ships concentrated their fire on the burning area, preventing effective firefighting. Quickly, the fire in the Orient (120) lit up the entire bay.

It became apparent that the French flagship was doomed, her crew jumped into the sea, the British ships turned away, drenching their woodwork and rigging with seawater. Nelson, recovering from the wound below him, was called to the deck of the Vanguard (74). At 10:00 p.m., the Orient exploded. The sound was heard by French troops at Rosetta 40 km away and the crews of other warships thought their own ships had exploded. Admiral Brueys died instantly. Of the 1,000 crew members on board, the British only rescued 60, and with their companions the Maltese treasure that would finance Napoleon's campaign sank in Abukir Bay. At 11:45 p.m., the Tonant (80) and the Franklin (80) surrendered. The fighting continued through the early morning, slowly declining with cannonades, boardings, surrenders, and exchanges of fire; the ships Artemise (36) and Timoleon (74) burned until they were consumed. The resistance on the French ships ended around 06:00. At dawn Guillaume Tell (80) and Genereux (74) cut their cables and headed out to sea under Admiral Villeneuve, accompanied by the frigates Diane (48) and Justice (44). The Zealous (74) attempted a pursuit of the fugitives, but was soon withdrawn. The French had 1,700 dead, another 1,500 wounded, of which a thousand were captured along with 2,500 other men. 3,000 prisoners were returned to the commander of the port of Alexandria, since the British fleet could not serve them, Bonaparte later ordered these to form an infantry unit and added them to the army. The officers were taken aboard the Vanguard (74). The French lost 1 ship sunk, 2 ships burned and 9 ships captured, only 2 ships of the line and 2 frigates were saved. The British had some 218 dead and 678 wounded, not losing any of their ships and they had also captured 9 French ships of 74 or 80 guns.

The ships of the British fleet suffered little damage overall, although Bellerophon lost her three masts and Majestic her main mast. No other British ship lost a mast, although virtually all had minor damage. A few ships, including Bellerophon (74), Majestic (74) and Vanguard (74) had sustained hull damage. On August 8, the boats of the British fleet assaulted the island of Aboukir, which surrendered without resistance. The group that landed on the island withdrew 4 of the cannons and destroyed the rest along with the fortress they were in. In addition, he renamed the island "Nelson's Island". The British fleet would blockad Egypt, preventing the Army of the East from being reinforced or receiving supplies from France, leaving it isolated. Nelson will obtain as a reward on November 20 the title of Baron of Bath and a pension of 10,000 pounds per year. Thanks to him, the Royal Navy would predominate from then on in the eastern Mediterranean based on the island of Cyprus. For the French navy it is a tragedy, as it has lost its Mediterranean fleet. For Napoleon it means the ruin of his plan against England. When he found out what happened, he said: "So this is the end of my army... Am I destined to die in Egypt?" The only good news was on August 18 when the French ship Généreux (74) captured the English ship Leander (50), near Crete. The Ottomans, with whom Bonaparte intended to establish an alliance once his control of Egypt was complete, were encouraged to go to war against France after France was defeated at the Battle of the Nile. This led to a series of campaigns that little by little they were weakening the French army trapped in Egypt. Napoleon had control of Egypt despite the defeat: Kléber dominated the Nile delta, Manou took the port of Rosseta, and Desais pursued the Mamluks in Upper Egypt.

Napoleon founded the Institute of Egypt in Cairo, organized into four sections: mathematics, physics, political economy, and literature and arts, each with 12 members. The initial tasks entrusted to the scientific body were far from being studies of pure science: in the first session of the Institute, according to the minutes, topics such as improving the baking of bread or making beer without hops or how to clarify and cool the water of the Nile. Soon those initial topics would lead to more scientifically interesting ones. The works of the sages, published in the Egyptian decade, often leave the military completely indifferent. To the point that some decided to baptize the Egyptian donkeys with the name of "semi-wise". This will be the base of operations for French scholars and scientists in their research in the country, which in practice will mean the rediscovery of the wonders of ancient Pharaonic Egypt and the birth of Egyptology as a branch of archaeology. The results of the findings made by the scholars of the Institute would be published in a monumental work of 907 plates called "Description de L'Égypte" (Description of Egypt), which required 25 years to print, involving more than 200 illustrators who will make more of 3,000 images. Engineers and geographers would draw a 1/100,000 scale atlas of the land of the pharaohs on 47 sheets. Botanists and naturalists will send dozens of exotic plants and animals to France. This knowledge would cause shock in Europe, but led to the looting of the Egyptian cultural heritage. The scholars would adapt to the Arab country, although some thirty of them died in combat or victims of diseases, especially the plague. But the French administrators would not limit themselves to scientific research: they ended feudalism and generalized the collection of taxes to finance local projects, such as the construction of large infrastructures; the engineer Lepére would begin to plan a canal that would unite the Red Sea and the Mediterranean through the Isthmus of Suez.

In the summer of 1801 the British took Cairo and Alexandria. They demanded that the Institute hand over all its studies and documents. The French flatly refused: "We are prepared to burn our treasures as long as they do not fall into the hands of the enemy," said Geoffroy Saint-Hilarie. The determination of the French impressed the British forces. However, they managed to seize many works, including the famous Rosetta stone. The Rosetta Stone was discovered on August 20, 1799, when a French military detachment was doing repair work at Fort Julien at El-Rashid (called Rosette by the French) on the northern coast of Egypt. A soldier discovered the famous black stone, Engineers Lieutenant Pierre-François Bouchard, unearthed the granite stone weighing about 760 kilos; which turned out to be a large granodiorite stela with a decree made in the year 196, under the reign of Ptolemy V. As usual in this type of document, the text was written in the three official scripts: hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. The Stone was immediately sent to Alexandria and later transferred to Cairo, where it was kept in a kind of archaeological museum that had been improvised in the Institute of Egypt. The incipient collection would gradually expand throughout the campaign. Two decades later it turned out to be a key element in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics. Jean-François Champollion never worked on the original, but on French tracings.

Within a month Napoleon had taken control of the country: Kléber dominated the Nile delta; Menou had taken the port of Rosetta; Desaix was persecuting the Mamluks in Upper Egypt; while the wise men, going up the river, explored Aswan, Thebes, Luxor and Karnak. However, the situation had become complicated after Abukir's defeat. The Ottoman Empire made a pact with the British and declared war on Napoleon. As if that were not enough, the growing Egyptian rejection led to a bloody uprising in Cairo that cost the lives of 300 Frenchmen. The revolt ended when Bonaparte turned his guns on the El-Azhar mosque and destroyed it. He had won, but the looting, rape and mass executions only served to increase hatred against the French and by extension against their allies, the Coptic and Orthodox Christians of Egypt. Napoleon was isolated. As he did not have his fleet, he could not receive supplies from the metropolis nor could he request help from the Spanish who had been displeased after the occupation of Malta. However, his army was intact and he decided to continue with his plans to conquer Palestine and Syria as a first step on his way to India, where he planned to arrive in the spring of 1800. In February of the previous year, shortly after Desaix had reduced the Last Mamluk pockets in Aswan, Napoleon left for Syria at the head of 13,000 men. His first objective was to finish off Djezzar Pacha —who was forming an army to reconquer Egypt— as soon as possible, because he had received news that the British intended to land an Ottoman contingent in his rear. But he was not going to have it easy. Crossing the Sinai desert was a difficult test that weakened the strength of his men. El-Alrich was taken, but after ten days of fighting. Shortly after, in Jaffa his plans were again delayed by strong resistance from the Ottoman garrison. When it surrendered, the French verified that it was the same one that they released in El-Alrich under a promise not to take up arms again.

As if that were not enough, a cholera epidemic broke out that began to wreak havoc among the French troops. Once Haifa had been taken without resistance, Napoleon, on his way to Damascus, headed for San Juan de Acre, an old Crusader fort. Again Djezzar Pacha's men offered resistance. Napoleon besieged the city. On one occasion the French were able to break through the walls and into San Juan de Acre, but Djezzar's troops repelled the attack. The defenders had the support of the British fleet, which supplied them with food and ammunition. One of the dramatic events of the siege was that Djezzar Pacha, nicknamed the butcher, had the Christians of the city beheaded as revenge. While fighting in San Juan de Acre, Napoleon deployed different units through Palestine to seize vital points in the region. Junot took Nazareth, but had to abandon it to come to the aid of Klébar, besieged on Mount Tabor. His support was going to be of little use, because both contingents numbered 2,000 men against 25,000 Arabs. For six hours they valiantly endured their offensives. Luckily, when all seemed lost, Napoleon burst in with his cannons and cavalry and resolved the danger in half an hour. He then launched a new attack against San Juan de Acre. He managed to break through the first line of walls, but the second was impassable. In the action General Lannes was about to die. The lack of food and demoralization forced Napoleon to lift the siege after 62 days of siege. The way back to Egypt was very hard, due to lack of water and the continuous harassment of the Arab parties. He had to abandon about thirty of his men in a terminal state. Napoleon arrived in Cairo with 5,000 fewer men. With no chance of receiving supplies and the Syrian campaign having failed, he became convinced that reaching India was impossible.

On the other hand, the situation was deteriorating in Egypt. Unrest among Egyptian farmers grew due to excessive taxes, while the French positions scattered throughout the territory and their communication routes were continually harassed by Mamluk parties. While this was taking place, the Second Coalition was being formed in Europe to attack a France weakened by internal political tensions. Napoleon, seeing that he was not getting any return from the Egyptian campaign and that he was far from the metropolis, feared that he would be left out of a new distribution of power. He decided to return as soon as possible, but when he was studying how to do it, he received the news that Nelson was shelling the French defenses at Abukir. An Ottoman contingent of 15,000 men had landed under the command of Mustafa Pasha, which annihilated General Marmont's battalion. Napoleon sent 300 men to his aid, who suffered the same fate. Feeling trapped and unable to retreat, he ordered all the troops scattered in Egypt to regroup for repatriation. But first it was necessary to recover Abukir. Once the army of Egypt was regrouped, he decided to attack. He placed Lannes's men on the right flank, Kléber in the center, Desaix and Murat on the left, and Davout in reserve. The attack began with artillery fire against the Anglo-Ottoman ships, which he forced to withdraw. Once without naval cover, Napoleon ordered to attack, but what he did not expect was that the Ottoman resistance would defeat the charges of Desaix and Murat. When Napoleon was discussing plans to follow with Desaix, the pasha left his positions with his men and ordered the beheading of every Frenchman they came across, whether alive, dead or wounded. Such a spectacle, instead of causing the expected terror, unleashed the anger of the French, who charged with the bayonet.

They did it in a disorderly way, but their rage led them to overwhelm the Ottoman positions in a merciless war. The Ottoman leader became strong in the last bastion. After heavy fighting, Murat's cavalry managed to take it. Capturing Mustafa Pasha, Murat amputated three of his fingers with a saber blow, warning him that he would cut off "more important parts" if he decapitated his men again. Faced with the impossibility of withdrawing, Napoleon handed over command to Kléber and decided to return to France. He set out with his best generals aboard the frigate Muiron, circumvented the British blockade and reached their destination. Napoleon Bonaparte, returned from the Egyptian campaign and taking advantage of the political weakness of the ruling Executive Directorate in France, carried out a surprising coup with the support of the people and the army (knowing his exploits and capabilities in the different campaigns of the Revolutionary Wars). French), together with some ideologues of the Revolution such as Sieyès. That day the Council of Elders was summoned urgently to discuss an alleged Jacobin conspiracy against the government. The Council agreed to move to Saint-Cloud for security reasons, but the following day Napoleon kidnapped the Assembly with the support of the army. Taking advantage of the intrigues and the division of powers between the legislative and executive apparatuses of the State, and of course resorting to personal coercion, he managed to get the French deputies to name Sieyès, Roger Ducos and himself provisional Consuls, creating what became known as the triumvirate. The constitutional reform was immediately prepared. Measures were taken to ensure the social order in the country, accompanying the economic measures with the exile of the Jacobins, while Bonaparte increased his popularity thanks to these measures and his continuous public appearances, exercising the role of savior of the homeland. . Despite the fact that the Republic theoretically had three consuls, only Napoleon came to exercise it thanks to a legal trick consisting of starting the government of the consuls in alphabetical order (Bonaparte-Ducos-Sieyès).

 

[Paladín Wulfen]

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With the accession of Napoleon as First Consul (Premier Consul) of France, on November 11, 1799. France underwent a series of diverse and important reforms, including the centralization of the administration of departments, higher education, a new tax code , a central bank, new laws and a system of roads and sewers, including reconciliation between the Catholic people and their regime. The greatest achievement at the beginning of the Napoleonic Consulate was a kind of code or constitution known as the Napoleonic Code. The Napoleonic Code was implemented in all the German states of the Confederation of the Rhine. Feudalism and serfdom were abolished; religious freedom was established, each state was granted a constitution, which granted universal male suffrage and the creation of a parliament. Napoleon granted himself the title of Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine with which he had at his disposal an additional and standing army of 100,000 men. The capital of the Confederation was established at Frankfurt on the Main. However, in 1800 Bonaparte returned to Italy, which had been reconquered by Austria during his absence in Egypt. He crossed the Alps with his troops in the spring. At first the campaign did not go very well, it would give a resounding defeat to the Austrians, which led to the signing of an armistice. With Napoleon's brother, Joseph, the main French negotiator of the armistice, however due to the alliance between Austria and Great Britain, Austria could not recognize any territory conquered by France. Negotiations became more and more erratic until Bonaparte ordered General Moreau to attack Austria again. Moreau led the French army to victory at Hohenlinden and finally the armistice was signed at Lunéville in February 1801, under which France's dominance over the territories occupied in the Treaty of Campoformio was reaffirmed.
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Napoleon would show contempt for Spain when, faced with the need for money and the uselessness of managing territories in North America, he decided to sell Louisiana in 1803, a territory of approximately two million km² that, having belonged by ceding France to Bourbon Spain in 1765, had been returned to France under the Treaty of Aranjuez in 1801. The Kingdom of America was looking for a way to control navigation on the Mississippi River. The Louisiana Purchase was established at a price of $7.40 per km², Napoleon offended Spain as France was obliged to sell the territory preferentially to Spain, however, Napoleon then preferred to sell the colony to the Americans, rather than to Spain because in this way he also avoided the reunification of the Spanish colonies in North America. Such a fact would be remembered along with other facts. Washington politicians led by Hamilton believed the Kingdom had paid a large amount of money just to declare war on Spain. On October 21, 1805, in front of Cape Trafalgar (province of Cádiz), the Battle of Trafalgar would take place, where the squadrons of France and Spain faced each other again under a joint French command under the command of Admiral Pierre de Villeneave, assisted by Admiral Spanish Federico Gravina, against the English fleet under the command of Horacio Nelson. Spain had 15 ships of the line and France 18, together with the support of 8 frigates. The English fleet had 27 ships of the line and 6 frigates. For this reason we would be talking about the combined Franco-Spanish fleet having 41 ships compared to 33 for the Royal Navy. The battle took place when Admiral Nelson received information that a fleet was amassing at Cadiz with the aim of attacking Ireland. The battle saw how the French command, which showed a low seamanship qualification although with a voluntarism fruit of its initial revolutionary spirit, forced to the very competent and excellently trained Spanish command thanks to access to the officers from economically sufficient and aristocratic social classes and sustained care of the training of the midshipmen that gave them an unparalleled talent and above even the English.
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The Spanish commanders saw in the battle how the French used them as a bargaining chip if that included obtaining victory. The French emphasized a great rigidity in the chain of command, based on strong discipline and orders and schemes where they put the French officers above the Spanish, which only weakened the balance to the point of favoring the British. that promoted greater freedom in decision-making and favored the initiative and innovation of commanders and captains. Even before the battle began, it would be revealed that the French commanders had requisitioned the best gunpowder, leaving the Spanish with gunpowder in poor condition that reduced the effectiveness of the projectiles. Such a serious situation was reported by Vice Admiral Gravina to his French superior, Vice Admiral Villeneuve, but he dismissed it with disdain and it was not decided to investigate properly despite the seriousness and risk it entailed for everyone. Unlike Villeneuve who was famous and ridiculed for his flight without fighting Egypt, Gravina was considered a lion with initiative and courage and it was this difference in character that would cause Villeneuve to denigrate Gravina and his Spanish contingent. Villeneuve's actions would only discourage the French and outrage the Spanish. The Battle of Trafalgar began pathetically already in formation because unlike the English initiative and autonomous command, the allies were forced to rely excessively on the admiral's flag signals on his flagship positioned in a distant rear. When Nelson decided to break the allied semicircular formation, he would face the fact that the Spanish, fed up with dire orders, would end up choosing to obey his national command, arriving on the Santisima Trinidad; the largest ship in the world with four decks and 140 guns under the command of Squadron Chief Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros to collide with the HMS Victory with five decks and 104 guns under the command of Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson.
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To Villeneuve's horror, some brave French captains in the face of the situation ignored Villeneuve's orders to continue opening fire from a distance and decided to go to help their Spanish comrades. The Spanish sailors and troops would demonstrate their superiority in boarding and combat actions on the high seas, fighting well beyond their possibilities thanks to the example and charisma that their excellent commanders instilled in them, as well as their training in hand-to-hand combat and marksmanship. musketry arriving the decks of several English ships to be swept. Horatio Nelson would end up being killed when a Spanish shooter named Christian Prieto would shoot the vice admiral, knocking him down. The carnage was brutal, and the decisive damage was when the providential 'bodyguard' of the 98-gun English lead ship HMS Téméraire, led by Captain Harvey, approached "parking" in battery on the free starboard side of HMS Victory. The English sailors of the Téméraire would face the Spanish in such brutal combat that in some cases the artillerymen had to go up to support their own. In the end, those of the Téméraire would pick up the wounded Nelson and take him to their ship moments before the Santisima Trinidad gave a parting gift by sweeping the stern of the elusive English ship at point blank range (the worst thing for a ship, the bullets run lengthwise). with its initial volley loaded with double or triple bullets and even "sacked" carronades (up to 68 pounds in caliber and loaded with sacks of 500 musket balls). Seeing Nelson's ship captured but so damaged made the Spanish emboldened and ended up obtaining de facto command, arriving at Villeneuve to flee to Cadiz where he would await the result. The battle would mean a pyrrhic victory for the Spanish but the casualties would be due to ineffective French actions.
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Despite believing themselves defeated beforehand, and aware of their inferior tactical position, the Spanish and French captains and crews fought with true heroism for hours against an enemy clearly outnumbered but in an advantageous position and superior maneuverability, in such a way that in some Sometimes not even an officer was left to deliver the ship, as many of them ended up dying or seriously injured on the upper deck, where they were within shrapnel range of the carronades and marksmen posted on the ships' masts. enemy ships. The battle was over in two hours and Nelson fled as he bled to death in slow agony, surrounded by his most loyal officers. During it he had moments of delirium and others of lucidity, but when he died he was stripped naked and stored in a sherry brandy cask to prevent it from deteriorating on the trip to London. On his arrival he was buried with military honors in a ceremony of a solemnity never before seen in the United Kingdom. The English lost Trafalgar but the French were humiliated by the Spanish who, when they arrived at Cádiz with HMS Victory in tow, were greeted with cheers before Villeneuve was arrested for military negligence by François Étienne de Rosily-Mesros, who arrived with orders to assume command. of the fleet However Napoleon would welcome this victory under the phrase "Spain... ruled by monks but defended by war dogs and sea lions." Napoleon fought during the Third Coalition made up of England, Austria, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Napoleon would demonstrate his military genius and daring at Ulm and Austerlitz. the so-called Battle of the Three Emperors. Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, Francis II of Austria and Napoleon Bonaparte. Austerlitz will be Napoleon's greatest victory during the war. The Third Coalition will end with the Peace of Pressburg; in which Austria loses to France: Venice, Dalmatia, Tyrol and southern Germany.
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However, Napoleon's victory would cause that in August 1806, King Frederick William III of Prussia made the decision to go to war independently of the other great powers. The most sensible course of events would have been to declare war the year before and join Austria and Russia. This could have held off Napoleon and prevented Allied disaster at the Battle of Austerlitz. As it was, the Russian army, a Prussian ally, was quite far away when William made his declaration of war. In September Napoleon threw the entire French force over the Rhine. They numbered about 160,000 men, a number that increased as the campaign against Prussia progressed, and they moved with such speed that they virtually annihilated the Prussian army of about 250,000 men. . Prussia had to bear the death of 25,000 of them, 150,000 were taken prisoner and the French appropriated some 4,000 artillery pieces and 100,000 muskets, which were stored in Berlin. The Prussian army was definitively defeated by Napoleon in the Battle of Jena, and by Marshal Louis Nicolas Davout in the Battle of Auerstädt on October 14, 1806. This last battle faced a simple body of the French army that defeated the bulk of the Prussian army. At Jena Napoleon only fought a detachment. Napoleon entered Berlin on the 27th, and visited the tomb of Frederick II the Great, ordering his marshals to remove their hats and saying: If he were alive, we would not be here today. In total, it had taken Napoleon only 19 days from the beginning of his attack on Prussia to the end of the war with the fall of Berlin and the destruction of his main armies at Jena and Auerstädt. In Berlin, Napoleon promulgated a series of decrees, which came into force on November 21, 1806, giving effect to the Continental Blockade, which sought to eliminate the British threat through economic measures.
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At that time, the United Kingdom maintained a regular army of only 220,000 men, when French forces were well over a million and a half, plus the armies of numerous allies and many hundreds of thousands of militiamen who could be added to the army at any time. necessary case. The English Royal Navy was problematic as far as France's extra-continental trade was concerned, but it could do nothing against mainland French trade, and it posed no threat to French territory. On the other hand, French population and production capacity were overwhelmingly superior to Britain's; However, the United Kingdom's dominance of the seas, competed only by the Spanish Royal Navy, allowed it to consolidate a considerable economic force, which was enough to ensure that France could never consolidate peace due to the coalitions that England raised against it. French rulers, on the other hand, believed that isolating England from the Continent would end her economic influence in Europe. This was the basis of the so-called Continental Blockade, which was the one that was imposed. However, England decided to open a front on the side of France: Spain. After the death without heirs of King Sebastián I of Portugal in 1578 and his successor Enrique I of Portugal in January 1580, a power vacuum was established on the throne of Portugal that would cause a dynastic crisis. The Cortes were to decide who among various claimants should occupy the Portuguese throne, but before the choice was made, Philip I of Spain anticipated the decision by claiming his rights to the succession to the Portuguese crown. Felipe had made a pact with the country's powerful —the middle class, the nobility, and the high clergy—, and he did not expect serious resistance to the Duke of Alba's offensive. This would be the beginning of a period in which Portugal, along with the other Hispanic kingdoms, was governed by viceroys or governors of the kings of Spain.

The relationship between Portugal and Spain was such that they almost formed a single family, with similar interests. The wars with England hindered the trade of Portuguese merchants but then English representatives approached influential sectors of the country: the nobility and the merchants. Thanks to the political manipulation of the so-called Viriato Lodge formed by Portuguese with English support, Portugal would rise up in arms against Spain. However, this uprising in arms would end up dealing only in the Peninsula because in Brazil, Africa and India, the process of Castilianization was effective and being Portuguese in the colonies or viceroyalties was comparable to being Aragonese, Basque, Andalusian or Catalan. Napoleon demanded that Spain suppress this revolt, since English troops could land from there. Napoleon would soon carry out almost at his will a joint Spanish-French military invasion of Portugal as well as the right of passage for French troops through Spanish territory. Indeed, the troops of Junot (Duke of Abrantes) entered Spain without resistance on October 18, followed between October 18, 1807 and mid-March 1808:
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• Marshal Junot; 28,000 soldiers Army Observation Corps of the Gironde.​
• General Dupont; 25,000 British Army Corps soldiers.​
• Marshal Moncey; 40,000 soldiers Army Corps of the Ocean Coasts.​
• General Dushesne; 20,000 soldiers Army Corps of the Eastern Pyrenees.​
• Marshal Bessières; 40,000 soldiers Western Pyrenees Army Corps.​
• General Merle; 20,000 soldiers Garonne Army Observation Corps.​

In total, about 160,000 French soldiers until March 1808.
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The passage of French troops in Spain became suspicious as they occupied cities that were not on the way to Portugal. However, fearing the worst, the royal family withdrew to Aranjuez in March 1808 to, if necessary, go to Seville and embark for America. However, on March 17, 1808, a riot broke out: The Motin de Aranjuez. Added to popular discontent were the intrigues of the court, where an opposition nucleus to Minister Manuel Godoy was being created around the Prince of Asturias, Fernando. Escóiquiz and his own wife, Princess María Antonia of Nápoles, played an outstanding role in Fernando's attitude, encouraging the smear campaigns towards his mother, Queen Maria Luisa, and supporting the aristocratic opposition. The canon Juan Escóiquiz, Fernando's tutor, was a man without scruples, who made enemies of the heir with the kings, while Princess María Antonia, Fernando's first wife, whom he had married in 1802, followed the line of his family, anti-Napoleonic, enemy of France and prone to England. In the El Escorial process, Fernando VII denounced all his collaborators and asked his parents for forgiveness. But the court, which was in the hands of supporters of the conspiracy, acquitted all those involved. Fernando and his collaborators were outraged and scandalized by Godoy's relations with Queen María Luisa, wife of Carlos III and daughter of Duke Felipe de Parma who married in 1766 with the then Carlos, Prince of Asturias and heir to King Carlos II. Everyone suspected that the Infante Francisco de Paula, brother of Fernando VII, was actually Godoy's son. The rioting crowd led by supporters of the Fernandino Party, nobles close to the Prince of Asturias, gathered in front of the Royal Palace and stormed the Godoy Palace, burning all their belongings. On the 19th, Godoy, who had hidden in a closet, is arrested and taken to the Corps Guard headquarters.
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That same day, Carlos III, fearful of a lynching, abdicated in his, his son Fernando, in whom the people had placed their trust. The events in Aranjuez would later produce, on May 2, a revolt in Madrid which, with the change from the Austrian Regime to the Bourbon regime, became the capital of the Empire. Between April 19 and May 2, Napoleon saw his interests in Spain in danger and decided under Telleyrand's advice to replace the Bourbons with a member of his family. However, on April 10 Fernando left Madrid expecting to meet Napoleon in Burgos, the trip was extended until he reached Bayonne. In Burgos, the infant Carlos María Isidro de Borbón would abandon the entourage because he feared Napoleon's intentions and preferred to return to Madrid, however disaster would occur when Napoleon irrevocably decided that the Bourbon dynasty would not reign in Spain and that the own: The Bonaparte. Driven by anger, Fernando hit Napoleon with a knife that, although he did not manage to hurt the Emperor, did cause Rustam Raza, the Mamluk bodyguard of Napoleon who was in the room to end up backstabbing to Fernando, causing his father: Carlos, to see her son to be assassinated would throw herself at Napoleon amid screams of hate and sadness while the queen screamed in horror. Carlos would die stabbed by Napoleon himself. In less than two minutes, the Infante Carlos María Isidro de Borbón became King of Spain. The news of the death of the Spanish royalty caused the "May 2 Uprising" to break out in Madrid on the aforementioned May 2. The revolt was fueled when the population of Madrid saw French soldiers remove the infant Francisco de Paula to take him to France. Carlos María Isidro de Borbón was not yet in Madrid, so Francisco de Paula was the last member of the royal family that was still in Madrid. Therefore, to the cry uttered by José Blas Molina "Let them take him to us!", part of the crowd assaulted the French troops rescuing the Infante.
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The same master locksmith José Blas Molina y Soriano would give voice to the opinion of the Spanish population "Treason! They have taken our king from us and they want to take all the members of the royal family! Death to the French!" The serious voice was heard by the gentleman and butler of the week, Rodrigo López de Ayala y Varona who with his thunderous voice from the times that he served as Lieutenant Colonel of Infantry asserted “vassals, to arms! they kidnap the Infant!” The clash triggered a violent popular reaction in the city, and precipitated the fight to spread throughout Madrid. The desire of the people to prevent the departure of the infant was joined by the desire to avenge the dead and to get rid of the French. The people of Madrid thus began a great spontaneous popular uprising that had been dormant for a long time since the entry of the French troops, improvising solutions to the needs of street fighting. Neighborhood parties commanded by spontaneous caudillos were formed; the supply of weapons was sought, since at first the only ones available were knives; and the need to prevent new French troops from entering the city was understood. All this was not enough and Murat was able to put into practice a tactic that was as simple as it was effective. When the people of Madrid wanted to seize the gates of the city fence to prevent the arrival of the French forces stationed on its outskirts, the bulk of Murat's troops (some 30,000 men) had already penetrated, making a concentric movement to address toward the center. However, people continued to fight throughout the day using any object that could be used as a weapon, such as stones, sewing needles or flowerpots thrown from balconies. Thus, the stabbings, beheadings and arrests followed one another in a bloody day.
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Mamluks and Napoleonic lancers extreme their cruelty with the population to the point that Murat gave free rein to French barbarism. Madrid and its 170,000 inhabitants were victims of a wave of rapes, murders, robberies, looting, arson and other crimes. Around 70,000 men, women, and minors would die and be buried in pits, or thrown into the Manzanares River that runs through the city. Undoubtedly, the women who survived were not exempt from guilt, since the vast majority of women in Madrid were raped, including girls and old women, in a systematized way in a process where the soldiers searched door to door to find the victims. which were taken captive and raped. Women were often killed immediately after being raped. In the case of pregnant women after rape, they were often bayoneted in the womb, cutting open and ripping open the uterus, revealing the fetus. All the women's convents in Madrid were assaulted and their nuns subjected to an ordeal that ended with scenes as apocalyptic as chapels full of hanged women. The Rape or Massacre of Madrid was the first blow of many that would affect the Spanish psyche and would start the appearance of the proper concepts of Nation and Homeland.
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King-Emperor Carlos María Isidro de Borbón watched in terror as Spain began to burn with a fire so bright it was traumatic for the 20-year-old monarch. Escorted by the Royal Guard, he would end up reaching Cadiz, where he would face groups of French Napoleonic Hussars, Dragoons, Cuirassiers, Lancers and Hunters who would be repulsed with exemplary heroism by the Royal Guard. Once in Cádiz, Carlos IV would be crowned before doing the most bitter act that a king would have to do: Flee, Retire and abandon his land in fire.

Carlos would leave Spain while the insurrection spread like fire. in the cities and towns, local boards were formed. Said boards were made up of the notables of each city or municipality: owners, merchants, clergymen, lawyers and nobles, many with experience in the institutions of the Old Regime. In this way, the local elites, people of order and conservative social extraction, assumed control of a popular revolt in its origin. Born to solve an unforeseen situation, the juntas had a provisional nature and therefore limited their activity to organizing resistance, sustaining the war effort, guaranteeing the administration and preserving public order. These Boards were effective at the beginning of the uprising. However, to confront the Imperial Army, something more than a host of scattered municipal institutions was needed. Hence, the councils of the towns and cities were, little by little, coordinating their action and grouping together: by mid-summer there were eighteen provincial councils in the southern half of the Peninsula, territory controlled by the Spanish. On June 6, 1808, an army made up of soldiers and peasant militias managed to prevent the march of the imperial columns as they passed through the Bruch pass, causing the first relevant defeat of the French army. However, Spain would not be exempt from its traitors: The so-called afrancesados. Composed of ministers and the aristocracy, they swore fidelity to the intruder King José I Bonaparte, against the Spanish loyal to Carlos IV who received the name of Carlistas or patriots. The word Frenchified was extended to all those Spaniards who, during the French occupation, collaborated with the Josephine administration, either out of personal interest or because of the belief that the Bonaparte monarchy would bring substantial modernization changes to the already decadent Bourbon monarchy.
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Many of them were organized in Bonapartist Masonic lodges, such as Santa Julia in Madrid or the Grand Lodge of Manzanares in Ciudad Real, which had the support of a part of the population, together with a prominent part of the aristocracy, the army and the so-called intellectuals or liberals, who supported the intruder and brought so many evils to our already battered homeland. On the other hand, the war would be a fierce struggle between Josefino collaborators and Fernandino patriots. King José I was a man convinced of being capable of carrying out a political and social reform of Spain, transferring part of the spirit of the French Revolution to the Spanish absolutist society. Intellectuals and officials believed in this regenerative mission that aspired to build a society based on "reason, justice and power." However, José I was a king who was not recognized by the majority of Spaniards, since the legitimate King was undoubtedly Carlos IV. José I was not a prince of royal blood, who was related to any European royal house, on the contrary, he was nothing more than a commoner who had himself crowned King of Spain at the request of his brother, another commoner who had himself crowned Emperor of the French. José was not crowned King by the Spanish people but by a foreign army. He, therefore, could not be recognized as such as King of Spain, nor be granted the title of His Catholic Majesty of Spain. For this reason, and without going into more detail with the succession laws of the Crown, José I had no right to call himself King of Spain, since he did not descend directly from a male line of Bourbon succession. For the common Spaniard, José Bonaparte could live in the Royal Palace of Madrid, but for this reason he could not be considered the Legitimate King of Spain, everyone knew that José was nothing more than a puppet in the hands of his brother, the Emperor of France who he ruled Spain through his generals and marshals; such as Soult in Andalusia or Suchet in Valencia, who behaved more as if they were viceroys or perhaps simple taifa kings who committed abuses that ranged from rape and murder of defenseless women and children to looting of cities and towns, without forgetting of the indiscriminate fires in the churches such as the Burning of the Abbey of Montserrat.
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Carlos would spend two months on the boat until the ship "Real Carlos" finally anchored in the Bay of Havana. Carlos IV as he would be presented in Cuba, would not be the young man who left Madrid five months ago. A religious man with simple customs, he became someone with an unsympathetic character, without a kind word or look for those who had not shown his worth. Serious surprise when an American Ambassador met with him, comparing him to the typical English gentleman. Carlos would be a person of deep Catholic convictions and an orderly life who, with a great sense of duty, assumed the mantle of the Government. One of his first measures would be to establish a fleet in Havana, the capital of the Empire, while he began to prepare a fleet in the Cuban shipyards.​