[FONT="]I have been occasionally adding to this draft of a timeline since September, and granted this is my first timeline ever, I do not have much experience in writing timelines. This is the first part of the timeline, whose divergence point is the Austro-Prussian War, and the timeline continues into Part 2 (The Great War). Some feedback would be much appreciated![/FONT]
[FONT="]
Chapter I: The Austro-Prussian War[/FONT]
[FONT="]The German Question[/FONT]
[FONT="]Following the Napoleonic Wars, Europe was essentially recreated by the Congress of Vienna. The Bourbon king was returned his throne. Russia, Prussia, and Austria each partitioned the Polish region once again. The largest change, however, was the organization of Germany: The Holy Roman Empire, the confederation-state which dominated Germany and loosely unified its people for almost a millennia, was replaced by the German Confederation, a successor state that was headed by the Emperor of Austria. [/FONT] [FONT="]After this state was created, the unification of Germany under a more unitary state was the pressing matter. Both Austria and Prussia wanted to unify Germany. The Austrians hoped to unify Germany under Vienna; this ideology was known as Großdeutsche Lösung (or the “Greater German Solution). Conversely, the Prussian unification of Germany was known as Kleindeutsche Lösung (or the “Lesser German Solution”), which did not include Austria in the German unification. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The Revolutions of 1848 brought the German Question into the limelight of European politics, as a failed revolution attempted to unite Germany under the crown of Frederick William IV, but he turned down this offer, and thus, the unification of Germany for the time.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The question would not remain out of the minds of Austria and Prussia, however.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Austro-Prussian War[/FONT]
[FONT="]In 1861, Otto von Bismarck was elected Chancellor of Prussia. He was an ambitious figure, who, like many Prussian nationalists, hoped to unify Germany under the Prussian crown. He was eager to unite all of the Germans under the flag of Prussia, but refrained from going to war with Prussia’s main rival, Austria, for two reasons. One, he had no significant allies of his own to support his cause; as a result, many powers (namely France) chose not to support Prussia since they thought Prussia would end up defeated. The other reason is that many southern states did not wish to unify with Prussia, primarily due to religious practices, and instead had Austria as a fallback. [/FONT]
[FONT="]Before Prussia and Austria went to war, they fought as allies in the Second Schleswig War, where they defeated the Danish, who surrendered control of the northern states of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg to Austria and Prussia. Following his victory in the Second Schleswig War, he had practically united most of Germany north of Hesse, save for Holstein. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The exact receptor of the new states, however, was hotly contested. The Austrian administration of Holstein, which Austria had retained following the First Schleswig War against Denmark, was contested by the Prussians. The Austrians had confronted the Prussian diet on the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, and Austria’s wish to administer the region led Prussia to declare the Gastein Convention nullified.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Following this declaration, Prussia invaded the German state of Holstein, and the situation went downward henceforth. Austria and Prussia went to war on 14 June 1866. Initially, the belligerents included solely Austria and Prussia, but once the Prussians mobilized, the Italians signed a secret agreement with Prussia in which the Italians would gain the Austrian-held region of Venetia, a region of an Italian majority that Italian nationalists believed was necessary for Italian unification. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The war went sour for the Austrians at the very start. The Battle of Tratenau, in Trutnov, Bohemia, was the first major skirmish between the Austrians and the Prussians (other than Nachod, which had been a Prussian victory) and ended in a humiliating defeat for the Austrians. Outnumbered by a force almost four times its size, Bonin’s vanguard's victory is often attributed to the Dreyse needle gun, a weapon that was far superior to that of the muzzle-loading rifles of the Austrian army. The battle showed the weakness of the Austrians, and got the attention of France.[/FONT]
[FONT="]By this time, Napoleon III had alienated most of his potential allies: the French intervention in Mexico was a failure, French participation against Russia in the Crimean War developed a sense of French enmity among the Russians, and the French and British were neck-and-neck rivals in the process of colonization in Africa and Asia, still in its early days in 1866. Initially, the French saw Prussia as the disadvantaged party on the war, but after Trautenau and battles that would follow, Napoleon III saw the war as an opportunity to do two things: garner an alliance between at least one ally, and annex Luxembourg. Thus, on June 26 1866, Napoleon III signed a secret deal with Otto von Bismarck.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Compromise of Luxembourg, as it is commonly called, included three points.[/FONT]
[FONT="]France would be allowed to annex Luxembourg if;[/FONT]
[FONT="]Alsace would be allowed to be annexed by Prussia, and[/FONT]
[FONT="]Italy gained Venetia[/FONT]
[FONT="]Napoleon III disagreed with Prussia’s annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, but nonetheless the terms were agreed to by both parties, and the two nations would uphold further revisions until the conclusion of the war. [/FONT]
[FONT="]After defeating the Saxons in a solid victory at the end of June, the French decided to aid the Prussians at the battle that seemed within a short reach of time. Three Prussian armies, the Elbe Army led by Karl Herwarth von Bittenfeld at Torgau, the First Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia between Senftenberg and Görlitz, and the Second Army under Crown Prince Friedrich in Silesia west of Neiße, were stationed along Prussia’s borders. A French corps, under experienced general Patrice de MacMahon, who had also assisted in the Italian unification process, was also dispatched to Prussia to assist the three armies. The three armies and the one corps pushed into the Austrian frontier; with Trautenau already taken, the Austrians were at a severe disadvantage.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Battle of Sadowa on 3 July was essentially the result of Franz Joseph I’s unwillingness to surrender, despite the opposing Franco-German united force opposing him. The 225,000 Prussians, with 20,000 French, versus 250,000 Austrians made this battle the largest, deadliest, and most decisive of the war. The Austrians were destroyed at the battle, and the combined Franco-German forces were approaching Vienna. Despite an Austrian victory in the Adriatic Sea on 20 July, Franz Joseph I was pressured to surrender to the opposition of France, Germany, and even Italy. Not only was he concerned with the enemies against him, he also feared threats from the east. Since the crushed rebellion of 1848, the Hungarian nationalists in the eastern half of the empire pushed for autonomy, and another revolution was about to occur. According to many analysts at that time, and even Franz Joseph himself, a Hungarian revolution could give way to a Slavic rebellion in Croatia, and a civil war involving the Slavs could instigate a Russian intervention in the war against Austria, which would be certain to destroy the monarchy altogether.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The war came to a very quick, screeching halt on 21 July 1866. The Austrians and their allied states of the German Confederation surrendered to France, Germany, and Italy. The poor performance of the Austrians, who won no battles against the Prussians, made southern, traditionally Austrian-backed states now look to Prussia for military assistance. Despite rivalry during the war, the southern kingdoms needed a stronger nation to support them in the event of a continent-wide war, and with the Austrian Empire seemingly on the verge of collapse, they turned to France and the more German state of Prussia.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Peace of Prague and the Mainz Agreement[/FONT]
[FONT="]On 27 July 1866 representatives from Austria, Prussia, France, and Italy met in Prague to discuss the culmination of the conflict and territorial changes that would definitely occur. The treaty was especially harsh toward the Austrian alliance. The Austrians were stripped of any rights of control over the German states. The German confederation was now headed by Prussia, though only states north of Hesse were officially annexed. Despite Austrian performance against Italy, the Austrians were forced to cede Venetia directly to Italy. France gained de facto control over the islands of Dalmatia, though these would be returned after the Mainz Agreement in September.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Mainz Agreement, a meeting between France and Prussia, discussed the territorial changes that were put aside when France entered the war. The original German plan was to annex Alsace-Lorraine from France, with a German Luxembourg. The French wished to retain Alsace-Lorraine, but annex Luxembourg under the French Empire. On 3 September 1866, Bismarck and Napoleon III agreed upon terms of the Mainz Agreement in Mainz. The agreement allowed for France to retain Alsace-Lorraine, but Luxembourg was to remain a neutral state and the French could not fight against the Germans in the event of a war between Prussia and Wurttemberg or Bavaria. In addition, Germans living in Alsace-Lorraine were given an opt-in to relocate to areas of Germany, particularly in the Rhine, and these German settlers from France who settled in cities such as Dusseldorf and Bonn became known as the “Rhineland Alsatians”, and their culture indirectly shaped Franco-German relations for years to come, but we shall discuss that later.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Ethnic relations in Austria were far from settled. The complete loss of the German states after the Austro-Prussian war, combined with the loss of territory to Italy, interests of the empire were forced to retreat within the borders of the empire itself. With Austria suffering a humiliating defeat, and a second revolution by the Hungarians imminent, something had to be done to prevent the destruction of the empire.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Ferenc Deak, a Hungarian statesman who supported independence in the 1848 revolutions, did not support independence here. He believed that advancement in Hungary relied upon the wealth of Austria, and that policy of defense and foreign affairs was common between the nations. The imperial chancellor of Germany, Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust, was obligated to accept the proposition - anything that would ensure the survival of the Habsburgs.[/FONT]
[FONT="]This led to the establishment of Austria-Hungary, a dual monarchy that granted equal status to the Hungarians. The Kingdom of Hungary was no longer under total jurisdiction of Austria, and was an autonomous, equally-represented body within the state. Each country had two separate parliaments, the Austrian one in Vienna and the Hungarian one in Budapest. Each nation had its own prime minister, and thus different governments. Both countries, however, shared the head of state (the emperor of Austria), foreign affairs, defense, and finance in Vienna.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The compromise led to a temporary peace in the empire, but nationalism was far from over, as it shall be seen in the following sections.[/FONT]
[FONT="]German Unification[/FONT]
[FONT="]In a sharp contrast to Austria, Prussia’s situation was nationalistically desirable. Prussia annexed all German territories north of Hesse, and the remaining states were part of a Prussian-led German confederation, which excluded Austria. The remaining states were pressured to join Prussia for two reasons: one, the defeat of Austria showed that the Habsburgs were not a strong ally for the smaller states in the event of a war; two, French support for the catholic states, combined with its support of Prussia, made the impression that Prussia was, in fact, a “friendly and welcoming man of the people”, and that it would be better off for the states to ally, or even join, Prussia to create a stronger union.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Grand Duchy of Baden and the Kingdom of Wurttemberg were the ones who desired unification the most, and the states joined the Prussian union on January 11, 1867. The last to join was Bavaria, in which there was the most Austrian sympathy. Bavara was annexed on April 3, 1867, and all states of “Greater Germany” were now under Prussian rule. [/FONT]
[FONT="]A state of “Prussia” ruling over the lands was controversial, and the Prussian name, according to supporters of unification under Prussia, would create quasi-nationalistic troubles in the empire, and instead each state should be recognized under the name of united Germany. Thus, German princes proclaimed Kaiser Wilhelm I as “German Emperor” in the Nymphenburg Palace in Munich, Bavaria, and the German Empire was born, with Otto von Bismarck as the chancellor.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The years 1867-1870[/FONT]
[FONT="]The map of Europe was once again redrawn, unifying Germany and Italy, and slowly destabilizing the new Austro-Hungarian Empire. The balance of power in Europe, with these two new nations that had unified at the expense of conservative European powers, would be soon to shift. Both the new nation of Germany and Italy had an exponential increase in industry, built up their militaries, and would in time, found colonies. The imbalance of power would shape Europe for years to come.[/FONT]
[FONT="]In Austria-Hungary, specifically in German-speaking portions of the empire, a dislike for the German empire began to take root, eventually turning into feelings for revenge; even Franz Joseph I is thought to have had revengeful feelings towards Berlin-headed Germany. The revenge felt in Austrians was a term known as the Realendeutschrache, which literally meant “Revenge for real Germany”, and implied that Germany was supposed to be united under Austria and that Prussia was a fake pretender of the head of Germany. Austria would not side with Germany on politics of the future, and it took a neutral policy in practically every international affair in Europe.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Chapter II: The Time of Change, the Russo-Turkish War, and Imperialism, 1870-1879[/FONT]
[FONT="]Overview[/FONT]
[FONT="]The years of 1870-1879 were the first years of the “new Europe” that had been created in 1870. The new states found relations in other nations. The Austrians continued a policy of neutrality, and the empire was relatively peaceful during this time. One common occurrence across all nations of Europe was the increase in industrialization. With industrialization, the powers of Europe felt a need to trade with nations abroad in order to expand markets and acquire new resources, and many of these regions would eventually be colonized. [/FONT]
[FONT="]Industrialization[/FONT]
[FONT="]The 1870’s saw the coming of the Second Industrial Revolution, which focused more on inventions that would affect everyday lives, rather that the creation of new processes. These inventions include the phonograph by Thomas Alva Edison in 1877, and the telephone by Alexander graham bell in 1878. [/FONT]
[FONT="]Even so, factory growth occurred worldwide. Germany and the United States were the fastest growing nations, even catching up to Britain by the end of the decade. Italy and France also industrialized quickly; Austria-Hungary and Russia were slow to industrialize, though the former introduced reforms, and the latter’s authoritarian, relatively conservative system prevented such reforms from passing much of the time. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The Scandinavian lands were quick to industrialize as compared to Austria-Hungary and Russia, though the presence of vast, empty, and rough terrain meant that railroad construction was hindered and communities were isolated. Nonetheless, the Swedish caught up, or more accurately said, led industrialization of the minor powers. [/FONT]
[FONT="]Rural areas of Southern Europe, including Greece; the Ottoman Empire and its de facto tributaries of Serbia, Montenegro, and the Romanian Principalities; the Hungarian lands under Franz Joseph I; Spain; and Portugal were the slowest to industrialize in the west. Poor government infrastructure (including revolutions in Spain and the Russo-Turkish War in the Ottoman Empire), conservatism, a lack of natural resources, and terrain all influenced the slow growth of these nations. [/FONT]
[FONT="]Imperialism[/FONT]
[FONT="]The 1870’s saw the beginning of the “Scramble for Africa”, a race for European powers to acquire as much territory as possible in Africa. Though it started with France’s acquisition of Algeria in 1830, it began with Leopold II of Belgium purchasing territory in the Congo Basin as personal property of the king. The Congo Free State, as it was named, was the first of many large and often disputed territorial acquisitions of the powers of Europe between now and 1906.[/FONT]
[FONT="]In Asia and the Pacific, France, Britain, and to a lesser extent Germany acquired territory, beginning with the French in Indochina in 1853. The 1870’s continued the patterns of Asian expeditions, and by 1878 the “New Nations” of Europe had also laid financial claims in China, which would create colonial disputes later in time…[/FONT]
[FONT="]With the return of imperial rule to Japan under Emperor Meiji, the Japanese sought to expand their territory beyond the native lands. Japan began trading with the world powers and the Chinese, and industrialization boomed here as well. Like the powers of Europe, Japan was a small nation with few resources that had to acquire material elsewhere - Korea was a place of consideration, as well as the Philippines, which had to be captured from the weakening Spanish Empire.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The First Attempt of European Peace in the Face of Change[/FONT]
[FONT="]Otto von Bismarck and Wilhelm I both entered the 1870’s with stability of Europe in mind. Though the creation of a new German power offset the balance of power as established by the congress of Vienna in 1815, Bismarck wished to create a new alliance in order to secure peace among the continental powers of Europe and agreement in international affairs, specifically China.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Thus, in 1873, France, Germany, and Russia formed the League of the Three Emperors, named after the fact that each three were headed by an emperor, Napoleon III, Wilhelm I, and Alexander II, respectively. Austria did not join, as the feeling of negative neutrality towards Germany and (to a lesser extent hitherto) France was still strong.[/FONT]
[FONT="]This alliance had flaws. The French and Russians at this point were deep-down enemies. France supported the Ottomans in the Crimean War, and Napoleon III, in 1876, semi-openly revealed his distrust in Russia. Instead, he (and the successors of the imperial throne) supported the Ottomans as a buffer zone to Russian power, and at the same time to use Turkey as a puppet to gain influence of the Levant region, a place where the French had dreamed of conquering since Napoleon I’s reign.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Britain enjoyed a time of prosperity in the nation and aloofness from European politics, which would continue until the late 1880’s. The British mostly focused on their own empire, though they would have to deal with Europe with matters related to Africa in the future.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Russo-Turkish War and the Congress of Berlin[/FONT]
[FONT="]The war started with nationalism in the Balkans that had been rising since the beginning of the century. The Serbs wished to become independent from the Ottomans, and the Russians wanted to liberate the Slavs, and at the same time, gain control of Constantinople from the Ottomans. Russia also wanted to reclaim lost territory is the Crimean War. This nationalism led to the Russo-turkish War of 1877-1878. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The Russians, as well as the nations of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, fought as the Orthodox Coalition against the Ottomans. The coalition won, though Constantinople did not fall due to last-minute British intervention. It was another force to catalyze the decay of the Ottoman Empire, and another tension of conflict to come in the future. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The Congress of Berlin was a meeting of all of the European powers to address the reorganization of the Balkans. Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania were each granted full independence, and their borders were redrawn to appease nationalism. Bulgaria and Eastern rumelia were created as de facto autonomous regions, and after much debate, the borders were redrawn. The British gained Cyprus, and the Region of bosnia-Herzegovina was granted autonomy as well, though Austria-Hungary would be allowed by the powers (even Russia) to claim the area under Habsburg protection. [/FONT]
[FONT="]Still, some issues were not solved: others were made worse. Italy left unsatisfied; Greece and Turkey still had unsettled issued; and German interests in the Balkans clashed with the Russians’, and this fracturing of the League of the Three Emperors led to its dissolution in 1880. Powers who initially opposed Russia now sided with her: the British wanted to claim more territory in the Arabian lands, and Austria-Hungary wanted the decay of the empire to leave more lands for Austrian control. France and Germany supported the Ottomans: they both saw it as a buffer to Russia, and each wanted to create a trade network in the Ottoman lands. The Eastern Question and the new “Ottoman Question” would be fuel for conflict by the end of the century.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Italian Annexation of Rome[/FONT]
[FONT="]After 1867, the Italians still felt disconnected, as other Italian-speaking lands still lay under the crowns of other leaders. By the 1870’s, only the French-backed Papal States remained outside of King Victor Emmanuel II’s domain. The Italians wished to take this final area and claim it for their own, but a war with France would simply lead to defeat. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The issue led to Italian negotiators meeting with the government of France on 12 May, 1878. The Italians argued that revolution was near in the Papal States (which was partly true), and that maintaining the state would cause massive funding. Though somewhat persuaded, Napoleon III and his advisors would not simply hand over Rome. Also, the administration of the Papal States was invited to and did attend the conference. Through debating which lasted until 15 May, the French, Papal representatives, and Italians agreed on special terms, known as the Vatican Compromise of 1878. The lands of the Papal States would be sold to a rather pricy fee of 25,000,000 Francs. In addition, the Pope was to be given full, autonomous control of the Vatican Square in Rome that would be neutral in all foreign affairs, and Italian occupation or annexation would be forbidden. The Italians accepted the proposition despite the hefty price, and the region was added as the final step of Italian unification. On June 13, 1878, the de jure capital of the Kingdom of Italy was moved to Rome.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Not only did it unite Italy once and for all, it also boosted the French economy from the purchase. The Pope felt cheated out of the deal, though the consequence of an armed rebellion from Italians in the region could have been even more disastrous. Once again, nationalism prevailed in Europe, albeit luckily avoiding armed conflict this time[/FONT]
[FONT="]Napoleon IV[/FONT]
[FONT="] Napoleon III entered the decade in bad health; he was a mentally troubled man, and he often became filled with depression with unknown causes. In addition, his physical health was deteriorating year by year. In 1878, he contracted a fatal kidney disease, and on 13 January 1879, the emperor died at age 71. He was seen as both a great leader and a failure abroad, as he promoted industrialization and strengthened France as a world power while at the same time isolated himself from the world by making enemies (save for the German Empire). His successor, however, would contrast him deeply so.[/FONT]
[FONT="] Louis Napoleon, Prince Imperial became the new emperor of France following the death of his father. He was a handsome individual who always was concerned with his appearance. He was particularly interested in attire of Victorian Britain, which was reaching its peak at the time. This symbolized his love of British culture. He studied cultures of the world, and he promoted the influence of foreign elements into French culture, namely British and German ones. He seemed to be the promoter of world unity.[/FONT]
[FONT="] That deduction would be an exaggeration, as like his father, still distrusted the Russians, but he was hailed as a peacemaker and supporter of unity in Europe. He wished to revive the League of Three Emperors in 1880, though Otto von Bismarck nor Alexander III agreed to the terms, due to the Russo-German conflict following the Russo-Turkish War. [/FONT]
[FONT="] In terms of domestic policy, he promoted industrialization and modernization of the military. He also provided an early system of welfare for poor laborers of factories and rural farms. Napoleon IV’s reign also coincided with freedom of religion while still maintaining strong Catholic tradition in schools and businesses. He represented the ideals of Napoleon I in many ways, but he also mirrored the new liberalism that was developing worldwide.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Chapter III[/FONT][FONT="]: European Peace, Scramble for Africa, and Modern Technology, 1880-1889[/FONT]
[FONT="]Overview[/FONT]
[FONT="]The 1880’s were a time of unprecedented peace on the continent, thanks to charismatic leaders such as Napoleon IV and Bismarck. Not a single war was fought on the continent, not even in the nationalism-rampant area of Southeastern Europe. Britain reached the peak of “splendid isolation”, a continuation from the last 30 years that would last until the end of the century. The nations of the continent, however, would forge powerful alliances in this decade that, while promoting unity and cooperation, would ultimately create two camps of conflicting views. Colonization reached a peak during this time, and the Congress of Berlin of 1888 laid the future of Africa until 1906. The powers also made incursions into Asia and the Pacific as well. Finally, new inventions of the decade would continue the pattern of the previous decade. These hallmarks would not continue, as new leadership at the end of the decade will soon lay Europe in the path to a great change, though not a positive one.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Peace[/FONT]
[FONT="] The years of 1878-1888 are known as the “Silence of Europe”, as no major conflict, not even in textual form, existed on the continent. The peace was partly due to good leadership under Napoleon IV, Otto von Bismarck and Wilhelm I, and Alexander III, who took power of Russia following his father’s assassination. He was an economic liberal who supported mass industrialization and modernization of farming, and like Napoleon IV, assisted the huge peasant class of Russia somewhat. Despite this, he was still strongly religious, Russophilic, and against democratic reforms, and he reversed some of the political measures under Alexander II. [/FONT]
[FONT="] Britain remained in isolation from the continent, focusing more on internal and colonial matters over foreign affairs. The Victorian Age reached its peak, and the empire enjoyed massive wealth. As one French observer noted, “The empire on which the sun never sets seems to reap the benefits of that ever-lasting sunrise”. Surely, Britain entered the decade strongly, as did other nations.[/FONT]
[FONT="] In Germany, the catholic minority still felt enmity against the Protestant Prussians, though the security of the German Empire calmed tensions somewhat. No armed conflicts occurred, though some petitions urged for greater Catholic rights, which did occur in 1881, which would ease Germany even more.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Imperialism – The Scramble for Africa Reaches Its Peak, Asia Under Influence[/FONT]
[FONT="] Though the continent of Europe was surely not shifting during this time, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific were places of rivalry. All of the Great Powers, even Belgium and Italy, encroached on African territory ad placed the mark of the white man in the deepest of jungles and driest of deserts. As Africa was not an ideal region for battles between the Powers, conflicts were limited to debates and an exchange of yapping between governments. A few almost led to war; the successful Russian annexation of Sagallo near Eritrea and the Congo Crisis between France and Germany are two to name, though both did not lead to massive damage. The Congress of Berlin of 1888 was a meeting of the Great Powers to divide Africa without conflict. The result was a lack of conflict of the Powers in Africa, though native rebellions became commonplace. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The decade also the rise of colonialism in Asia and the Pacific, with the British now dominating Southernmost Arabia, the Indian Subcontinent, and Tibet, while the French dominated Indochina, and Southern Qing Dynasty. The Netherlands and Great Britain each laid large claims of the East Indies, while the British, Germans, and even the United States competed and even quarreled (almost to the point of war in 1888) in conquering the Pacific Islands. Australia and New Zealand continued receiving settlers from Britain and other countries, and these two colonies began to develop a sense of self-identity. Meanwhile, China became increasingly influenced by the powers of Europe due to its lack of modernization. Other nations in Asia, however, were more resistant.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Japan saw the time to expand as well; this decade started Japanese mass industrialization and marketplace expansion into Korea and China. The Japanese wished to beat the Europeans at their own game of dominating the world. They saw special interest in Korea and the Philippines, though the latter would require a war with Spain that the Japanese were still not ready for.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Technology[/FONT]
[FONT="] The 1880’s saw the rise of technological developments. Aries began to replaces the already obsolete breech-loading, trapdoor rifles that fought the Russo-Turkish war with new, fast-firing bolt-action rifles. The machine gun was invented by Sir Hiram Maxim on 1888, and was perhaps the most important invention of the decade. Developments were not limited to war; perhaps the ones most worthy of being noted are those on transportation. These include the automobile in 1885, the motorcycle in 1886, and the semi-rigid airship in 1887. Flight was still in development, though competitors from around the world attempted to devise aircraft capable of powered, heavier-than-air flights. [/FONT]
[FONT="] As can be expected, industrialization increased as well. It was essentially the same pattern as the previous decade, so we shall not go into detail here.[/FONT]
[FONT="]New Leadership, a Sudden and Surprising Change[/FONT]
[FONT="] The hallmark of the decade, strong leadership, would soon end. It all started in France. Napoleon IV became gravely ill from pneumonia in March of 1885, and despite the best treatment available, the charismatic leader passed away on April 2, 1885. It wasn’t his death that would determine the fate of his empire, but his successor. Victor Napoleon, Prince Imperial, was the next crowned Emperor of the French. He was not a son of Napoleon III, and thus not in the direct lineage of Napoleon I. He was, in many ways, the opposite of Napoleon IV. He was known for his shrewdness towards opposition, and opposed democratic reform. He also felt more like a traditional monarch than his predecessors, which violated the Napoleonic Code. In regards to foreign policy, he was definitely not the peacemaker of Napoleon IV; rather, he had a well-known and open hatred of the British, and he believed they were blocking France’s destiny to rule the globe. He had a disliking of minority languages and cultures within France, namely the Basques, and forced conversion to French in these areas. Despite this, he was a social liberal who promoted freedom of religion and completely separated the church from the state from the Separation of Church and State Declaration of 1889. [/FONT]
[FONT="] Leadership in Germany would soon change as well. The elderly Wilhelm I, now in his nineties, died in 1888. His successor, Frederick III, died in that year as well, and the next in line, Wilhelm II, took the throne at the end of the year. He was a radical, which was a sharp contrast to Wilhelm I. He also supported autocracy – he forced Bismarck to stand down from power in 1889, as he thought the chancellor would interfere with his own desire. As can be deducted, he was a selfish man, though he put the German people ahead of himself at times. Like Napoleon V, he was a symbol of change in European foreign relations, though arguably one both sides of the spectrum.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Triple Alliance – A Prelude of the 1890’s[/FONT]
[FONT="] The dissolution of the League of Three Emperors in 1878, and its failed re-installation in 1880, made Germany and France the leftover friends in the late 1880’s. Both nations realized their common goals. Each opposed Russia; each competed with Britain in the colonial race; each wanted to exploit the Ottoman Empire through support of the nation against Russian intervention. Thus, on June 11, 1888, Napoleon V and his advisers met up with Otto Von Bismarck and his respective administration to discuss an alliance. The Frankfurt Agreement, as it is called due to its place of occurrence in Frankfurt, Germany, laid the grounds of the alliance. In the event of war with another Great Power, which the respective power declared war on an ally, the other nation in the alliance would declare war on the opposing power. For example, if Britain declared war on France, Germany would aid France by declaring war on Britain. The alliance began as defensive, though the rule of defense would not be applied to Russia. [/FONT]
[FONT="] Seeing the success in Germany, the much weaker Spanish wished to acquire an ally. Like Napoleon III, the Spanish had alienated much of the continent, especially Britain. In addition, a revolution in Cuba seemed likely, and the Spanish required foreign lending of money and supplies to fight. Thus, the Spanish consulted the industrial Germany. In September of 1888, Spanish officials met in Berlin to discuss an alliance, and an agreement was made. In the colonies, Germans would lend support to the Spanish in the event of revolution, and declare war on a power that threatened the integrity of Spain and its holdings. In return, the Spanish were to support German political actions in policy and in colonialism. In addition, the borders of German Sahara and Spanish Sahara were fully settled at the agreement. Deep down, the Spanish thought that the alliance would bring Spain back to the status as a Great Power, and the alliance would promote internal development and stability.[/FONT]
[FONT="] The following year, France and Spain signed a similar agreement, and in 1889, the Triple Alliance was formed. In the event of war being declared on an ally by a Great Power, the other allies would fight alongside the defending ally. This formation alarmed the other powers of Europe. Britain, surrounded by the nations’ coastlines, would be vulnerable to even a naval war against them. Russia, fearing Franco-German support of the Ottomans in another Russo-Turkish war, was also threatened by the alliance. Finally, Austria, remembering the disaster of 1866 in which she fought the same coalition, was terrified of the alliance. The end of the decade started a polarization of foreign policy that would eventually boil over at some point…[/FONT]
[FONT="]Chapter IV: The Situation Worldwide, The Camps of War Form, 1890-1898[/FONT]
[FONT="]Overview[/FONT]
[FONT="] This decade saw the powers of Europe faced with a “this-or-that” scenarios before them. With the Triple Alliance formed, and a French- and German-backed Ottoman Empire, the remaining European nations had to conclude their past beliefs and face the real issues. Britain, who had enjoyed nearly a half a century of “splendid isolation”, would soon see itself getting involved in the heart of Continental politics. Austria saw the danger of both the Triple Alliance and her own neutrality: “Not having a strong ally could result in the demise of the Habsburgs altogether” many foreign affairs officials believed. Across the ocean, the United States expanded its borders over the boundaries of the Seas, with the prime areas being the Pacific and Latin America, much to the dismay of a few European nations…[/FONT]
[FONT="]Austria-Hungary in the 1890’s[/FONT]
[FONT="] The decade saw the end of Austria-Hungary’s neutrality that it enjoyed so much from 1867. The rise of the Triple Alliance saw a real threat emerge, and thus the nation had to acquire strong allies. The first agreement, signed between officials from Austria-Hungary and Russia in May of 1890, declared an alliance between Austria-Hungary and Russia in the event that Germany declared war on either nation. In return for unconditional support of Austria-Hungary by Russia, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was not to infringe upon Russian interests in the Balkans: as a consequence, in the event that Russia invades the Ottoman lands, the Austrians were not to act in a way that would threaten Russian goals. Though the treaty seemed to favor Russia, Austria-Hungary now had a numerical backing from a much larger and stronger military. [/FONT]
[FONT="]Britain and Russia[/FONT]
[FONT="]The British, who had been in relative isolation since the Crimean War, saw that the isolation needed to come to a halt. The British could not defend itself against a cooperative Franco-German war directed against her, and she too needed an ally. Already having and economic partner in the south with Italy, the British went east to look for an alliance with the mighty Russian Empire. An alliance between these nations forty years ago would have seemed preposterous, but now the two powers had many things in common. Both wanted to chip away at the Ottoman Empire, both disliked the Triple Alliance, and both could defend the seas of the north in cooperation with one another. This led to the signing of the Anglo-Russian Alliance in March of 1891, which implied that the two nations would assist one another in the event of a war in Europe, and that cooperation between a member’s allies would be unconditional; thus, Italy was effectively a Russian ally and Austria-Hungary a British one. Though Britain and Russia had similar goals with vastly different means, they concluded that cooperation was necessary. [/FONT]
[FONT="]Why Did Russia Form These Alliances?[/FONT]
[FONT="] It may seem that Austria-Hungary and Britain were the ones begging for help, but this is simply not the case. The Russians felt deeply threatened by the Triple Alliance for one reason: the Ottoman Empire. That alliance favored the Ottoman Empire, which naturally opposed Russian objectives. If the Ottomans were backed by the powerful armies of France and Germany (and to a much lesser extent Spain), a war of all of them against Russia alone would result in a disaster much resembling that of the Crimean War. This is where a British Alliance would be favorable, as the British with their powerful navy and their presence in Egypt meant that reinforcements could be supplied to the Balkans and Constantinople quickly and effectively. Also, with Austria-Hungary as an ally, the Russians could create an effective barrier against the Germans, and the Germans could be chocked off if they ever invaded Poland, which was under the Russian Crown at the time.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Quadruple Alliance[/FONT]
[FONT="]Representatives from Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy all met in Vienna in late 1891 to discuss a possible “quadrangular” linkage between one another. Britain, Russia, and Austria-Hungary each vowed support for one another, though the Italians weren’t as involved in the discussion. The Italians would have been able to enter on either side, as they had good relations with both France and Britain. In addition, the Austrians promised that the Italians would gain lands around Istria if their alliance won. However, the French had met with the Italians in 1889 to discuss a Franco-Italian agreement promising lands in French territory and Corsica, strengthening the Franco-Italian relations. Because of the promises of both sides, Italy decided to not come to any conclusions during the Quadruple Alliance Meeting of 1891.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The United States: A Quick Summary[/FONT]
[FONT="] After the American Civil War, and the foundation of all territories that would become future states, the United States would expand beyond the continent. From establishing a presence in Samoa in the 1889, to the claim of Hawaii in 1892, to the British-American crisis in Venezuela in 1895, the United States saw increasing interaction between the countries of the world, and the Americans too would see isolation come to an end. The Venezuelan Crisis ended in a written non-aggression agreement between the United States and Britain regarding the Americas. It resulted in both nations being in surprisingly good terms with one another, and led to a mini-alliance that would counter German support and interests in the Americas.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Germany, France, and the Americas[/FONT]
[FONT="] The Germans had long hoped to establish firm trading rights in the Americas. One thing that barred them from this was the Monroe Doctrine, in which the intervention of a European power in the Americas would not be tolerated. The Germans saw this as an illegitimate act, and hoped to nullify the doctrine. Thus, as early as 1896, the Germans made plans for an invasion of the United States, first striking important naval harbors such as Hampton Roads, then landing in regions such as Boston, Manhattan, and if needed, Washington D.C. The goal was not to destroy the United States but to make it concede to German interests in the Americas. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The Cuban Revolution[/FONT]
[FONT="]Cuba, long-considered the “Loyal Colony”, had been pushing for autonomy since the 1860’s, in which a war led to Cuban defeat. Tensions between the Spanish in Cuba and the natives would result in the start of a revolution for full-blown independence. The effect of this revolution was American interest: the nearness of Cuba threatened the United States, the Americans compared it to their own revolution against a tyrant, and the Americans were disgusted by supposed Spanish atrocities that were reported to have happened during the war. As American relations with Spain worsened, Germany saw the opportunity to strike – all it would take is one little push…[/FONT]
[FONT="]Chapter V: Causes of the Great War[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Great War[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Great War would be a result of the problems that had been growing during the 19th century. All of the following elements of the era would all boil down to the greatest - and most violent - war ever of its time. The war was caused by both long-term non-aggressive causes to immediate, controversial, and militant causes.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Nationalism[/FONT]
[FONT="]Probably the most universal cause of the war was nationalism. Every country, from Germany, to France, to Russia, was undergoing an era of intense national pride. During this era, as a contrast to the present day, a citizen of France would not accept criticism from a foreigner from another nation, such as Britain. In countries that ruled multiple ethnicities, the minority ethnic groups also felt an intense feeling of nationalism, and thus a yearning for independence. Notable examples include the Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, and Greeks in lands controlled by Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Across the Atlantic Ocean, the citizens of Cuba felt a new sense of nationalism and sought independence from the aging Spanish Empire. Though the Germans had been unified under Prussian rule since 1866, a conflict developed in Austria regarding the “traitors” - those Catholic Germans in Bavaria and proximate areas who joined Prussia following the disastrous Austro-Prussian War. Italy’s main drive behind joining the war was claiming the “unredeemed lands” of Austria and France, and the Russians hoped that one day, all Slavs would be united under a single state. [/FONT]
[FONT="]Militarism[/FONT]
[FONT="] If nationalism was not the most widespread cause of the war, then this adjective would definitely describe militarism. The countries of Europe were all at an arms race: the military buildup between Britain and France was perhaps the most extreme, with Britain prevailing on the seas and France leading on land. The new countries of Germany and Italy raced ahead of old powers such as Spain, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire and acquired formidable militaries as well. Russia, while not quite as developed as the west, had the largest military of them all - some six million men by the start of the war in Europe. Outside of Europe, the United States became a growing military influence in the Pacific and Latin America, much to the dismay of Spain, France, and Germany, who sought to maintain and/or extend their influence in the region. In Asia, Japan sought expansion as well; they won the Sino-Japanese War of 1890 and established limited authority in Manchuria, and sought to conquer lands to the south as well - the main drive behind Japan’s joining of the war.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Imperialism[/FONT]
[FONT="] The cause that is most likely the one that is the most closely linked to militarism is imperialism. Since about 1870, the nations of Europe (and eventually the United states and Japan) expanded their territories into formerly independent lands in Africa and Asia. By 1898, only Abyssinia and Morocco remained independent in Africa, though the former had some Italian influence while the latter was strongly influenced by France and Spain. After the Opium Wars, Britain, and later France, Russia, Germany, and Japan began to claim spheres of influence in China. India was under British control; Indochina was protected by the French. The Dutch dominated Indonesia, while Spain controlled the Philippines. [/FONT] [FONT="] While many nations expanded, others suffered at the hands of imperialism. The Spanish desperately tried to maintain the last ember of their formerly mighty torch of an empire, while the Ottomans suffered defeat after defeat while losing territory all the time. Development in Austria-Hungary was at a stalling point, and even the strongly autocratic Russian Empire showed signs of cracking in her imperial influence.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Alliance System[/FONT]
[FONT="] The alliances of the pre-war era are arguably the greatest cause of the war’s extending to the degree to which it was fought. Though the first alliance was the failed League of Three Emperors, with members France, Germany, and Russia, this gave way to the new Triple Alliance, with members Germany, France, and Spain (whose role in the war in Europe would almost be null) in 1888. This alliance spawned reactions of fright and surprise, and a reactionary alliance between Britain and Russia was signed in 1891, thus ending the century-long dispute for control in Central Asia. Austria-Hungary signed an agreement with Russia, and a new “entente” was formed to combat the alliance. Before the war, the french and germans promised aid to the Ottomans in the event of war, and Italy, without a side, would ultimately decide as the conflict unraveled.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Leaders of the Era[/FONT]
[FONT="]Coincidentally the world had its fair share of interesting personalities. The new German monarch Wilhelm II was quite a radical as compared to Bismarck: he wished to expand his military and nation exponentially, and was always war-ready. He had even forced Bismarck to abdicate in 1889 following his ascension as German Emperor. In France, Napoleon V became emperor of the French in 1885 following the untimely death of his predecessor. He was a supporter of both liberalism, especially industrialization and modern military technology, and conservatism, especially concerning authority and religion. He was very distrustful of the Anglo-Saxon nationalism that was common between the British Empire and the United States, as he saw it as the greatest threat to his own nation. Napoleon V was a strict autocrat who would reduce the power of the parliament at will several times during his 19-year reign - almost leading to his disposal in 1895. In Russia, the intelligent, liberal, and powerful Alexander III raised a modern and apt Russian military, something that would benefit him during the long war. Finally, in the United States, William McKinley saw himself as a figure of high authority who hated being questioned and ridiculed, something that would raise his anger during the Cuban Revolution[/FONT]
[FONT="]The Monroe Doctrine[/FONT]
[FONT="] The United States sought to remove European influence from the region with the Monroe Doctrine, declared in 1823. The doctrine declared European military influence in American nations as illegitimate, but by the end of the 19th century it had become the United States’ own imperial tool that it would use to declare the Cuban Revolution as a violation. At the outset of the revolution, many Americans compared the struggle to their own independence and felt sympathetic towards the Cubans. The Spanish, in reaction, were very mocking of the Americans. In late 1897, the prime minister of Spain was reported to have insulted McKinley, who in reaction, became quite angered with the nation of Spain, who directed his anger in the path of war. [/FONT] [FONT="] The ultimate cause that would be the “powder keg” of the war would be the sinking of the USS Bridgeport on February 13th, 1898. After an investigation, the ship was found to have been sunk by a mine, which would lead the United States to valiantly declare war on Spain, thus starting the massive, [/FONT][FONT="]multi-continental war that would both create and destroy.
[FONT="]Chapter VI: The Great War Begins[/FONT]
[FONT="]The United States and Spain Go To War[/FONT] [FONT="]
[/FONT] [FONT="]The 13th of February, 1899, is a day that will forever be stained in world history. On this day, the USS Bridgeport, carrying military supplies and 133 Americans, was destroyed in a mysterious and surprising attack. The following month, on the 15th of March, it was concluded that the ship was destroyed by a mine. This event finally led to the upgrade of US Martial Law, enacted in 1897, into a trade blockade on Cuba on April 3rd, and a Congressional declaration of war on April 7th. The conflict that would change the face of the world forever officially started.[/FONT] [FONT="]
The Americans viewed the war as a source of American nationalism and optimism. Most Americans, and McKinley himself, believed that the war would be over “before the first autumn leaf even grazed the ground”. This sense of optimism led the US into an attitude of military pride, and as a result, thousands of young men lined up at the new recruiting stations to fight for Old Glory. [/FONT] [FONT="]
The first major engagement of the war, the Battle of Manila Bay, surely seems like it would have crushed the aforementioned spirit of the Americans. The conflict occurred on May 5th, 1898, when Commodore George Dewey sailed to Manila to attack the Spanish possession of the Philippines. The ships arrived early in the morning, but Spanish Admiral Patricio Montojo had been well informed about the incoming American ships. With the three protected German-built crusiers, and two Spanish-built cruisers, Montojo’s defensive force effectively destroyed the American fleet; only the U.S.S. Olypmia would make it out of the battle with only minor damage. The preparedness of the Spanish, and the failure of Dewey’s authority in the conflict, made the battle one of the most decisive and infamous American defeats of the Great War, perhaps even any American war in history. Only two Spanish casualties were documented (of these, only one death; American sources claim many more), with some 70 Americans dead and another 200 injured.[/FONT] [FONT="] The war continued as a naval engagement henceforth. The Americans achieved a pyrrhic victory outside of Puerto Rico early in May where Spanish defenses were weakened, but this was offset by yet another Spanish naval victory during the Battle of Cardenas. The Americans struck yet again on May 30th during the second battle of Cardenas, and this time they won, allowing for a small window of opportunity for an invasion of Cuba.[/FONT] [FONT="]
The Battle of Guantanamo Bay was carried out on June 5th and was aided by Cuban guerrilla forces. The battle began with the severing of key telegraph lines in the area, and this was followed up by an engagement between six United States ships and seven Spanish ships. When the Americans won this skirmish, about 400 United States Marines landed on the shored of Guantanamo bay on both the Western and Eastern flanks. The engagement between these forces and the approximately 5,000 Spanish infantry would ultimately end in an American victory. The effectiveness of Marine swiftness with help of the unknown number of rebels caught the Spanish in a trap in which they had to react quickly to escape, but this did not happen. The Second Battle of Cardenas and the Battle of Guantanamo Bay now outweighed the initial losses, at least in the eyes of the Americans.[/FONT] [FONT="] At the same time, Spain was using her victories as persuasion for direct German assistance in the war. Germany did not assist from the start since the United States was not considered a great power at the time, and the Germans greatly underestimated the power of the United States while at the same time they were becoming more wary of the nation’s influence. Still, the Germans needed a significant naval base from which they would be able to launch an attack on the United States. This required a significant land victory for the Spanish; only then would Germany declare war on the United States.[/FONT] [FONT="]
Seemingly a blessing for the Spanish, the land battles that would follow were all stalemates or Spanish tactical victories. At the Battle of Las Guasimas, the Spanish held their ground, while at the Battle of Tayacoba the United States forces were only able to rescue one half of a trapped reconnaissance force, and that battle ended up with a higher loss than profit, so to say. [/FONT] [FONT="] The last battle of a solely Spanish-American War was the Battle of San Juan Hill, which occurred on July 4th. The capture of the hill near Santiago, Cuba, was a pivotal objective in the war against Spain. The forces under Commander Theodore Roosevelt met the Spanish defensive forces at the hill, and the chaos that would ensure began. Wave after wave of Americans attempted to charge the hill and take it by sheer manpower, but each successive wave was halted by the Spanish resistance. The lack of coordination under the chaotic atmosphere of the battle, combined with the sturdiness of the Spanish opposition, and even a French Chaput machine gun, caused the defeat of the United States. To add injury to insult, Roosevelt himself was mortally wounded by a piece of artillery at the battle, and died eight days later in an American infirmary. A total of 288 American men lay dead with a further 1,220 injuries, with only 166 Spanish deaths and 914 injuries. [/FONT] [FONT="]
The report of the war was sent to Kaiser Wilhelm II himself on July 6th, which stated that “The Americans have been denied any means of a successful way to overcome Cuba, and the defeat has caused a significant retreat of United States forces.” In addition, a report of the estimated casualties was sent. The truthfulness of this telegram, known as the “Linares telegram”, named after the leader of the Spanish forces during the Battle San Juan Hill who wrote the telegram, is seriously doubted by historians abroad. Still, it is often labeled by many as the sole cause of the immense destruction of the war.[/FONT] [FONT="]
[/FONT] [FONT="]The Germans Step In[/FONT]
[FONT="]Finally, the failure of the Americans in several battles led to the German entry into the war. In support of the alliance signed between Germany and Spain ten years ago in 1888, the German Empire formally declared war on the United States on July 22nd, 1898, sparking a multinational war. The news spread like a wildfire in the United States; in cities from New York to San Francisco, frequent chaos and (quite advantageous for the United States) equally frequent military volunteers filled the streets. The United States was now mobilizing for a much larger, deadlier war than what had previously been expected. [/FONT] [FONT="]
Despite the knowledge of the German declaration of war at hand, the Americans did not make huge preparations for the addition of the much more modern and organized German troops in Cuba. The Americans did not know the secret presence of some 500 German officers already present on the island in the event of war, and the Americans underestimated the speed and preparedness of the Germans themselves.[/FONT] [FONT="]
In fact, the first battle that involved German forces was the Battle of Manzanillo on August 14th. The Americans attempted to find a new, more tactically feasible landing point for invasion; this was believed to be the city of Manzanillo. What the Americans did not know was that the German ships had already entered Cuban territory and that they were well-prepared. The engagement involved three American ships versus a joint combination of two Spanish ships and a single German light cruiser; though one Spanish cruiser was sunk in the engagement, the remaining Spanish cruiser and the German cruiser both performed well in the battle, badly damaging the three American crusiers. The Americans were forced to retreat, and the German-Spanish forces were victorious.[/FONT] [FONT="]
By mid-August, the Americans were already landed at Puerto Rico and were making small gains, with no Germans in sight. Cuba was still largely under Spanish control, though morale was far from short. An engagement between the United States and Germany alone just beyond Santa Cruz del Sur was an American victory, and another between the United States and another combined Spanish-German fleet was indecisive but ultimately the Spanish-German casualties were higher than those of the Americans. The first major land engagement for Germany in the war happened on August 29, when the Americans attempted to travel around San Juan Hill in order to push northward and link up with Cuban guerrilla forces. The 2,100 Americans met face-to-face with some 3,200 Spanish and 288 Germans and a vicious battle followed. The Americans initially had the advantage here, though as they ran out of resources, they had to retreat three miles south from their position across a creek and wait for more supplies. While waiting, they met a hefty force of 830 Germans who were equipped with state-of-the-art Mauser-98 carbines and even a single Mannerheim automobile fitted with a powerful Walder machine gun, a landmark in the fact that it was the first time in history that an automobile was used in wartime. Despite these advantages, the 1,900 remaining Americans successfully held of their position and recourses arrived.[/FONT] [FONT="]
During this skirmish, other American divisions had pushed past San Juan Hill, one of them even taking it in an American-won Second Battle of San Juan Hill, and come closer to the stranded Americans south of Santa Cruz. These reinforcements halted, rather than countered, Spanish-German defenses and the war was temporarily transformed into a trench-style of warfare, in contrast to the rather guerrilla-style, large-movements earlier in the war. The daytime temperatures and the humidity made living in the trenches tough, but one could not even think of advancing or even looking out onto the battlefield for prolonged periods of time as both sides kept a good eye on one another. [/FONT] [FONT="] Meanwhile in the Philippines, the Americans were able to successfully land after Dewey’s failure and were engaged in a large battle for the city of Manila. The Germans were not able to quickly arrive to Manila but when they did, the Americans definitely knew it. Two German battleships rained artillery rounds on American positions, killing up to 30% of the American forces in the city. The Germans were certainly not cautious in attempting to destroy any form of cover that the Americans would have; perhaps as much as two hundred civilian lives fell prey to the unrelenting attack from the Germans. This too hurt the native rebels who cooperated with the Americans, but despite the daunting attacks from Germany, neither the Americans nor the rebels were eradicated from the city. [/FONT] [FONT="]
As the war escalated, more and more troops from Spain and Germany sailed to the Caribbean and (and to a lesser extent) the Philippines. As this happened, more and more ships encroached into American and British-controlled Bahaman sea territory. Initially, it was just the presence of these forces, but then innocent fishermen began to disappear more and more frequently, and this issue was especially prevalent with British fishing ships.[/FONT] [FONT="]
[/FONT] [FONT="]The Nassau Incident[/FONT]
[FONT="]As early as the time during which the first major German forces sailed to Cuba, fishermen in the Bahamas began to disappear. By early 1899, when more and more Germans were arriving, full-sized fishing ships were reportedly destroyed. When British foreign ministers consulted the Germans on the issue, the Germans defended stating the often true fact that many ships were unmarked and as a result were regarded as potential hostiles. At this conference, the British mandated the marking of all fishing ships, and the Germans agreed to warn the fishing ships of their presence. The agreement would not hold out for long, however. [/FONT] [FONT="]
On February 2nd, 1899, just two nautical miles west of Nassau, the HMS Extremadura was traveling 12 knots to the northwest when it was sunk by a German cruiser, killing almost all of 813 British soldiers and citizens on board. “We cannot allow little Willie to misbehave in such a fashion,” Queen Victoria reportedly quoted, and Britain was left no choice but to declare war on Germany in the defense of Caribbean possessions. “Remember the Extremadura” would be a common recruiting phrase during not just the Caribbean theatre, but the entire war.[/FONT] [FONT="]
Almost instantly, the British began negotiations with the Americans on a future war plan. As both nations were threatened by Germany in the Caribbean, both felt a “bond of protection” between them. On February 20th, 1899, the Americans and British formally became allies during the war, which would be the only alliance to survive the ensuing conflict. The Americans saw it was fresh help to a drawn-out war; the British saw it as a necessity for a successful defense; the Germans saw it as a potential excuse for a war on the home continent of Europe.[/FONT] [FONT="]
[/FONT] [FONT="]The War in April of 1899[/FONT] [FONT="]
[/FONT] [FONT="]Exactly one year after the start of the war, neither side seemed to be near a total victory. The once guerrilla-style of warfare became a nasty trench-style. Even with British assistance (and after an Anglo-American victory against Spanish-German opposition along the coast of Puerto Rico), no clear victory seemed near. This became especially true as thousands of German forces arrived fresh from Europe and established bases in Cuba. By this time, Britain only had seven hundred soldiers in the Bahamas to fight in the war, though later this year, the statistics of war would… change… to say the least.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Chapter VII: The World Goes to War[/FONT]
[FONT="]
The War Spreads to Europe[/FONT]
[FONT="]
The next few months following the British entry into the war were relatively calm. In the Caribbean, naval gridlock and trench warfare bogged down any attempted offensive movement for either side, even with British help. In the Philippines, the continued German presence was a pain for the rebels and approximately 2,100 Americans, but during the summer of 1899 they held their ground, even gaining territory to the west of Manila and temporarily escaping German fire. [/FONT]
[FONT="]
The British entry also meant that two opposing Great Powers were at war with one another. Despite this, no conflict occurred at all in Europe until the 25th of August, 1899. On this day, Germany began an enactment of a large naval blockade around the British seaboard, with intentions to block supply ships and troop ships, and to barricade imports into the country. The attempt to starve the nation out of the war was not met with the relative calmness during the past summer; on September 15th a reactionary force of three battleships engaged two of the German ships in the blockade, and the Germans were decisively defeated. This “Battle of Scarborough”, so named for its location to the city of Scarborough, was a British victory and the first official engagement of the war in Europe.[/FONT]
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This engagement brought Europe into a chaos of alliances. Following the attack, the French entered the war and declared war against Britain on September 19th. In defense of Britain, Russia declared war on Germany and France on September 21st. Spain officially declared war on Britain and Russia on September 24th, though Anglo-Spanish conflicts occurred long before then. Austria-Hungary saw a chance to strike Germany in a quick offensive and declared war on the Triple Alliance in September 26th. This left Italy without a side. Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary promised land on the Adriatic coast if the Italians were to assist them; Napoleon V promised territory in the province of Nice in exchange for Italian assistance to the Triple Alliance. Despite the latter, Italy’s ties with Great Britain were too strong to sever, as many believed, and the Italians supported the Triple Entente. It would not be until next year that Italy would join the war.
[/FONT] [FONT="]The Eastern Front Begins[/FONT]
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The first country to mobilize during the war was Russia. Emperor Alexander III had already prepared defensive forces along the German-Russian border when Britain declared war on Germany. When war came in September, the first 300,000 troops were quick to arrive and go on the offensive on German territory. Sooner than later, an equally powerful force of 288,000 German troops were at the ready to meet the Russians along the front. The first major land engagement, the Battle of Thorn, occurred on October 15th, 1899. Some 14,000 Russians were met by 11,500 Germans in the farmland about 3 kilometers east of the city of Thorn, and the success of the Russians in flanking the German defenses and making a “ring of starvation” made the first land battle a success for the powers of the Entente.
[/FONT] [FONT="] Following the success at Thorn, the Russians began their push into Eastern Prussian territory village by village. The Battle of the River, fought on October 22nd, saw the German forces mostly captured rather than killed, and the Battle of Insterburg saw the Russians capturing the city in a non-decisive victory, though they managed to move forward toward the strategically important city of Konigsberg.[/FONT]
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By November of 1899, the Russians had made a quick push into rural areas of Prussia, destroying farmlands and raiding military outposts all along the way. “They were about as hesitant to destroy a field rather than capture it,” one Polish-descent farmer was claimed to have said, describing the brutality of the Russians in the opening stages of the war. By December, the Russians had pushed as close as 13 kilometers southeast of Konigsberg, whose importance to the Russians as a city to capture was invaluable. If the Russians could capture this large port city, with a significant naval presence and large economic flow, the Germans could be effectively eliminated from the Baltic Sea. However, as winter began, the poor decisions of the Russians in destroying the countryside began to take its toll. A trench line from Konigsberg, to Thorn, and south near the Austro-Russian border by Krakow formed and neither armies were able to advance until the next year. [/FONT]
[FONT="] With Russian victory after victory, Austria-Hungary felt a desire to attack the Germans in a lightning attack. The idea behind the attack was “vengeance for Sadowa”, many Austrians believed, and a German defeat at the hands of Austria was the hope. The Austrian offensive was launched on November 16th, 1899, when two divisions of the Austro-Hungarian Army attacked some 3,000 German troops stationed at Passau. The attack was a huge success for Austria, and opened the window for further attacks into Germany. The Austro-Hungarian forces in Germany, numbering 50,000 after the battle, moved relatively swiftly between towns, winning minor skirmishes over the land as they moved, though not as brutally as the Russians. The Austrian success would not last long, however, as this force was decisively defeated on December 18th at the Battle of Deggendorf, where the Austrian objective of flanking German defenses was met with miserable failure due to poor Austrian coordination and solid German resistance. After this battle and 30% of deaths in the Austrian forces, Germany went on the offensive and successfully pushed the Austro-Hungarian Army back onto the German border by the new year. [/FONT] [FONT="]
The War in the Balkans[/FONT]
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Even before the French could fully mobilize and during the German defeats at the hand of Russia, the Alliance powers were persuading the Ottomans to enter. After all, the French and the Ottomans had a strong bond following the Russo-Turkish War, and the Ottoman Army had been receiving weapons and training from Germany since 1893. The plan for the Ottoman entry was to create a two-front war for both Austria-Hungary and Russia to allow for an easier Franco-German offensive into these respective nations, and in return, the Alliance would recognize Ottoman conquests in the event of an Alliance victory. It is believed that both Wilhelm II and Napoleon V did not expect an Ottoman victory at all, but this was just the first of many “battles of persuasion” – techniques used by both sides of the war to gain support from a power through “hollow” promises such as the case with the Ottomans.[/FONT]
[FONT="] After the Ottomans, and Abdul Hamid II himself, had been persuaded to enter the war, the Ottoman Empire declared war on all powers of the Triple Entente on January 3rd, 1900. The first battle involving the Ottomans was the Battle of Bihac, where a small battalion of 500 Ottomans engaged roughly 2,300 Austro-Hungarian troops, and ultimately led to disaster for the Ottomans. Even worse, the Austrians pushed further and further into Bosnia with more and more decisive victories until they reached the outskirts of Sarajevo in March of 1900. Probably the worst part of the war was Slavic opposition towards both sides, and both Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire realized this, and concluded that the bigger enemy was the Slavic minorities rather than each other. The “silent truce”, which effectively began that April, was an unofficial agreement between Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire that would reduce fighting in the area, though the territorial conquests of Austria-Hungary would not change. This “truce” was much at the dismay of Russia, whose alliance with Austria explicitly stated the Austria-Hungary would respect Russian ambitions in the Balkans, though the both nations had an even more powerful common enemy – Germany.[/FONT]
[FONT="]
Though Austria-Hungary slowed its advance into Ottoman territory, that situation was much different in Serbia. Serbia officially declared war on the Ottoman Empire on March 12th, 1900. The small and relatively inexperienced Serbian military pushed into the Kosovo Vilayet in the Ottoman Empire in late March and had great successes. The almost guerrilla-style of the Serbian Army served well in the capture of Skopje, and the Serbians too pushed into Bosnia with decisive victories. The autonomous nation of Bulgaria declared full independence on April 13th, 1900, and followed up with an overthrow of the Ottoman officials there and a small raid into the Adrianople Vilayet. The Ottomans would not see significant Franco-German reinforcements until the summer, but by then much territory would be lost at the hands of the Slavs. To make matters worse, Italy entered the war on March 20th, 1900, and immediately began to attack the Ottoman Navy at Shkoder, and unlike Austria-Hungary, the “silent truce” did not apply in any way and the Italians attacked in full force.
[/FONT] [FONT="]The Western Front: A Naval War[/FONT]
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The Western Front did not start out as a land engagement. The positioning of France and Germany against Britain meant that Britain’s only strong defense was its navy, and it proved to hold out well throughout 1899 and 1900. The long “Battle of the Channel”, a head-to-head face-off between the top-quality navies of Britain and France, was a very decisive engagement for both sides. A British victory could lead to a possible invasion of France; a French victory would certainly lead to an invasion of Britain. The battle, however, was far from decisive from the start as each new British ship was countered by a new French ship. A total of 188 British combat ships and 153 French combat ships would see action during the entirety of the engagement, making it the longest and largest naval battle of the war. Meanwhile, Germany’s navy was a mere fraction of the French and British navies, and most of her ships were in Cuba trying to break the stall. In this initial stage the war was primarily the classic shoulder-to-shoulder combat of the legendary British and French navies.[/FONT]
[FONT="] The western Italian Front formed when the French launched the invasion of Italy on June 1st, 1900, following Italy’s entry in the Great War. Of all the fronts and campaigns in which France participated, they were most successful in the Italian Front. In the beginning, the French had a difficult time breaking past the makeshift Italian barricades along the border, but by August of that year the Italians were quite literally running from the massive French forces that were after them. Cities from Turin to Cuneo and even as far south as Pisa were almost effortlessly captured by the well-armed and technologically superior forces of France, who utilized weapons such as the Chaput Machine Gun and the Champs Bolt-Action Rifle, both of which outclassed the Italian infantry service weapons at the time. Town after town, the French left their mark with a wide path of destruction, the only likes of which being seen as the Fourth Battle of Vienna (1903) in Austria. By early 1901, after suffering only a few defeats around the city of Bologna, the French rerouted their attack and traveled down the Italian western seaboard, using the French Navy to assist their advance. The navy played an important role in the First Battle of Viterbo, where fresh French troops and supplies were successfully landed along the coast despite return fire from the agile Italian Navy. The invasion slowed thereafter, until the French were only 7 kilometers north of Rome. Despite Napoleon V’s and the top military command’s planning, his advance into Italy was eventually slowed by three factors. One, they underestimated the required supplies to maintain the 400,000-large invasion force. Two, poor command, such as that under General Nicodème Morin, often found the French forces scattered about in an unorganized fashion, which would seriously hinder the French once they neared the mountains of Rome. Three, the lack of foreign support, minus the Spanish support at the Battle of Pisa, meant that France had to do all of the fighting, and when the British intervened at the Battles of Rome and Second Viterbo, the French organization would simply fall apart mid-battle.
[/FONT] [FONT="]The War Henceforth, to Early 1902
[/FONT] [FONT="] Once the winter passed, things began to go sourly for the Entente, now the Allies. With the arrival of the French, the Alliance, now known as the Continental Powers due to their prominent location on the continent, ousted the Russians from Prussia and pushed into Russian territory, and by early 1901 had reached Kaunas and the outskirts of Minsk. In Austria-Hungary, the Germans and (now mobilized) French forces pushed over the troublesome hills of Bavaria and into Austrian territory, reaching Vienna by January 1902. Once they reached Vienna, a stiff Austrian resistance would periodically push France and Germany west some 30 miles, but they would yet again be pushed to the city of Vienna. For this reason, there is no one “Battle of Vienna”, but rather a “Battle of Austria”, that would render a strip of land spanning 40 miles wide a wasteland, ruined by artillery fire and constant warfare. The Germans plowed through Bohemia village by village, though the largest opposition was not Austria-Hungary but Russia, who fulfilled her promise in supplying massive support for Austria-Hungary: some one million Russians would be deployed in the Austrian campaign during the total course of the war.
[/FONT] [FONT="] The Balkan War was far more successful for the Allies. Serbia made significant gains, the lands of Bosnia that were not under Austrian rule proclaimed independence, and Bulgaria pushed to the Aegean Coast and the frontier of Constantinople. The Russians arrived in late 1900, and helped the Allied offensive even more. Entire battalions of Ottomans would be annihilated under the unrelenting fists of the “United Slavic Forces”, who “sought to liberate the Slavic peoples from the grip of the evil Ottomans” as Serbian nationalist and guerrilla fighter Vladimir Savinovic proclaimed. The entirety of southeastern Europe lay wasted and Turkish-abandoned. The entry of Italy, whose successful invasion of Albania helped Russia and the Serbs immensely, and the Greek declaration of war on the Ottomans in December of 1900, strained the Ottomans even more. To add even more illness to the “sick man of Europe”, the Russians launched a massive invasion of the Caucasus territories of the Ottoman Empire that resulted in Russian victories. By 1902, the offensive slowed, as the Russians became short of supplies in the mountains of Trebizond. Despite this, the Balkan forces and Caucasian forces optimistically thought that they would meet in Constantinople by the end of 1902.
[/FONT] [FONT="] While the war in Europe raged on, the war in the Western Hemisphere would drastically change.
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[FONT="][/FONT] The Alliances of the Great War. Some nations and territories that are marked would join later in the war.
[/FONT] [FONT="]By mid-1901, the war in the Caribbean had stalled. Despite a capture of Puerto Rico by the United States, a trench line ran coast-to-coast around Puerto Padre and Las Tunas in Cuba; in other areas, naval engagements failed, rebellions were crushed, and Spanish-German presence still existed. Despite the existing stalemate, the Americans reevaluated their strategy. Rather than conquer the island from one spot and advance up the island, the Americans and British would attack Spanish and German outposts along the coast with frequency. Ultimately, this tactic showed efficient with the Battle of Cienfuegos, where 1,300 British Marines pushed back a Spanish resistance into the surrounding woodlands, and at the Battle of Artemisa, where a fleet of seven American warships decisively defeated six German cruisers. The Germans needed to reduce the power of the United States quickly to ensure victory; just how this would occur would happen with the assistance of an important ally – France.
[/FONT] [FONT="]French entry into the war added another participant into the gridlocked Caribbean War. In order to establish an active base in the Caribbean from which French ships could dispatch, a local territory was needed. The French did this by a completely new and unheard-of tactic known as “island hopping” – the French would take key enemy islands from the British Lesser Antilles. They captured British islands from Dominica to Saint Kitts; even a successful invasion of the Dominican Republic occurred on October 17th, 1901. With these conquests, the French rapidly attempted to set up makeshift naval bases and ports while at the same time they tried to defend themselves from opposing forces (it should be noted here that the United States did not officially declare war on France until October 30th, 1901). The French-occupied territories also permitted the Germans to dock ships without the immediate threat of attack as Cuba fell to the newly-prepared Anglo-American forces.
[/FONT] [FONT="]French intervention in Cuba did not turn the tables any particular way. For example, on November 15th, 1901, The Battle of Camaguey, the second largest battle of the Caribbean War, pitted 11,000 Spanish, 10,000 Germans, and 3,200 French against 15,000 Americans, 5,400 British, and perhaps as many as 30,000 Cuban forces. The allied success of the battle was primarily due to the Cuban [/FONT][FONT="]Caballeros de la Patria [/FONT][FONT="](or “knights of the homeland”), whose valiance and persistence in the chaotic battle resulted in their being honored as héroes by the Cuban government. On the Continental Powers side, one notable fact is the use of the first heavier-than-air flight, which was done by Francois Deschamps in his Deschamps Moineau, though the flight did not accomplish any goals for France or the other powers for that matter, as it crashed into a tree on Allied territory.
[/FONT] [FONT="]By this time, Much of Cuba had come under Allied control, and the Continental Powers were losing their prominence. They had to act quickly, or else a defeat would certainly come. Clearly, a new, and truly daring, movement was necessary. [/FONT]
The Caribbean War, just before the Allies and rebels made large gains on Cuba.
[FONT="]The War on American Soil
[/FONT] [FONT="]Since even before the war in the Caribbean started, the Germans planned to launch an invasion of the United States. Germany long viewed the growing power of the United states and the hegemony of the United States over the Americas as a threat to their own ambitions. Initially, they planned to strike strategically important naval bases such as that in Hampton Roads, but as the Germans were drug into the war, the plan, known as Operationsplan Amerika, was a laid out as a full-scale invasion. In order for the invasion to be successful, the top military German command believed that the “Virginia military complex” had to be weakened, then an invasion would begin in the city of Boston. The plan was mostly a product of nationalistic pride and wartime aggression of Germany, but the Continental Powers needed to end the Caribbean War to focus on Europe. As a result, the invasion plan became popular amongst politicians despite its limitations, but the French supported it as well as they wished to focus only on one enemy, at one time – something that Napoleon V despised of his ancestor in conquering Europe.
[/FONT] [FONT="] The attack on Hampton Roads, which lasted from February 3rd to February 23rd, 1902, was surprisingly successful for the Franco-German fleet. The docked warships were struck without warning, killing some 5,500 American soldiers in a mere forty minutes. In American history, the 3rd of February is “a day that shall live in infamy”, as President McKinley stated on the 5th of February. After the strike, and the destruction of the American ships, The Germans and French landed on the Virginia coast and were met by a significant opposition of 17,500 Americans. The 16,000 Germans and 5,000 French soldiers seemingly poured into the area of Hampton Roads, and by the end of the month, the harbor was taken from the United States, despite significant deaths of the Germans (probably 8,000 perished in the siege). Meanwhile, the Americans planned to launch a counteroffensive, but the French and Germans planned to invade the city of Boston despite warnings of “too early action”. As many German officers stated, it was now or never, and an American counteroffensive could ruin the chance.
[/FONT] [FONT="] The Invasion of Boston, which happened on March 4th, 1902, is known as “Terrible Tuesday” in popular American history. The Germans quickly mobilized 95,000 troops, while the French mobilized 35,000 troops, and arrived in the Boston Harbor that morning at exactly 8:17 A.M. EST. The first shots fired by the Germans was to strike an American warship, but it instead struck a tavern, killing three civilians. The second shots, fired by the French ship Herriot, caused terminal damage to an unprotected cruiser. By noon, the Franco-German forces cleared the harbor of significant opposition, and the land battle followed.
[/FONT] [FONT="] The thousands of Germans who stormed Boston were met with suppressing fire from American Gatling Guns, but the German ships in the harbor successfully cleared this opposition with artillery. This process caused the destruction of several important buildings, including banks, markets, schools, and government facilities. In the rubble, the Germans pushed in further, and the French landed at the same time. The German plan was to sever American unity in the city by flanking the six American divisions and surrounding them, and this was accomplished by March 23rd, 1902, the date during which Boston fell to the Germans and the French.
[/FONT] [FONT="] As the Franco-German forces pushed further into the rural areas of Massachusetts, the American spirit of the war changed. It was no longer a distant, foreign, and unknown war, but “a defense of the homeland and democracy itself”, proclaimed one Salem citizen when questioned by the press. The fall of Boston, with its civilian death toll up to 30,000 (journals at the time claimed 100,000 casualties), reports of harsh treatment of civilians by the Germans, with stories stretching from verbal harassment to violation (the legitimacy here is questionable, as no victims of such extreme crimes have never come forth even to this day), and historical significance (the American revolution began near Boston, and a success in Boston could lead to an attack on Washington, a repetition of the War of 1812 against the British), made Americans much less hesitant to rid the Franco-German forces from the American soil.
[/FONT] [FONT="] The invasion had an impact on the lives of Germans and French soldiers and civilians themselves. In France, the unpopularity of Napoleon V naturally made the war unpopular; his failure to break past Britain in the Battle of the Channel and his forced conscription led to questioning of French authority. Many Germans were critical of the quick actions taken in the invasion of the United States; despite the victories, most Germans believed that the United States was just too vast to put down, and that a defeat would inevitably happen. These critical German citizens would turn out to be correct in their analyses.
[/FONT] [FONT="] In the area around Hampton Roads, the Germans pushed into Virginia until they were met with an initial counteroffensive force of 20,000 Americans, who were successful in pushing back the 5,000 Germans into the harbor itself. With up to 200,000 forces in reserve, the Germans and French were forced to completely retreat from the harbor in May of 1902. This event marked the end of further plans to invade more cities, and made an invasion of Washington, D.C. strategically impossible.
[/FONT] [FONT="] Up north, the war turned into trench warfare, known as the “Newton Trenches”. An area of “no man’s land” sprung up as both sides had technology that limited advance, such as machine guns and armored automobiles. “Jump from your kitchen, and into the pit, and rid the brute from your property!” was a popular slogan for recruitment, and an effective one at that. By the fall of 1902, the American Army swelled up to about 300,000 men, with the combined Franco-German forces at 175,000 men. Still, no advancements were made until as late as January of 1903, when the American Navy finally claimed a victory just 13 nautical miles east of Boston, which cut off the supply line coming from Europe. In addition, the British and Canadians came to the American’s aid on January of 1903 and together, they ridded the harbor of the German and French ships by mid-February. From that point on, the supply-drained Germans were forced to retreat from the Newton trenches until they were finally surrounded at the coast of Boston on March 1st, 1903, and all were either killed or captured. This day marked the end of the war on the American soil, perhaps the most memorable time in McKinley’s second term of presidency (which would get him elected for a third term which he would not finish) and American military history.
[/FONT] [FONT="]The Panama War
[/FONT] [FONT="] The continued American presence in the Panama Canal worried the Germans. In addition, a revolution in Panama broke out in early 1902, stressing for Panamanian independence from Colombia. Naturally, the Americans supported Panama, and the Germans supported the opposition. France supported a halt in the construction of the Panama Canal as well; a limit of funding killed the French plan in 1882 and Napoleon V wished to “finish the job that his predecessor failed”. In fact, Napoleon V sent a telegram to Colombian leaders wishing for assistance in the war in exchange for full Continental Alliance support. The existence of the telegram is doubted by many, but nonetheless the Colombian forces engaged both the Panamanian rebels and Americans in the region. Some even wielded German and French weapons, which may make the telegram hypothesis (known as the “Victor Telegram” correct. Nonetheless, the attempt at squashing the Americans failed, and Panamanian-American forces were victorious by the end of the year.
[/FONT] [FONT="]The War in the Western Hemisphere Ends
[/FONT] [FONT="] Following the unsuccessful invasion of the United States, and the failure of Colombia to distract the American military, the Continental Powers lost serious grip in the Caribbean. The Dominican Republic was liberated on May 17th, 1903, and all of the Lesser Antilles were under British control by the first day of summer. With Germany, France, and Spain backed into a corner, they had to act at some point, for one last act of self-defense.
[/FONT] [FONT="] This came during the humongous Battle of Havana. Almost the entire Cuban coast had been captured by British, American, and Cuban forces, and only Havana remained. On July 13th, 1903, The Americans, British, and Cubans got involved in a huge battle between the Germans, French, and Spanish. Perhaps as many as 55,000 Americans, 15,000 British, and 198,000 Cubans fought some 100,000 Germans, 30,000 French, and 25,000 Spanish. The Battle lasted for an entire month and rendered the city a wasteland. Once the smoke cleared, 64,000 men lay dead, and another 70,000 injured. The chaos of the war is attributed to the last amount of energy in the Germans who had been fighting in the trenches of Cuba since 1899, and the valiant personalities of the confident Americans after defeating the French and Germans in the invasion of the United States. After the war, no significant resistance was left of any Continental Power, and the last Germans were captured in August of that year.
[/FONT] [FONT="] As the Spanish, French, and German forces were cleared from Cuba, the incoming British and American forces restored order to the land. At this point, Spain, with its small military and extremely limited industrial output, could no longer fight and military advisers knew that defeat was certain. The Spanish officially negotiated terms of peace with the United States and Britain on October 13th, 1903, though official territorial changes would occur only after the entire war would ended. After the Continental Powers were defeated in the Caribbean War, the United States would send troops over to Europe to help the British as a way of repaying their help in the Caribbean War. Also, the Americans could focus on the Philippine War that was soon to end.
[/FONT] [FONT="]The Philippine War and the Pacific
[/FONT] [FONT="] Much of the Philippine War was fought by the rebels. Due to its isolation from major German seaports and its little strategic importance, the Germans did not concern themselves with the Philippine islands. That could not be said for another, unaligned nation – Japan. The Japanese wished to “beat the Europeans at their own game” by claiming new territories and taking those from existing empires, and they saw their chance in the Philippine War. The Japanese declared war on Spain and Germany on April 16th, 1901, and followed up with a surprise attack on Manila. As the Japanese conquered city after city from the weak and unorganized Spanish, the United States and Great Britain created a wartime alliance with Japan that would respect her acquisitions. With the help of the Americans and British, the Japanese conquered the Philippines by mid-1902. The remaining Pacific Isles were no match for the Japanese; they stormed many Spanish-controlled island of the Philippines and Palau and slaughtered the unorganized and unprepared Spanish soldiers who had the misfortune to fight the Japanese. Resistance was tougher on German islands such as Samoa, but additional Allied assistance led to the total victory for the Japanese-British-American alliance by February 1903.
[/FONT] [FONT="]The War in Other Places: Africa, Australia
[/FONT] [FONT="] The continent of Africa, with its thick jungles and vast deserts, sparse population, and lack of military presence, made Africa a poor place for combat. Rather, the colonial forces in Africa viewed the natives, rather than each other, to be the main opposition. One event to mention here is the Ashanti Rebellion of May 1902 in which British and French colonial forces worked together and crushed the opposition. The only significant war in Africa was the Second Boer War, in which the German-supported Boers were decisively defeated by the British by November 1902. [/FONT]
[FONT="] In Australia, the willingness to fight for Britain was strong. Most of the forces of the British Empire in the Philippine War were Australians. As a reward for Australian performance in the war, the colony of Australia was awarded with the upgrade to a dominion on January 3rd, 1903.
[/FONT] [FONT="]A Summary: September 1903
[/FONT] [FONT="] The year 1903 was a bad year for the Continental Powers regarding the war abroad. The failed invasion of the United States, the fall of Cuba, and the total Japanese victory in the Pacific crushed the morale and military of the three major nations. Germany redirected its tactics for defending herself rather than supplying others; the war became increasingly unpopular and Napoleon V was increasingly criticized as being a poor military leader; Spain was all but eliminated from the war entirely. The war in Europe, which would last until 1905, would be the last breath for the Continental Powers as troops from the United States began to arrive en masse.[/FONT]
[FONT="](To me, this section is surprisingly short. I may choose to lengthen this one and make major edits to Chapter VIII)[/FONT]
[FONT="]
Chapter IX: The War In Europe Turns
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[FONT="]Russia in 1903
[/FONT] [FONT="] Though the war began with Russia on the offensive in East Prussian countries, the Russians quickly found themselves on the defensive. Both the German public and the military were rallied and ready for war; the German counterattack successfully puhshed Russia out of East Prussia by 1901 and went on the offensive into Poland and, eventually, Russia proper. By mid-1901, the areas of Western Poland and the regions of Lithuania, Courland, and Southern Livonia were successfully sieged by the Germans and the French, who arrived on the front once Germany began her offensive. The massive Franco-German armies quite literally tore cities such as Lublin, Warsaw, and Vilnius to the ground with modern artillery. The German Navy was very successful in the siege of Liepaja in December of 1901 despite weather constraints. Russia was losing, and even some Austro-Hungarian assistance (ironically, much of the Russian Army was deployed to Austria to stop a Franco-German invasion of Vienna, which was eventually successful) did not change the course of the invasion of Russia.
[/FONT] [FONT="] By May 1902, Germany and France, numbering perhaps as much as 500,000 total, reached the outskirts of the city of Minsk, on the course to capturing Moscow. The vital supply line that extended from Posen in Germany sent fresh ammunition, provisions, and troops to the city, which was being threatened by the Continental Powers. For a month, France and Germany aimed their guns at the city, ready to strike the significant Russian military presence there. Even a telegram was sent personally to Alexander III to request that the Russians retreat or be “effortlessly removed from the territory at once”. Alexander III did not respond; thus began the largest battle of the war, the five-month long Siege of Minsk.
[/FONT] [FONT="] The siege initially started out as an artillery bombardment of Russian batteries along the outskirts of the city, and no major infrastructure damage was observed during this initial stage. Very little actual fighting occurred, but casualties (especially on the Russian side) grew large. As more supplies came from the Posen Supply Line, the Continental Powers commenced the invasion of the City of Minsk. The Germans and French stormed the financially crippled city, but met heavy resistance. Amidst the dust and smoke from artillery fire, one could not make out a true “trench line”, seeing the close-range combat of the Continental and Russian soldiers and the growing pile of the deceased, both military and civilian. During this stage, buildings were razed to the ground and the city was rendered unrecognizable. By July 16, the city was mostly occupied by Continental troops, but thousands of Russians still remained in hiding, occasionally striking at their opposition with extreme brutality and pragmatism that was a hallmark of Russian perseverance during the Battle of Minsk – some resorted to using torches, sharpened metal, and even chairs and furniture, anything that could harm their assailants. Though these perseverant Russians were a nuisance to the Continental Powers, who at this point almost controlled the entire city, they were not considered a major threat and Germany and France began to construct a new center of command from which a larger invasion of Moscow would be launched.
[/FONT] [FONT="] General Adrian Kuznetsov, who presided over the 6th army, devised a tactical plan to strike the Posen Supply Line at key points, severing the Continental advance and its supply, forcing them to eventual retreat, capture, or annihilation altogether. Kuznetsov’s army and other armies of Poland began their assault in the region of Mazovia, the center of the supply line. The attack, which lasted from July 18th to July 29th, was much a surprise to the Continental Powers, and was a strategic Russian victory. Other armies began to attack other occupied cities as well, notably Lublin and Vilnius, where the 8th Army recaptured the city with only 22% of the total military casualties, the most successful Russian engagement in the war. As the links in the supply line were broken, Germany and France were forced to withdraw small numbers of troops from the city of Minsk to address the situation in the west. The Russians were slowly winning.
[/FONT] [FONT="] To add to the counterattack, a few Austrian battalions entered Russian territory and assisted in occupying southern Polish cities. By September, Russia began to reconquer Minsk and liberate the literally starving Russians, and by early October, the Continental forces were completely pushed from the city and surrounding areas. The Continental Powers would be on the retreat in early 1903 as more and more Russians flooded into the Continental-occupied areas, where the sheer size of the Russian military (the military having as many as 11,000,000 strong) would force the smaller and ill-supplied French and Germans toward Prussia.
[/FONT] [FONT="]The Ottomans Are Destroyed and Balkan Victory
[/FONT] [FONT="]The Ottoman Army, headed by the poor tactician Abdul Hamid II and his regime, performed the most poorly during the war. Despite training and assistance from France and Germany, the Ottomans were overwhelmed by the multitude of fronts and enemies that they had to fight (practically every bordering nation was at war with the Ottoman Empire) and were always at the disadvantage. In 1902, the Russian advance into Trebizond and Van regained speed, and the Russians easily overpowered the ill-equipped and outdated Turkish military. In the Balkans, the advanced Italian armies successfully occupied the city of Shkoder and surrounding areas from the outset; the armies of Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria cooperated with Slavic rebels in Ottoman-held lands and overthrew the Turkish resistance in cities from Skopje to Pazar, and Greece pushed into Macedonia in conjunction with the Slavic forces. In addition, the British military in Egypt launched an assault on Libya (to assist Italians fighting in the region) and the Middle East. By 1903, the enemies of the Ottoman Empire completely surrounded Constantinople: the combined nations of the Balkans were within ten kilometers of the city; the Russians mercilessly shelled the poorly-defended city of Angora, and the British occupied the Mediterranean Middle East and had ships and the ready for a naval bombardment of Constantinople. Without options, and presented with a truce by both Russia and Britain, the Ottomans chose to retaliate with their last breath in the Siege of Constantinople. Despite some help from France and Germany, the Ottomans had no standing chance in this massive invasion, totaling about 1,100,000 total troops. The armies of the Balkans invaded from the West, Russia from the East, and Britain through the Dardanelles. The Russians also commenced an amphibious landing in the west to assist their Slavic allies, and by November 1903, the Ottomans were forced to make peace with the Allies. With the Ottomans destroyed, only the exhausted armies of France and Germany still stood in the now-devastating war.
[/FONT] [FONT="]France: A Nation in Trouble
[/FONT] [FONT="] During the war, France suffered from some major disadvantages. One, mobilization of hundreds of thousands of troops to Russia would be a lengthy and costly process that led the country to near bankruptcy by mid-1903. Also, while at the same time an advantage, the nearness of Britain to France made the likelihood of an invasion high. Also, as the war in Italy stalled, the nation found itself further and further in insurmountable debt. French economists believed that France simply did not have the money to continue fighting, and that peace should be negotiated at once. Many of these problems can be traced back to the poor leadership of the unpopular leader of France, Napoleon V. His poor military planning and economic agenda hindered France during the war. This is justified by the logistic failure of France in the long Battle for the Channel, in which superior British logistics successfully eliminated the threat of a Continental invasion of Britain, and by March 1903, the British Navy prevailed in the channel.
[/FONT] [FONT="] His forces on the continent were in even deeper trouble. The armies in Russia, after the supply line was cut, stopped receiving supplies of any kind, so mutiny and desertion was extremely common. Many historians say that Russia was not the primary enemy of France in the eastern war but France itself was the greatest danger: at the retreat from Warsaw in November 1903, most of the fighting was actually the French fighting each other, not the French fighting the Russians. In Italy, at the Battle of Rome, a combined force of Italians and British pushed the southern divisions from the city limits and into the city of Viterbo, where the Italians annihilated the French at the Second Battle of Viterbo, which is hailed as a great point in Italian history by patriotic Italians.
[/FONT] [FONT="]As Italy pushed north and eventually into France itself, the British were ready to launch a full-scale invasion of France, despite financial restraints. With the Caribbean War ended, the Americans began sending troops to Europe to assist the British. The Ango-Canadian-American forces arrived in Dunkirk in the Battle of Dunkirk, which lasted from January 21st to February 1st, 1904. Despite French resistance from the beachheads, the Allies were eventually able to penetrate the French Resistance only after sending wave after wave onto the beach. Cities such as Calais and Berck fell to the Allies, who eventually pushed into France and fought (and won) battles in cities such as Douai and Arras. Once the Allies reached Amiens on March 13th, the French launched a successful counterattack which would temporarily hold back the advancing Allies, but a second engagement on March 21st would destroy the French military and linkage around Paris.
[/FONT] [FONT="]By this point, faith in the French government was extremely low. While war raged in the north, riots from political groups and dissatisfied citizens shattered the city. At this point, the war was driving Napoleon V literally insane. Even his imperial guard would not obey his order to fire on rioters in the streets of Paris, and his cabinet refused to comply with him. On April 13th, extremely dissatisfied with the position of France, Napoleon V’s cabinet members forcibly removed him from office and created a temporary government in place of the empire, now officially declared defunct.[/FONT]
[FONT="] The first order of the new government was to negotiate peace with the allies. On April 18th, 1904, with the Allies only a dozen kilometers north of Paris, fighting in France would stop. Afraid of being completely torn to pieces as Austria had been in 1866, the French vowed not only to cease fighting with the Allies, but to support them with the new French militia that numbered a mere 2,000 men, all of whom would assist the Allies in the invasion of Germany. In addition, news of French surrender was to reach the east, which it did by early May of 1904, but by then, most French troops were captured by or just fled from the chaos of the pursuing Russian Army numbering in the millions. Despite French surrender, Italy continued to occupy the regions of Nice and areas in proximity to the Italo-French border.[/FONT]
[FONT="]Only Germany Remains
[/FONT] [FONT="]In May of 1904, with all of Poland reoccupied by Russia, Spain out of the war, the Ottoman destroyed, and France completely withdrawn from the Continental Alliance and helping the allies, only Germany remained to finish the fight. Despite the awful economic situation of the country (the country was running on money that simply did not exist) and the enormous death toll (about 11% of the population dead), Germany continued to fight. Russia continued the assault into East Prussia, eventually capturing cities such as Posen, Danzig, and Konigsberg (thus rendering the Navy of the North Sea destroyed), creating a path of destruction in its tracks. Farmland of Prussia was burned or the farmers were evicted from their properties, entire cities of populations of up to 10,000 were rendered uninhabited, and German troops continued to be captured. Meanwhile, the Austrians and Russians pushed the Germans out of the shifting warzone of Austria and went on the offensive for the first time in five years, and starting in June, the combined forces of Britain, Canada, the United States, and provisional France launched an invasion of the Rhineland, a costly but successful attack. As the year 1904 drug on, Germany continued to run out of resources as the Allies occupied important cities such as Munich, Frankfurt, Dusseldorf, and the entire Rhineland. The Russians approached Berlin from the East.[/FONT]
[FONT="] By the time the allied powers had reached Berlin, Germany was annihilated in a war that it truly did not have the ability to fight anymore. The Fall of Berlin, which would last until January 15th, 1905, would result in enormous casualties on either side but would eventually destroy Germany – and end the war.
[/FONT] [FONT="] On January 16th, 1905, the allied powers declared Berlin fallen and the devastating Great War came to a bloody, screeching halt. The Allies won.[/FONT]
[FONT="](This one for me was the most rushed. Perhaps some help would be most appreciated here!)[/FONT]
[FONT="]
Chapter X: The War Ends
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[FONT="]Assessment of the War
[/FONT] [FONT="] The Great War is agreed by many to be the worst conflict in world history. The seemingly relentless conflict spanned every continent (including unrest in Colombia and a minor skirmish between expeditionary teams in Antarctica in 1903). In each of the places in which the gruesome war just so happened to occur, buildings, both remnants of the old world and marvels of modern technology, were razed to the ground, and many cities were entirely unrecognizable – or for that matter, completely destroyed. Farmlands, pastures, and natural environments were set aflame by the wicked power of the weaponry of the time. The total number of casualties across all nations, including the minor Boer Republic, Colombia, and European colonies, is often tallied up to a colossal death toll of 29 million – with Russia bearing the greatest losses, at 9 million combatants and civilians dead, wounded, missing, or captured. An entire generation of men was seemingly wiped from the earth in this traumatic conflict. Though many perished, the most stricken were the families of the heroes who sought to fight for their nation.
[/FONT] [FONT="] The war got many to doubt the legitimacy of the government itself. In the United States, President McKinley’s almost authoritarian actions were initially criticized. The Espionage Act of 1902 made anti-American speech and support for the enemy illegal; The Military Repayment Act of 1903 ate through the pockets of the American public; finally, the Temporary Quartering Act, which was enacted during the invasion of Boston, was almost stretched to the limits of its being unconstitutional. While these acts seem invasive, they secured the United States and made it better in dealing in the war. In France, Napoleon V was already unpopular from the start of the war. His staunchly anti-British, nationalist, and often racist beliefs contradicted the liberalism that the Napoleonic state dictated. Napoleon V would not even see the war finish, as he was thrown from office and assassinated before the end of the war. Abroad, many people looked at the war with critical eyes, that it was a war constructed by the rich for the poor to fight. This mentality brought upon a new kind of public attitude toward government that glorified rebellions and criticism of the government. While McKinley participated in three terms of presidency (he would die in 1907, almost finishing his third), the war made Americans patriotic and skeptical at the same time. To what extent can the government manipulate the public during wartime? How big is ‘big government’? For what are we fighting?
[/FONT] [FONT="] The war was both the last “old war” and the first “new war”. As customary to the “old wars”, the warfare of nations in the beginning were largely Napoleonic – soldiers wore colorful uniforms, battles were very uniform and organized, and technology was limited. Practically the entire Austro-German war was fought as an “old war”. It would be the last war in which the soldiers would be without helmets and the last in which horseback cavalry would be more potent than the automotive cavalry. Technologies like these would define the “new wars”, which are defined as the end of the Great War to the present: rapid movement, relatively unorganized fighting, and the use of technology such as machine guns, automobiles, and eventually airplanes began to take shape in every battle henceforth. The first characteristics of this type of war appeared in the tactics of the Guerrilla fighters in Cuba, and across the Atlantic Ocean the initial Russian offensive was rather a “new war fought with old toys”, as American historian Alexander Higgs stated in an essay in 1955. However, most of the war was an “old war fought with new toys”, or old tactics with new weaponry, which was the main reason behind the chaos.
[/FONT] [FONT="] In terms of the causes, people had no idea how such a chaotic conflict could have started from something so small; according to many, this war seems like an unlikely work of alternate history and this war should have lasted only a few months, if at all. Almost everybody pointed their fingers at Germany, even her allies, who would claim that Germany forced them into war, and forced the continuation of conflict. Solely blaming the war on Germany would be extremely biased, perhaps even ignorant: each nation at the time was undergoing an explosion in military pride, nationalism, and expansionism. At the same time, nations such as Spain and the Ottoman Empire were desperately trying to hold together what remained of their formerly wealthy empires, which by then were conflict-ridden hindrances to their own advancement. Strong personalities, such as Wilhelm II, Napoleon V, and William McKinley also shaped the national relations of the time. Nowadays, many do not point their fingers to one countries, but a number of issues are believed to have led to a huge, unavoidable, massive war. [/FONT]
[FONT="] As the war ended, the allies, Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and the United States began to shape Europe to prevent a war like this from happening again – and from attacking each other. Britain and Austria-Hungary were well wary of Russian ambitions in the Balkans, and the nations almost went to war over Constantinople. At the same time, both Russia and Great Britain believed that the dissolution of Austria-Hungary would be a good thing, as multi-national empires would surely give way to nation-states. The enemies of the allies would be rearranged entirely, and the spoils of the war would be divided amongst the victors. Was this a good idea?
[/FONT] [FONT="]Congress of Amsterdam
[/FONT] [FONT="]Almost as soon as the war was over, the nations of Europe took action to create peace in the world. The leaders and ministers of the nations of Europe, as well as the United States, met in a congress to discuss the post-war world. The main goal of the congress was to solve the question of the cause of the Great War, and to make a system which would prevent such a war from ever happening. The congress involved several treaties, all of which dealt with part of the preceding issues.
[/FONT] [FONT="]The first treaty signed was the Treaty of London (1905), signed between the United States, Britain, Spain, and Japan, which dealt with the distribution of formerly Spanish territories in the Caribbean and Pacific. Cuba became an independent republic under United States supervision until 1911, though American intervention in Cuba would occur for many years after that. Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States as well, though that former Spanish colony would never see independence, at least in the near future. The Pacific Island territory of Palau was ceded directly to Japan, while Britain and the United States shared occupation of the Mariana Islands. Guam came under complete United States jurisdiction. The Philippines, a nation whose occupancy was contested by the United States, Japan, and Britain, became a special mandate – though quasi-independent, the three occupying nations still controlled foreign policy in each respective area of occupation. Thus, it can be said that the Philippines were “dis-united”. At the time, such a division was seen as a way to prevent war amongst the three occupying nations, and the division remained so for many years afterward. A final point of the treaty was the payments of some 10 billion pesetas to the allies. The reparations added “insult to injury”, or rather “injury to injury” – Spain was already torn by the war, but the reparations would be a choking strain on the bankrupt nation.[/FONT]
[FONT="]The large Treaty of Strasbourg (1905) would address the situation regarding Germany and France. Germany was forced to pay a reparation of 80 billion marks, while France was required to pay 40 billion francs. Germany’s military was limited to a total of 50,000 men, and Germany was forbidden from fighting an offensive war against any other nation. Germany lost all of her overseas territories, and the German coastline along the North Sea would remain demilitarized. As a reward for the Transitional Government’s support for the allies after the overthrow of Napoleon V, France would only lose Tunisia and Djibouti to Italy, Guinea and French Guiana to Britain, and her Chinese sphere of influence to Japan. A strip of land from Paris to Dunkirk would remain demilitarized, and France’s military would be limited to 100,000 men, a seemingly generous limitation as compared with that of Germany. France would be forbidden from declaring war against an allied nation, which included the victors plus the independent nation of Cuba, Panama, and the quasi-independent Philippines. The only territorial change of France and Germany themselves was the Italian annexation of Nice and Savoy in southeastern France, the Russian annexation of the formerly Prussian Province of Posen, and the Danish annexation of areas of Schleswig. [/FONT]
[FONT="]The final major combatant of the Continental Powers, the Ottoman Empire, was limited by the Treaty of Athens. The allied nations and the Balkan League had successfully occupied the entire nation, and they and the leaders of the Ottoman Empire addressed the territorial and gubernatorial changes of the Empire. The most important change was the reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, which was supported by the Young Turks in the empire before the war. The sultan was stripped of his title as sultan and Caliph of Islam and was given a new title – King of the Turks. The nation would be largely democratic, with the king serving as powerless figurehead under a parliamentary democracy. The unpopular Abdul Hamid II was replaced by the favored Mehmed V as the first King of the Turks. The change in government reflected the idea that secular nation-states would prevail in the post-war world, and the Kingdom of Turkey was the “trial” in determining the legitimacy of this belief; Russia also though that this change would be beneficial to her controlling of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. The Kingdom of Turkey was downscaled by a major degree territory-wise: Serbia and Bosnia were united under one monarchy, the United Slavic Kingdom, which was protected by Russia. This new nation also acquired areas along the Adriatic Sea and Macedonia. Bulgaria gained territory in Macedonia as well, in addition to parts of the Aegean Sea coastline. Greece expanded north and east into the region of Smyrna. Russia acquired some territory in Trebizond and Armenia. In the Middle East, Britain gained Palestine and Mesopotamia, Italy gained part of Syria, France was given part of Lebanon for her support of the allies at the end of the war, and additional territories were united with a pro-British Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In North Africa, the British occupation of Egypt was made legitimate, and Italy was given Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan.
[/FONT] [FONT="] At the congress, the Provisional Government of France was established as the Third French Republic, with a strictly parliamentary system that was a mirror of Britain without the monarch as head of state. One early criticism of the new republic was that almost all of its parliament was composed of former cabinet members and constituents of Napoleon V, though these men saw the flaws that Napoleon V made and wished to avoid them, rather than execute them in a new manner.
[/FONT] [FONT="] One day after the war ended, Wilhelm II abdicated from his position as emperor, and the various monarchs of lesser states did the same. By the time of the congress, a republican government had claimed power. At the conference, the official government of Germany was established as the German Republic, which had a semi-presidential system. Unlike in France, the leaders of Germany were outsiders to the regime of the German Empire, and many saw this as a new approach to European relations.
[/FONT] [FONT="] A grave danger of an Allied victory in the Great War was the ambitions of each member. At this time, Austria-Hungary and Russia were almost ready to go to war with each other, but neither had the strength to fight each other. They both wished to never fight such a large war again, so Austria-Hungary and Russia settled their disputes on paper. The Agreement of Katowice addressed nationalism in both of the empires. Austria-Hungary would respect Slavic minorities in her own empire of Russia supported the Polish minority in hers; thus, Franz Ferdinand I reorganized the Austro-Hungarian Empire into several semi-autonomous states that functioned rather as a confederation, and Russia gave autonomy to the Kingdom of Poland, whose monarch was now disjoint from the Emperor of Russia, though the nation was still under heavy Russian influence. Austria-Hungary ceded Istria and parts of Tyrol to Italy as promised before the war, and the Allies allowed Italy to occupy the new Principality of Albania in the Balkans, a region which Italy had occupied during the war.
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[FONT="] The final action in the congress was a formation of a weak cooperation of nations from around the world, the Association of Nations. The organization further served to dissuade another Great War by binding the world together. The founding members were Britain, France, the United States, Germany, Italy, and Portugal, but the organization would soon include every independent nation in the world. The organization was opt-in with little restrictions of secession.
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[FONT="][/FONT] The World, Year 1907
[FONT="]1907, the World Thus Far; the Future of Things to Come
[/FONT] [FONT="]As states before, the war changed the face of the Earth in many ways. Britain and the United States became “inseparable allies” as McKinley stated in 1907. Nation-states would dominate the world in a matter of years. Meanwhile, still-aging empires tried to combat change via alliances and agreements. Still, the world was doubtful. Did the allies learn from their mistakes? Could they redraw the world in their own eyes to create a better world? Was the defeated party defeated too much? It is strange how history would show this answer…[/FONT]
I love it! Just one thing annoys the hell out of me. I know France didn't give up Alsace and Lorraine in the beginning... but you need to understand something THEY WOULDN'T EVEN CONSIDER IT. But so far excellent.
I love it! Just one thing annoys the hell out of me. I know France didn't give up Alsace and Lorraine in the beginning... but you need to understand something THEY WOULDN'T EVEN CONSIDER IT. But so far excellent.
Thanks! After rereading Part I I'm thinking about adding a more imperialistic Bismarck. As you can see, Germany owns Senegal in 1898 and that was one addition of the Mainz Agreement, I added that after I wrote the TL...
Also, France never gives up A-L ITTL. If there is a typo or inconsistency, please point it out.