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[FONT=&quot]I have been occasionally adding to this draft of a timeline since September, and granted this is my first timeline ever, I do not have much experience in writing timelines. This is the first part of the timeline, whose divergence point is the Austro-Prussian War, and the timeline continues into Part 2 (The Great War). Some feedback would be much appreciated![/FONT]
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Chapter I: The Austro-Prussian War[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The German Question[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Following the Napoleonic Wars, Europe was essentially recreated by the Congress of Vienna. The Bourbon king was returned his throne. Russia, Prussia, and Austria each partitioned the Polish region once again. The largest change, however, was the organization of Germany: The Holy Roman Empire, the confederation-state which dominated Germany and loosely unified its people for almost a millennia, was replaced by the German Confederation, a successor state that was headed by the Emperor of Austria. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]After this state was created, the unification of Germany under a more unitary state was the pressing matter. Both Austria and Prussia wanted to unify Germany. The Austrians hoped to unify Germany under Vienna; this ideology was known as Großdeutsche Lösung (or the “Greater German Solution). Conversely, the Prussian unification of Germany was known as Kleindeutsche Lösung (or the “Lesser German Solution”), which did not include Austria in the German unification. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Revolutions of 1848 brought the German Question into the limelight of European politics, as a failed revolution attempted to unite Germany under the crown of Frederick William IV, but he turned down this offer, and thus, the unification of Germany for the time.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The question would not remain out of the minds of Austria and Prussia, however.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Austro-Prussian War[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]In 1861, Otto von Bismarck was elected Chancellor of Prussia. He was an ambitious figure, who, like many Prussian nationalists, hoped to unify Germany under the Prussian crown. He was eager to unite all of the Germans under the flag of Prussia, but refrained from going to war with Prussia’s main rival, Austria, for two reasons. One, he had no significant allies of his own to support his cause; as a result, many powers (namely France) chose not to support Prussia since they thought Prussia would end up defeated. The other reason is that many southern states did not wish to unify with Prussia, primarily due to religious practices, and instead had Austria as a fallback. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Before Prussia and Austria went to war, they fought as allies in the Second Schleswig War, where they defeated the Danish, who surrendered control of the northern states of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg to Austria and Prussia. Following his victory in the Second Schleswig War, he had practically united most of Germany north of Hesse, save for Holstein. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The exact receptor of the new states, however, was hotly contested. The Austrian administration of Holstein, which Austria had retained following the First Schleswig War against Denmark, was contested by the Prussians. The Austrians had confronted the Prussian diet on the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, and Austria’s wish to administer the region led Prussia to declare the Gastein Convention nullified.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Following this declaration, Prussia invaded the German state of Holstein, and the situation went downward henceforth. Austria and Prussia went to war on 14 June 1866. Initially, the belligerents included solely Austria and Prussia, but once the Prussians mobilized, the Italians signed a secret agreement with Prussia in which the Italians would gain the Austrian-held region of Venetia, a region of an Italian majority that Italian nationalists believed was necessary for Italian unification. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The war went sour for the Austrians at the very start. The Battle of Tratenau, in Trutnov, Bohemia, was the first major skirmish between the Austrians and the Prussians (other than Nachod, which had been a Prussian victory) and ended in a humiliating defeat for the Austrians. Outnumbered by a force almost four times its size, Bonin’s vanguard's victory is often attributed to the Dreyse needle gun, a weapon that was far superior to that of the muzzle-loading rifles of the Austrian army. The battle showed the weakness of the Austrians, and got the attention of France.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]By this time, Napoleon III had alienated most of his potential allies: the French intervention in Mexico was a failure, French participation against Russia in the Crimean War developed a sense of French enmity among the Russians, and the French and British were neck-and-neck rivals in the process of colonization in Africa and Asia, still in its early days in 1866. Initially, the French saw Prussia as the disadvantaged party on the war, but after Trautenau and battles that would follow, Napoleon III saw the war as an opportunity to do two things: garner an alliance between at least one ally, and annex Luxembourg. Thus, on June 26 1866, Napoleon III signed a secret deal with Otto von Bismarck.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Compromise of Luxembourg, as it is commonly called, included three points.[/FONT]

  • [FONT=&quot]France would be allowed to annex Luxembourg if;[/FONT]
  • [FONT=&quot]Alsace would be allowed to be annexed by Prussia, and[/FONT]
  • [FONT=&quot]Italy gained Venetia[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Napoleon III disagreed with Prussia’s annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, but nonetheless the terms were agreed to by both parties, and the two nations would uphold further revisions until the conclusion of the war. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]After defeating the Saxons in a solid victory at the end of June, the French decided to aid the Prussians at the battle that seemed within a short reach of time. Three Prussian armies, the Elbe Army led by Karl Herwarth von Bittenfeld at Torgau, the First Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia between Senftenberg and Görlitz, and the Second Army under Crown Prince Friedrich in Silesia west of Neiße, were stationed along Prussia’s borders. A French corps, under experienced general Patrice de MacMahon, who had also assisted in the Italian unification process, was also dispatched to Prussia to assist the three armies. The three armies and the one corps pushed into the Austrian frontier; with Trautenau already taken, the Austrians were at a severe disadvantage.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Battle of Sadowa on 3 July was essentially the result of Franz Joseph I’s unwillingness to surrender, despite the opposing Franco-German united force opposing him. The 225,000 Prussians, with 20,000 French, versus 250,000 Austrians made this battle the largest, deadliest, and most decisive of the war. The Austrians were destroyed at the battle, and the combined Franco-German forces were approaching Vienna. Despite an Austrian victory in the Adriatic Sea on 20 July, Franz Joseph I was pressured to surrender to the opposition of France, Germany, and even Italy. Not only was he concerned with the enemies against him, he also feared threats from the east. Since the crushed rebellion of 1848, the Hungarian nationalists in the eastern half of the empire pushed for autonomy, and another revolution was about to occur. According to many analysts at that time, and even Franz Joseph himself, a Hungarian revolution could give way to a Slavic rebellion in Croatia, and a civil war involving the Slavs could instigate a Russian intervention in the war against Austria, which would be certain to destroy the monarchy altogether.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The war came to a very quick, screeching halt on 21 July 1866. The Austrians and their allied states of the German Confederation surrendered to France, Germany, and Italy. The poor performance of the Austrians, who won no battles against the Prussians, made southern, traditionally Austrian-backed states now look to Prussia for military assistance. Despite rivalry during the war, the southern kingdoms needed a stronger nation to support them in the event of a continent-wide war, and with the Austrian Empire seemingly on the verge of collapse, they turned to France and the more German state of Prussia.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Peace of Prague and the Mainz Agreement[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]On 27 July 1866 representatives from Austria, Prussia, France, and Italy met in Prague to discuss the culmination of the conflict and territorial changes that would definitely occur. The treaty was especially harsh toward the Austrian alliance. The Austrians were stripped of any rights of control over the German states. The German confederation was now headed by Prussia, though only states north of Hesse were officially annexed. Despite Austrian performance against Italy, the Austrians were forced to cede Venetia directly to Italy. France gained de facto control over the islands of Dalmatia, though these would be returned after the Mainz Agreement in September.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Mainz Agreement, a meeting between France and Prussia, discussed the territorial changes that were put aside when France entered the war. The original German plan was to annex Alsace-Lorraine from France, with a German Luxembourg. The French wished to retain Alsace-Lorraine, but annex Luxembourg under the French Empire. On 3 September 1866, Bismarck and Napoleon III agreed upon terms of the Mainz Agreement in Mainz. The agreement allowed for France to retain Alsace-Lorraine, but Luxembourg was to remain a neutral state and the French could not fight against the Germans in the event of a war between Prussia and Wurttemberg or Bavaria. In addition, Germans living in Alsace-Lorraine were given an opt-in to relocate to areas of Germany, particularly in the Rhine, and these German settlers from France who settled in cities such as Dusseldorf and Bonn became known as the “Rhineland Alsatians”, and their culture indirectly shaped Franco-German relations for years to come, but we shall discuss that later.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Austro-Hungarian Compromise[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Ethnic relations in Austria were far from settled. The complete loss of the German states after the Austro-Prussian war, combined with the loss of territory to Italy, interests of the empire were forced to retreat within the borders of the empire itself. With Austria suffering a humiliating defeat, and a second revolution by the Hungarians imminent, something had to be done to prevent the destruction of the empire.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Ferenc Deak, a Hungarian statesman who supported independence in the 1848 revolutions, did not support independence here. He believed that advancement in Hungary relied upon the wealth of Austria, and that policy of defense and foreign affairs was common between the nations. The imperial chancellor of Germany, Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust, was obligated to accept the proposition - anything that would ensure the survival of the Habsburgs.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]This led to the establishment of Austria-Hungary, a dual monarchy that granted equal status to the Hungarians. The Kingdom of Hungary was no longer under total jurisdiction of Austria, and was an autonomous, equally-represented body within the state. Each country had two separate parliaments, the Austrian one in Vienna and the Hungarian one in Budapest. Each nation had its own prime minister, and thus different governments. Both countries, however, shared the head of state (the emperor of Austria), foreign affairs, defense, and finance in Vienna.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The compromise led to a temporary peace in the empire, but nationalism was far from over, as it shall be seen in the following sections.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]German Unification[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]In a sharp contrast to Austria, Prussia’s situation was nationalistically desirable. Prussia annexed all German territories north of Hesse, and the remaining states were part of a Prussian-led German confederation, which excluded Austria. The remaining states were pressured to join Prussia for two reasons: one, the defeat of Austria showed that the Habsburgs were not a strong ally for the smaller states in the event of a war; two, French support for the catholic states, combined with its support of Prussia, made the impression that Prussia was, in fact, a “friendly and welcoming man of the people”, and that it would be better off for the states to ally, or even join, Prussia to create a stronger union.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Grand Duchy of Baden and the Kingdom of Wurttemberg were the ones who desired unification the most, and the states joined the Prussian union on January 11, 1867. The last to join was Bavaria, in which there was the most Austrian sympathy. Bavara was annexed on April 3, 1867, and all states of “Greater Germany” were now under Prussian rule. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]A state of “Prussia” ruling over the lands was controversial, and the Prussian name, according to supporters of unification under Prussia, would create quasi-nationalistic troubles in the empire, and instead each state should be recognized under the name of united Germany. Thus, German princes proclaimed Kaiser Wilhelm I as “German Emperor” in the Nymphenburg Palace in Munich, Bavaria, and the German Empire was born, with Otto von Bismarck as the chancellor.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The years 1867-1870[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The map of Europe was once again redrawn, unifying Germany and Italy, and slowly destabilizing the new Austro-Hungarian Empire. The balance of power in Europe, with these two new nations that had unified at the expense of conservative European powers, would be soon to shift. Both the new nation of Germany and Italy had an exponential increase in industry, built up their militaries, and would in time, found colonies. The imbalance of power would shape Europe for years to come.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]In Austria-Hungary, specifically in German-speaking portions of the empire, a dislike for the German empire began to take root, eventually turning into feelings for revenge; even Franz Joseph I is thought to have had revengeful feelings towards Berlin-headed Germany. The revenge felt in Austrians was a term known as the Realendeutschrache, which literally meant “Revenge for real Germany”, and implied that Germany was supposed to be united under Austria and that Prussia was a fake pretender of the head of Germany. Austria would not side with Germany on politics of the future, and it took a neutral policy in practically every international affair in Europe.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Chapter II: The Time of Change, the Russo-Turkish War, and Imperialism, 1870-1879[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Overview[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The years of 1870-1879 were the first years of the “new Europe” that had been created in 1870. The new states found relations in other nations. The Austrians continued a policy of neutrality, and the empire was relatively peaceful during this time. One common occurrence across all nations of Europe was the increase in industrialization. With industrialization, the powers of Europe felt a need to trade with nations abroad in order to expand markets and acquire new resources, and many of these regions would eventually be colonized. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Industrialization[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The 1870’s saw the coming of the Second Industrial Revolution, which focused more on inventions that would affect everyday lives, rather that the creation of new processes. These inventions include the phonograph by Thomas Alva Edison in 1877, and the telephone by Alexander graham bell in 1878. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Even so, factory growth occurred worldwide. Germany and the United States were the fastest growing nations, even catching up to Britain by the end of the decade. Italy and France also industrialized quickly; Austria-Hungary and Russia were slow to industrialize, though the former introduced reforms, and the latter’s authoritarian, relatively conservative system prevented such reforms from passing much of the time. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Scandinavian lands were quick to industrialize as compared to Austria-Hungary and Russia, though the presence of vast, empty, and rough terrain meant that railroad construction was hindered and communities were isolated. Nonetheless, the Swedish caught up, or more accurately said, led industrialization of the minor powers. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Rural areas of Southern Europe, including Greece; the Ottoman Empire and its de facto tributaries of Serbia, Montenegro, and the Romanian Principalities; the Hungarian lands under Franz Joseph I; Spain; and Portugal were the slowest to industrialize in the west. Poor government infrastructure (including revolutions in Spain and the Russo-Turkish War in the Ottoman Empire), conservatism, a lack of natural resources, and terrain all influenced the slow growth of these nations. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Imperialism[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The 1870’s saw the beginning of the “Scramble for Africa”, a race for European powers to acquire as much territory as possible in Africa. Though it started with France’s acquisition of Algeria in 1830, it began with Leopold II of Belgium purchasing territory in the Congo Basin as personal property of the king. The Congo Free State, as it was named, was the first of many large and often disputed territorial acquisitions of the powers of Europe between now and 1906.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]In Asia and the Pacific, France, Britain, and to a lesser extent Germany acquired territory, beginning with the French in Indochina in 1853. The 1870’s continued the patterns of Asian expeditions, and by 1878 the “New Nations” of Europe had also laid financial claims in China, which would create colonial disputes later in time…[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]With the return of imperial rule to Japan under Emperor Meiji, the Japanese sought to expand their territory beyond the native lands. Japan began trading with the world powers and the Chinese, and industrialization boomed here as well. Like the powers of Europe, Japan was a small nation with few resources that had to acquire material elsewhere - Korea was a place of consideration, as well as the Philippines, which had to be captured from the weakening Spanish Empire.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The First Attempt of European Peace in the Face of Change[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Otto von Bismarck and Wilhelm I both entered the 1870’s with stability of Europe in mind. Though the creation of a new German power offset the balance of power as established by the congress of Vienna in 1815, Bismarck wished to create a new alliance in order to secure peace among the continental powers of Europe and agreement in international affairs, specifically China.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Thus, in 1873, France, Germany, and Russia formed the League of the Three Emperors, named after the fact that each three were headed by an emperor, Napoleon III, Wilhelm I, and Alexander II, respectively. Austria did not join, as the feeling of negative neutrality towards Germany and (to a lesser extent hitherto) France was still strong.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]This alliance had flaws. The French and Russians at this point were deep-down enemies. France supported the Ottomans in the Crimean War, and Napoleon III, in 1876, semi-openly revealed his distrust in Russia. Instead, he (and the successors of the imperial throne) supported the Ottomans as a buffer zone to Russian power, and at the same time to use Turkey as a puppet to gain influence of the Levant region, a place where the French had dreamed of conquering since Napoleon I’s reign.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Britain enjoyed a time of prosperity in the nation and aloofness from European politics, which would continue until the late 1880’s. The British mostly focused on their own empire, though they would have to deal with Europe with matters related to Africa in the future.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Russo-Turkish War and the Congress of Berlin[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The war started with nationalism in the Balkans that had been rising since the beginning of the century. The Serbs wished to become independent from the Ottomans, and the Russians wanted to liberate the Slavs, and at the same time, gain control of Constantinople from the Ottomans. Russia also wanted to reclaim lost territory is the Crimean War. This nationalism led to the Russo-turkish War of 1877-1878. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Russians, as well as the nations of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, fought as the Orthodox Coalition against the Ottomans. The coalition won, though Constantinople did not fall due to last-minute British intervention. It was another force to catalyze the decay of the Ottoman Empire, and another tension of conflict to come in the future. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Congress of Berlin was a meeting of all of the European powers to address the reorganization of the Balkans. Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania were each granted full independence, and their borders were redrawn to appease nationalism. Bulgaria and Eastern rumelia were created as de facto autonomous regions, and after much debate, the borders were redrawn. The British gained Cyprus, and the Region of bosnia-Herzegovina was granted autonomy as well, though Austria-Hungary would be allowed by the powers (even Russia) to claim the area under Habsburg protection. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Still, some issues were not solved: others were made worse. Italy left unsatisfied; Greece and Turkey still had unsettled issued; and German interests in the Balkans clashed with the Russians’, and this fracturing of the League of the Three Emperors led to its dissolution in 1880. Powers who initially opposed Russia now sided with her: the British wanted to claim more territory in the Arabian lands, and Austria-Hungary wanted the decay of the empire to leave more lands for Austrian control. France and Germany supported the Ottomans: they both saw it as a buffer to Russia, and each wanted to create a trade network in the Ottoman lands. The Eastern Question and the new “Ottoman Question” would be fuel for conflict by the end of the century.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Italian Annexation of Rome[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]After 1867, the Italians still felt disconnected, as other Italian-speaking lands still lay under the crowns of other leaders. By the 1870’s, only the French-backed Papal States remained outside of King Victor Emmanuel II’s domain. The Italians wished to take this final area and claim it for their own, but a war with France would simply lead to defeat. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The issue led to Italian negotiators meeting with the government of France on 12 May, 1878. The Italians argued that revolution was near in the Papal States (which was partly true), and that maintaining the state would cause massive funding. Though somewhat persuaded, Napoleon III and his advisors would not simply hand over Rome. Also, the administration of the Papal States was invited to and did attend the conference. Through debating which lasted until 15 May, the French, Papal representatives, and Italians agreed on special terms, known as the Vatican Compromise of 1878. The lands of the Papal States would be sold to a rather pricy fee of 25,000,000 Francs. In addition, the Pope was to be given full, autonomous control of the Vatican Square in Rome that would be neutral in all foreign affairs, and Italian occupation or annexation would be forbidden. The Italians accepted the proposition despite the hefty price, and the region was added as the final step of Italian unification. On June 13, 1878, the de jure capital of the Kingdom of Italy was moved to Rome.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Not only did it unite Italy once and for all, it also boosted the French economy from the purchase. The Pope felt cheated out of the deal, though the consequence of an armed rebellion from Italians in the region could have been even more disastrous. Once again, nationalism prevailed in Europe, albeit luckily avoiding armed conflict this time[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Napoleon IV[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] Napoleon III entered the decade in bad health; he was a mentally troubled man, and he often became filled with depression with unknown causes. In addition, his physical health was deteriorating year by year. In 1878, he contracted a fatal kidney disease, and on 13 January 1879, the emperor died at age 71. He was seen as both a great leader and a failure abroad, as he promoted industrialization and strengthened France as a world power while at the same time isolated himself from the world by making enemies (save for the German Empire). His successor, however, would contrast him deeply so.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] Louis Napoleon, Prince Imperial became the new emperor of France following the death of his father. He was a handsome individual who always was concerned with his appearance. He was particularly interested in attire of Victorian Britain, which was reaching its peak at the time. This symbolized his love of British culture. He studied cultures of the world, and he promoted the influence of foreign elements into French culture, namely British and German ones. He seemed to be the promoter of world unity.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] That deduction would be an exaggeration, as like his father, still distrusted the Russians, but he was hailed as a peacemaker and supporter of unity in Europe. He wished to revive the League of Three Emperors in 1880, though Otto von Bismarck nor Alexander III agreed to the terms, due to the Russo-German conflict following the Russo-Turkish War. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] In terms of domestic policy, he promoted industrialization and modernization of the military. He also provided an early system of welfare for poor laborers of factories and rural farms. Napoleon IV’s reign also coincided with freedom of religion while still maintaining strong Catholic tradition in schools and businesses. He represented the ideals of Napoleon I in many ways, but he also mirrored the new liberalism that was developing worldwide.[/FONT]







[FONT=&quot]Chapter III[/FONT][FONT=&quot]: European Peace, Scramble for Africa, and Modern Technology, 1880-1889[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Overview[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The 1880’s were a time of unprecedented peace on the continent, thanks to charismatic leaders such as Napoleon IV and Bismarck. Not a single war was fought on the continent, not even in the nationalism-rampant area of Southeastern Europe. Britain reached the peak of “splendid isolation”, a continuation from the last 30 years that would last until the end of the century. The nations of the continent, however, would forge powerful alliances in this decade that, while promoting unity and cooperation, would ultimately create two camps of conflicting views. Colonization reached a peak during this time, and the Congress of Berlin of 1888 laid the future of Africa until 1906. The powers also made incursions into Asia and the Pacific as well. Finally, new inventions of the decade would continue the pattern of the previous decade. These hallmarks would not continue, as new leadership at the end of the decade will soon lay Europe in the path to a great change, though not a positive one.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Peace[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The years of 1878-1888 are known as the “Silence of Europe”, as no major conflict, not even in textual form, existed on the continent. The peace was partly due to good leadership under Napoleon IV, Otto von Bismarck and Wilhelm I, and Alexander III, who took power of Russia following his father’s assassination. He was an economic liberal who supported mass industrialization and modernization of farming, and like Napoleon IV, assisted the huge peasant class of Russia somewhat. Despite this, he was still strongly religious, Russophilic, and against democratic reforms, and he reversed some of the political measures under Alexander II. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] Britain remained in isolation from the continent, focusing more on internal and colonial matters over foreign affairs. The Victorian Age reached its peak, and the empire enjoyed massive wealth. As one French observer noted, “The empire on which the sun never sets seems to reap the benefits of that ever-lasting sunrise”. Surely, Britain entered the decade strongly, as did other nations.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] In Germany, the catholic minority still felt enmity against the Protestant Prussians, though the security of the German Empire calmed tensions somewhat. No armed conflicts occurred, though some petitions urged for greater Catholic rights, which did occur in 1881, which would ease Germany even more.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Imperialism – The Scramble for Africa Reaches Its Peak, Asia Under Influence[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] Though the continent of Europe was surely not shifting during this time, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific were places of rivalry. All of the Great Powers, even Belgium and Italy, encroached on African territory ad placed the mark of the white man in the deepest of jungles and driest of deserts. As Africa was not an ideal region for battles between the Powers, conflicts were limited to debates and an exchange of yapping between governments. A few almost led to war; the successful Russian annexation of Sagallo near Eritrea and the Congo Crisis between France and Germany are two to name, though both did not lead to massive damage. The Congress of Berlin of 1888 was a meeting of the Great Powers to divide Africa without conflict. The result was a lack of conflict of the Powers in Africa, though native rebellions became commonplace. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The decade also the rise of colonialism in Asia and the Pacific, with the British now dominating Southernmost Arabia, the Indian Subcontinent, and Tibet, while the French dominated Indochina, and Southern Qing Dynasty. The Netherlands and Great Britain each laid large claims of the East Indies, while the British, Germans, and even the United States competed and even quarreled (almost to the point of war in 1888) in conquering the Pacific Islands. Australia and New Zealand continued receiving settlers from Britain and other countries, and these two colonies began to develop a sense of self-identity. Meanwhile, China became increasingly influenced by the powers of Europe due to its lack of modernization. Other nations in Asia, however, were more resistant.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Japan saw the time to expand as well; this decade started Japanese mass industrialization and marketplace expansion into Korea and China. The Japanese wished to beat the Europeans at their own game of dominating the world. They saw special interest in Korea and the Philippines, though the latter would require a war with Spain that the Japanese were still not ready for.[/FONT]


[FONT=&quot]Technology[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The 1880’s saw the rise of technological developments. Aries began to replaces the already obsolete breech-loading, trapdoor rifles that fought the Russo-Turkish war with new, fast-firing bolt-action rifles. The machine gun was invented by Sir Hiram Maxim on 1888, and was perhaps the most important invention of the decade. Developments were not limited to war; perhaps the ones most worthy of being noted are those on transportation. These include the automobile in 1885, the motorcycle in 1886, and the semi-rigid airship in 1887. Flight was still in development, though competitors from around the world attempted to devise aircraft capable of powered, heavier-than-air flights. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] As can be expected, industrialization increased as well. It was essentially the same pattern as the previous decade, so we shall not go into detail here.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]New Leadership, a Sudden and Surprising Change[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The hallmark of the decade, strong leadership, would soon end. It all started in France. Napoleon IV became gravely ill from pneumonia in March of 1885, and despite the best treatment available, the charismatic leader passed away on April 2, 1885. It wasn’t his death that would determine the fate of his empire, but his successor. Victor Napoleon, Prince Imperial, was the next crowned Emperor of the French. He was not a son of Napoleon III, and thus not in the direct lineage of Napoleon I. He was, in many ways, the opposite of Napoleon IV. He was known for his shrewdness towards opposition, and opposed democratic reform. He also felt more like a traditional monarch than his predecessors, which violated the Napoleonic Code. In regards to foreign policy, he was definitely not the peacemaker of Napoleon IV; rather, he had a well-known and open hatred of the British, and he believed they were blocking France’s destiny to rule the globe. He had a disliking of minority languages and cultures within France, namely the Basques, and forced conversion to French in these areas. Despite this, he was a social liberal who promoted freedom of religion and completely separated the church from the state from the Separation of Church and State Declaration of 1889. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] Leadership in Germany would soon change as well. The elderly Wilhelm I, now in his nineties, died in 1888. His successor, Frederick III, died in that year as well, and the next in line, Wilhelm II, took the throne at the end of the year. He was a radical, which was a sharp contrast to Wilhelm I. He also supported autocracy – he forced Bismarck to stand down from power in 1889, as he thought the chancellor would interfere with his own desire. As can be deducted, he was a selfish man, though he put the German people ahead of himself at times. Like Napoleon V, he was a symbol of change in European foreign relations, though arguably one both sides of the spectrum.[/FONT]


[FONT=&quot]The Triple Alliance – A Prelude of the 1890’s[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The dissolution of the League of Three Emperors in 1878, and its failed re-installation in 1880, made Germany and France the leftover friends in the late 1880’s. Both nations realized their common goals. Each opposed Russia; each competed with Britain in the colonial race; each wanted to exploit the Ottoman Empire through support of the nation against Russian intervention. Thus, on June 11, 1888, Napoleon V and his advisers met up with Otto Von Bismarck and his respective administration to discuss an alliance. The Frankfurt Agreement, as it is called due to its place of occurrence in Frankfurt, Germany, laid the grounds of the alliance. In the event of war with another Great Power, which the respective power declared war on an ally, the other nation in the alliance would declare war on the opposing power. For example, if Britain declared war on France, Germany would aid France by declaring war on Britain. The alliance began as defensive, though the rule of defense would not be applied to Russia. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] Seeing the success in Germany, the much weaker Spanish wished to acquire an ally. Like Napoleon III, the Spanish had alienated much of the continent, especially Britain. In addition, a revolution in Cuba seemed likely, and the Spanish required foreign lending of money and supplies to fight. Thus, the Spanish consulted the industrial Germany. In September of 1888, Spanish officials met in Berlin to discuss an alliance, and an agreement was made. In the colonies, Germans would lend support to the Spanish in the event of revolution, and declare war on a power that threatened the integrity of Spain and its holdings. In return, the Spanish were to support German political actions in policy and in colonialism. In addition, the borders of German Sahara and Spanish Sahara were fully settled at the agreement. Deep down, the Spanish thought that the alliance would bring Spain back to the status as a Great Power, and the alliance would promote internal development and stability.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The following year, France and Spain signed a similar agreement, and in 1889, the Triple Alliance was formed. In the event of war being declared on an ally by a Great Power, the other allies would fight alongside the defending ally. This formation alarmed the other powers of Europe. Britain, surrounded by the nations’ coastlines, would be vulnerable to even a naval war against them. Russia, fearing Franco-German support of the Ottomans in another Russo-Turkish war, was also threatened by the alliance. Finally, Austria, remembering the disaster of 1866 in which she fought the same coalition, was terrified of the alliance. The end of the decade started a polarization of foreign policy that would eventually boil over at some point…[/FONT]





[FONT=&quot]Chapter IV: The Situation Worldwide, The Camps of War Form, 1890-1898[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Overview[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] This decade saw the powers of Europe faced with a “this-or-that” scenarios before them. With the Triple Alliance formed, and a French- and German-backed Ottoman Empire, the remaining European nations had to conclude their past beliefs and face the real issues. Britain, who had enjoyed nearly a half a century of “splendid isolation”, would soon see itself getting involved in the heart of Continental politics. Austria saw the danger of both the Triple Alliance and her own neutrality: “Not having a strong ally could result in the demise of the Habsburgs altogether” many foreign affairs officials believed. Across the ocean, the United States expanded its borders over the boundaries of the Seas, with the prime areas being the Pacific and Latin America, much to the dismay of a few European nations…[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Austria-Hungary in the 1890’s[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The decade saw the end of Austria-Hungary’s neutrality that it enjoyed so much from 1867. The rise of the Triple Alliance saw a real threat emerge, and thus the nation had to acquire strong allies. The first agreement, signed between officials from Austria-Hungary and Russia in May of 1890, declared an alliance between Austria-Hungary and Russia in the event that Germany declared war on either nation. In return for unconditional support of Austria-Hungary by Russia, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was not to infringe upon Russian interests in the Balkans: as a consequence, in the event that Russia invades the Ottoman lands, the Austrians were not to act in a way that would threaten Russian goals. Though the treaty seemed to favor Russia, Austria-Hungary now had a numerical backing from a much larger and stronger military. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Britain and Russia[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The British, who had been in relative isolation since the Crimean War, saw that the isolation needed to come to a halt. The British could not defend itself against a cooperative Franco-German war directed against her, and she too needed an ally. Already having and economic partner in the south with Italy, the British went east to look for an alliance with the mighty Russian Empire. An alliance between these nations forty years ago would have seemed preposterous, but now the two powers had many things in common. Both wanted to chip away at the Ottoman Empire, both disliked the Triple Alliance, and both could defend the seas of the north in cooperation with one another. This led to the signing of the Anglo-Russian Alliance in March of 1891, which implied that the two nations would assist one another in the event of a war in Europe, and that cooperation between a member’s allies would be unconditional; thus, Italy was effectively a Russian ally and Austria-Hungary a British one. Though Britain and Russia had similar goals with vastly different means, they concluded that cooperation was necessary. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Why Did Russia Form These Alliances?[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] It may seem that Austria-Hungary and Britain were the ones begging for help, but this is simply not the case. The Russians felt deeply threatened by the Triple Alliance for one reason: the Ottoman Empire. That alliance favored the Ottoman Empire, which naturally opposed Russian objectives. If the Ottomans were backed by the powerful armies of France and Germany (and to a much lesser extent Spain), a war of all of them against Russia alone would result in a disaster much resembling that of the Crimean War. This is where a British Alliance would be favorable, as the British with their powerful navy and their presence in Egypt meant that reinforcements could be supplied to the Balkans and Constantinople quickly and effectively. Also, with Austria-Hungary as an ally, the Russians could create an effective barrier against the Germans, and the Germans could be chocked off if they ever invaded Poland, which was under the Russian Crown at the time.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Quadruple Alliance[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Representatives from Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy all met in Vienna in late 1891 to discuss a possible “quadrangular” linkage between one another. Britain, Russia, and Austria-Hungary each vowed support for one another, though the Italians weren’t as involved in the discussion. The Italians would have been able to enter on either side, as they had good relations with both France and Britain. In addition, the Austrians promised that the Italians would gain lands around Istria if their alliance won. However, the French had met with the Italians in 1889 to discuss a Franco-Italian agreement promising lands in French territory and Corsica, strengthening the Franco-Italian relations. Because of the promises of both sides, Italy decided to not come to any conclusions during the Quadruple Alliance Meeting of 1891.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The United States: A Quick Summary[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] After the American Civil War, and the foundation of all territories that would become future states, the United States would expand beyond the continent. From establishing a presence in Samoa in the 1889, to the claim of Hawaii in 1892, to the British-American crisis in Venezuela in 1895, the United States saw increasing interaction between the countries of the world, and the Americans too would see isolation come to an end. The Venezuelan Crisis ended in a written non-aggression agreement between the United States and Britain regarding the Americas. It resulted in both nations being in surprisingly good terms with one another, and led to a mini-alliance that would counter German support and interests in the Americas.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Germany, France, and the Americas[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The Germans had long hoped to establish firm trading rights in the Americas. One thing that barred them from this was the Monroe Doctrine, in which the intervention of a European power in the Americas would not be tolerated. The Germans saw this as an illegitimate act, and hoped to nullify the doctrine. Thus, as early as 1896, the Germans made plans for an invasion of the United States, first striking important naval harbors such as Hampton Roads, then landing in regions such as Boston, Manhattan, and if needed, Washington D.C. The goal was not to destroy the United States but to make it concede to German interests in the Americas. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Cuban Revolution[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Cuba, long-considered the “Loyal Colony”, had been pushing for autonomy since the 1860’s, in which a war led to Cuban defeat. Tensions between the Spanish in Cuba and the natives would result in the start of a revolution for full-blown independence. The effect of this revolution was American interest: the nearness of Cuba threatened the United States, the Americans compared it to their own revolution against a tyrant, and the Americans were disgusted by supposed Spanish atrocities that were reported to have happened during the war. As American relations with Spain worsened, Germany saw the opportunity to strike – all it would take is one little push…[/FONT]





[FONT=&quot]Chapter V: Causes of the Great War[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Great War[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Great War would be a result of the problems that had been growing during the 19th century. All of the following elements of the era would all boil down to the greatest - and most violent - war ever of its time. The war was caused by both long-term non-aggressive causes to immediate, controversial, and militant causes.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Nationalism[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Probably the most universal cause of the war was nationalism. Every country, from Germany, to France, to Russia, was undergoing an era of intense national pride. During this era, as a contrast to the present day, a citizen of France would not accept criticism from a foreigner from another nation, such as Britain. In countries that ruled multiple ethnicities, the minority ethnic groups also felt an intense feeling of nationalism, and thus a yearning for independence. Notable examples include the Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, and Greeks in lands controlled by Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Across the Atlantic Ocean, the citizens of Cuba felt a new sense of nationalism and sought independence from the aging Spanish Empire. Though the Germans had been unified under Prussian rule since 1866, a conflict developed in Austria regarding the “traitors” - those Catholic Germans in Bavaria and proximate areas who joined Prussia following the disastrous Austro-Prussian War. Italy’s main drive behind joining the war was claiming the “unredeemed lands” of Austria and France, and the Russians hoped that one day, all Slavs would be united under a single state. [/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Militarism[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] If nationalism was not the most widespread cause of the war, then this adjective would definitely describe militarism. The countries of Europe were all at an arms race: the military buildup between Britain and France was perhaps the most extreme, with Britain prevailing on the seas and France leading on land. The new countries of Germany and Italy raced ahead of old powers such as Spain, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire and acquired formidable militaries as well. Russia, while not quite as developed as the west, had the largest military of them all - some six million men by the start of the war in Europe. Outside of Europe, the United States became a growing military influence in the Pacific and Latin America, much to the dismay of Spain, France, and Germany, who sought to maintain and/or extend their influence in the region. In Asia, Japan sought expansion as well; they won the Sino-Japanese War of 1890 and established limited authority in Manchuria, and sought to conquer lands to the south as well - the main drive behind Japan’s joining of the war.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Imperialism[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The cause that is most likely the one that is the most closely linked to militarism is imperialism. Since about 1870, the nations of Europe (and eventually the United states and Japan) expanded their territories into formerly independent lands in Africa and Asia. By 1898, only Abyssinia and Morocco remained independent in Africa, though the former had some Italian influence while the latter was strongly influenced by France and Spain. After the Opium Wars, Britain, and later France, Russia, Germany, and Japan began to claim spheres of influence in China. India was under British control; Indochina was protected by the French. The Dutch dominated Indonesia, while Spain controlled the Philippines. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] While many nations expanded, others suffered at the hands of imperialism. The Spanish desperately tried to maintain the last ember of their formerly mighty torch of an empire, while the Ottomans suffered defeat after defeat while losing territory all the time. Development in Austria-Hungary was at a stalling point, and even the strongly autocratic Russian Empire showed signs of cracking in her imperial influence.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Alliance System[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The alliances of the pre-war era are arguably the greatest cause of the war’s extending to the degree to which it was fought. Though the first alliance was the failed League of Three Emperors, with members France, Germany, and Russia, this gave way to the new Triple Alliance, with members Germany, France, and Spain (whose role in the war in Europe would almost be null) in 1888. This alliance spawned reactions of fright and surprise, and a reactionary alliance between Britain and Russia was signed in 1891, thus ending the century-long dispute for control in Central Asia. Austria-Hungary signed an agreement with Russia, and a new “entente” was formed to combat the alliance. Before the war, the french and germans promised aid to the Ottomans in the event of war, and Italy, without a side, would ultimately decide as the conflict unraveled.[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Leaders of the Era[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]Coincidentally the world had its fair share of interesting personalities. The new German monarch Wilhelm II was quite a radical as compared to Bismarck: he wished to expand his military and nation exponentially, and was always war-ready. He had even forced Bismarck to abdicate in 1889 following his ascension as German Emperor. In France, Napoleon V became emperor of the French in 1885 following the untimely death of his predecessor. He was a supporter of both liberalism, especially industrialization and modern military technology, and conservatism, especially concerning authority and religion. He was very distrustful of the Anglo-Saxon nationalism that was common between the British Empire and the United States, as he saw it as the greatest threat to his own nation. Napoleon V was a strict autocrat who would reduce the power of the parliament at will several times during his 19-year reign - almost leading to his disposal in 1895. In Russia, the intelligent, liberal, and powerful Alexander III raised a modern and apt Russian military, something that would benefit him during the long war. Finally, in the United States, William McKinley saw himself as a figure of high authority who hated being questioned and ridiculed, something that would raise his anger during the Cuban Revolution[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot]The Monroe Doctrine[/FONT]

[FONT=&quot] The United States sought to remove European influence from the region with the Monroe Doctrine, declared in 1823. The doctrine declared European military influence in American nations as illegitimate, but by the end of the 19th century it had become the United States’ own imperial tool that it would use to declare the Cuban Revolution as a violation. At the outset of the revolution, many Americans compared the struggle to their own independence and felt sympathetic towards the Cubans. The Spanish, in reaction, were very mocking of the Americans. In late 1897, the prime minister of Spain was reported to have insulted McKinley, who in reaction, became quite angered with the nation of Spain, who directed his anger in the path of war. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] The ultimate cause that would be the “powder keg” of the war would be the sinking of the USS Bridgeport on February 13th, 1898. After an investigation, the ship was found to have been sunk by a mine, which would lead the United States to valiantly declare war on Spain, thus starting the massive, [/FONT][FONT=&quot]multi-continental war that would both create and destroy.

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[FONT=&quot]The World 1898.png
The World, Year 1898
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