Henry Cabot Lodge Part VII(A) (1913-1917)
1913
Lodge returned to Philadelphia on New Years Day. His task was to lay the foundation for Theodore Roosevelt’s first few months in Office. Roosevelt could not arrive until after his successor Wallace MacFarlane was sworn in. Roosevelt wound need time to prepare his family and affects for their move to Philadelphia. Lodge arraigned an office for Roosevelt while he prepared to move into the Powell House. In the mean time Roosevelt and his family moved into his sister Anna “Bamie” Roosevelt Cowles’ Townhouse in the Fashionable Rittenhouse Square. Anna Roosevelt Cowles was married to William Cowles a Naval Rear Admiral, assigned to the Navy General Staff. [1]
While awaiting his inauguration Roosevelt went about the business of selecting a cabinet and paving the way for his aggressive reform agenda. Lodge was an integral part of his plans. Lodge had been a member of the Liberal Republicans when he began his career and continued to champion moderate social reform. While he had grown more conservative with age, he still supported most of Roosevelt’s reform agenda.
Lodge would be useful in working with Speaker of the House Henry Adams. Adams was a fellow reformer and a critic of the runaway capitalism of the age, but he was not the biggest fan of Roosevelt. The three were often social companions, but Adams often complained that Roosevelt was too quick to act without reflection. While Adams could be counted to corral the necessary votes in the House, the Senate would be more difficult. The Senate did not have nearly as many reform democrats. Instead Lodge and the other democrat reformers would have to coble together a coalition of socialists and republicans.
Even before Roosevelt’s inauguration Roosevelt made his presence felt on the National and International scene. First was the House of Lord’s rejection of the Third Irish Home Bill. Though passed by Parliament in 1912 the House of Lords ultimately rejected in early February. The Irish American community immediate held protest rally’s. Roosevelt, Lodge and Vice-President elect McKenna were quick to attend. Roosevelt praised the loyalty of the Irish American community and the success they had achieved in the United States. Noting the many Irish American Patriots including the soon to be sworn in first catholic Vice President. Lodge always mindful of Massachusetts’ powerful Irish catholic vote was quick to denounce Britain’s continued rejection of popular government. In a speech before a protest before the Ancient Order of Hibernians Lodge declared, had all Irishmen the right to vote Britain, could not afford to stop their independence. Lodge warned that like in its colonies across the Atlantic that only revolution may solve the issue. President Aldrich said nothing, watching all the progress he had made Britain evaporate.
On the domestic front, when suffragettes held rallies and parades in Philadelphia and later DC for women suffrage Roosevelt was in attendance. Roosevelt also visited the coalminers of Pennsylvania and West Virginia promising relief. Roosevelt promised to do more to protect the nations wilderness, as he had done as governor of New York when he created the Catskill and Adirondack State Parks. Roosevelt also gave a lectures at Valley Forge Staff College and the Naval Academy at Annapolis outlining his vision for further Army and Navy reform. Through out all this Lodge’s job was to assure party leadership that Roosevelt was not a revolutionary, but only meant to stave off revolution.
The Inauguration
In March of 1913 the U.S. government made its Quadrennial pilgrimage to the city of Washington DC. Along with the government were thousand of Roosevelt’s supporters; these included New York reformers, old members of the remembrance faction, veterans of the War of Secession, veteran of the Second Mexican War and especially members of the Un-Authorized Regiment. The sea of supporters added a jovial atmosphere compared to the last eight years. Further unlike Aldrich’s frozen second inaugural, March 4 1913 the temperature was a balmy 55 degrees Fahrenheit.
After eight years of out of the circle of executive power, Lodge had retuned to the first row of dignitaries behind the President. Aldrich stood on the platform in a winter coat dower and tired. Roosevelt despite his 54 years seems to leap to the podium in nothing but a suit. After Vice-President McKenna was swore in by his father Supreme Court Justice Joseph McKenna, Roosevelt took the oath of office. When the oath was complete the ceremonial field howitzers were fired and Roosevelt began a speech 30 years in the making. Roosevelt’s inauguration was brief and he seemed to bite each word tearing it from the air. He reminded the many blessings the American people had and the great price they paid them. The importance of maintaining our overseas alliances and the need to stand firm against Entente jealousy. More than any other presidential candidate he reminded the American people that the industrial age created new challenges the founders had not foreseen, which required new solutions. That most of all the American working man deserved a “Square Deal.”
With Roosevelt’s speech concluded the crowd erupted into applause. From there the days activities took on the air of a national celebration. Tens of thousands of westerners made the trip, despite being a native New Yorker, Roosevelt’s time and the west and his continued investment in the cattle industry made many feel like a westerner. Roosevelt was often seen as the first cowboy President. After much fanfare and the largest inaugural parade in the nations history, Congressmen and woman retired to the many Presidential Balls and galas. After a day of celebration Roosevelt and the rest of the government returned to Philadelphia to return to running the government.
Roosevelt's First Cabinet
• Secretary of State Robert Lansing
• Attorney General Charles Bonaparte
• Secretary of War Elihu Root
• Secretary of the Treasury George B. Cortelyou
• Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels
• Post Master General George von L. Myer
• Secretary of Industry Charles Nagel
• Secretary of the Interior Franklin Lane
Roosevelt’s first agenda was securing the ratification of the members of his Cabinet. Unlike Aldrich, Roosevelt chose to balance his Cabinet with Conservative and Reform Democrats. However it was clear from his choices that he would be pursuing a more progressive agenda then Aldrich. Roosevelt chose Reformers for important federal enforcement positions. For Attorney General Roosevelt chose Charles Bonaparte, a tenacious Maryland Attorney General and chairman of the Civil Reform League. For Secretary of the Treasury he chose George B. Cortelyou a defender of Aldrich’s Federal Reserve board and a critic of predatory monopolies except for important utilities. Frank Lane was selected as Secretary of the Interior Frank Lane a California politician, who was friendly to business, conservationist and was a westerner.
Roosevelt also added conservative members to his Cabinet. First was Charles Nagel, originally born in Texas before the war he immigrated to St. Louis after the War of Secession. There he attended George Washington University Law School and became corporate counsel for Adolphus Busch. Nagel supported the expansion of the Immigration and Naturalization Service to make it more accessible to the needs of businessmen. He also supported strong tariffs with the CSA, but making it easier for Confederate citizens to immigrate to the US. To appeal to Reed Democrats Roosevelt chose the conciliatory Robert Lansing. A prominent corporate and international Lawyer, he like Roosevelt believed in international arbitration. He represented the US as counsel for the North Atlantic Fisheries in the Arbitration at The Hague in 1909-1910. Lansing was a part of a growing school of international relations theorist that believed the US was best served by re-aligning closer to Great Britain.
For Secretary of War and the Navy, Roosevelt chose two Militarists and reformers Josephus Daniels and Elihu Root. Daniels got the position for supporting Roosevelt’s campaign, however he had been from a family of Shipbuilders. He supported adding more destroyers and cruisers to the force to attack Entente shipping incase of war. For Secretary of War Roosevelt, recruited his long time ally in New York politics and Remembrance Democrat Senator Elihu Root. Roosevelt wanted Root to spearhead a series of reforms that would complete Upton’s program. Roosevelt wanted Root to draft a new army bill that would clear house of many of the older conservative officers that were unfit for service and standing in the way of reform.
First Three Months
First item on Roosevelt’s plan for a "Square Deal" for all Americans was the passage of the Civil Service Reform Act. Civil Service Act had been the dream of good government reformers since the Railroad Scandals of the 1870’s. Though some measures had been passed by congress for test’s safe guarding new federal departments. Party bosses had blocked any significant comprehensive reform measures. Now with Aldrich gone and Henry Adams as speaker of House Civil Service passed on its first ballot of the House. The Senate was more difficult, Lodge was partnered with William Finn the 1912 Democratic Convention Chairman and Senator from Pennsylvania the two reformers cobbled the votes from the 20 odd reform democrats, three socialists and liberal republicans. In a ceremony, which included many of the surviving good government reformers from the 19th century, Roosevelt signed "for my father and the great reformers of the 19th century." [2]
Next Roosevelt turned to promises he made to give the working man a square deal. His first act was to pardon all labor leaders imprisoned by the Aldrich administration as a part of the Stevenson Anti-Trust Act. Next came the issue of child labor. Roosevelt had been instrumental in the banning of child labor in New York. Like Civil Service Reform, banning child labor had been a cause celebre of reformers for decades. The proposed statute before Congress sought to prohibit the sale in interstate commerce of goods produced by factories that employed children under fourteen, mines that employed children younger than sixteen, and any facility where children under sixteen worked at night or more than eight hours daily. The basis for the action was the constitutional clause giving Congress the task of regulating interstate commerce. Child Labor was already banned in many states, now under the police powers of the Police Powers of the 16th Amendment it was further likely to survive any constitutional challenges. Just as in the Civil Service Reform Bill, the reform coalition in the House and Senate held.
After the twin success of the Civil Service and Child Labor Bills the administration and it’s congressional allies turned toward defense matters. For years Great Britain and Germany had out paced the US in dreadnought production and nearly bankrupted themselves in the process. Growing demands of Liberal Parliamentarians for domestic spending meant plateauing and even shrinking defense budgets in both nations. As the US economy continued to grow faster than its European counterparts the US could afford to increase both military and domestic spending. Lodge and secretly Mahan behind the scenes had long been advocating for a new 4-4 naval bill, to pull past the European naval powers.
The new Naval Bill would include allocations for four new dreadnoughts each year , two of them to be the new Idaho class super dreadnoughts. It also included funding for an expanded force of destroyers and commerce raiders to attack Entente shipping. Adams a strident Anglophobe quickly locked down the votes in the House. Lodge had a more difficult task, the spending for the new bill would be a major increase to the national budget. if the Senate members were still nominated by the State legislatures it would not have be passed. However now that Senators were popularly elected few Democratic Senators could be seen challenging Roosevelt’s overwhelming popularity even far away from the coast in the western states.
To fund these new programs Roosevelt was going to have to find new sources of funding for the Federal government. The Balance Budget Amendment passed in 1870 after the Panic of 1863, required the federal government to balance its budget each year. Republican’s Liberal Democrats and Socialists refused any increases to the income tax. Secretary of Treasury Cortelyou instead proposed an increase in Corporate Taxes. The first federal income tax was enacted in 1861, and expired after the end of the war. A corporate income tax was enacted in 1887 to pay for conscription, but a key aspect of it was shortly held unconstitutional by the Garfield court. After ratification of the Sixteenth amendment to the U.S. Constitution, this became the corporate provisions of the federal income tax. In 1899, Congress enacted an excise tax on corporations based on income to pay for Mahan’s naval expansion. Under Aldrich collection of the tax was lax to say the least. Roosevelt proposed new round of corporate taxes to pay for his increases in defense and domestic spending. Thanks to the 13th amendment most budget hawks felt required to pass it, the socialist and republicans were naturally quick to pass it.
Next the Congress turned to more benign legislation, which included the Newland Act that was a new round of anti- Asian immigration laws. The Kern Resolution, which was an investigation into the Paint Creek Cabin Strike in West Virginia. The Antiquates Act, which allowed the President to declare natural and ancient sites nationally, protected monuments. Finally was the Federal Trade Commission Bill, this was an expansion of the Wage- Price Control Bill. Roosevelt and other anti-trust politicians hoped the Federal Trade Commission would eventually be the organization that regulated trusts.
Army Reform Bill
Roosevelt’s last bill would be dearest to his heart, a new army allocation bill that would complete the reforms begun by Upton in the 1880’s. Since Upton’s dismissal there had been a struggle between reformers known as Uptonians and conservative officers. The Uptonians wanted to spend more on training, focusing on small units tactics and the quality of the individual American soldier. They also wanted to refocus War Plan Blue , the operative plan for war with the entente based on Upton’s original strategy. Conservative members of the war department lead by Chief of Staff Charles Adams continued to block these reforms, instead focusing on a bread butter strategy of overwhelming the enemy with superior numbers and economic resources.
Roosevelt’s plan spearheaded by Secretary of War Elihu Root called for a number of radical of changes, that would increase army spending. Lodge and Roosevelt had been reading the work of a radical Germany Army Colonel Eric Ludendorff. He argued that the Quadruple Alliance powers should increase their spending and conscription rates to that approaching France and the CSA. Despite Entente claims of US and German militarism, US and German military spending was both only 3.9% of their national product. This was only slightly larger than Britain at 3.4% and much smaller than France and the Confederacy at 4.8%. Both Germany and the US never conscripted more then 50% of their eligible population and no where near the 80% of the population CSA and the France conscripted. An increase in the conscription ratewould add another 300,000 to their active peacetime Army. The increases would make the United States and Germany equal in peacetime strength to the Quadruple Entente and prevent them from waging an aggressive war on Quadruple Alliance members. The bill also included the purchases of new Skoda made super howitzers, more funding for advanced infantry training, a dramatic increase in the number of Machine Guns per unit, research and development in motor cars, an expansion of the aviation section within the Signal Corp, more trucks for US logistics Corp and most controversial of all a new fitness test and mandatory retirement age of 65 for senior officers. The last provision would essentially cause the forced retirement of many of the nations +60 field commanders and Chief of Staff Adam’s.
After months of cooperation between Speaker Henry Adams and President Roosevelt, the new Army Bill was the breaking point. Adams knew the point of the bill was to remove his brother Charles Adams from his position as Chief of Staff. Here Lodge became the go between the two men. Adams made it clear he would squash the bill if it included the fitness requirement. Adams would also agree to the increases in army expansion, but it would have to be slow and not complete for another four years.
At first Roosevelt was apoplectic, he knew many senior commanders were not physically fit to command in the field.[3] For the last decade older officers like Charles Adams, George Custer, Nelson Miles and Hugh Scott, many in their mid sixties, blocked any tactical innovation. Growing up in the small volunteer army these men believed that it would take at least five years to train a proper soldier. As a result conscripts who were only in the service for two years could only be trusted with limited tactical training. New younger officers like John Pershing, Leonard Wood and Seymour du Pont believed conscripts could be given advanced infantry training. The kind of tactics being taught in many Confederate infantry basic training. At this point conscripts were taught merely to rush targets on mass with NCOs behind them to prevent stragglers, new training would teach fire and maneuver techniques.
Lodge and Root were able to calm down Roosevelt and in the end Roosevelt got everything he wanted except, that the army expansion would take five years to complete and their would be no fitness requirement or mandatory retirement age. Both the House and Senate passed the Bill, but only after a bitter fight which did not end until Congress retired for summer recess. [4]
Foreign Affairs
Roosevelt was ready to make waves not only in the US but abroad. After wrapping up his first three months Roosevelt to the outrage of President Wilson, he canceled their planned summit and instead became the first US or CS President to travel abroad while in office by visiting the Island nation of Haiti. His mission was to re-affirm the US treaty of friendship with the island and discuss a U.S. Navy base on the island. To add insult to injury he then secretly allowed members of what was known as the Red Council made up of black socialist revolutionaries to return to the United States.
In Asian affairs, Lodge convinced Roosevelt to officially recognize the Republic of China. Chinese nationalist and modernizers led by Sun Yat-Sen had recently over threw the decrepit Qing dynasty and declared China a Republic. Not knowing whether the new government would recognize European enclaves most European powers refused to recognize the state. With no Chinese enclaves the US had little to lose in recognizing the new government. Lodge also counseled that a China with close ties to the US could act as a counter weight to Japan. As a result the US and Republic of China signed a treaty of friendship and the US was the first nation to open lines of credit to the new government.
Most troubling on the international scene was the outbreak of a second war in the Balkans. By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large elements of their ethnic populations remained under Ottoman rule. In 1912, these countries formed the Balkan League. The First Balkan War broke out when the League attacked the Ottoman Empire on 8 October 1912 and was ended seven months later by the Treaty of London.
The Second Balkan War broke out on 16 June 1913. Both Serbia and Greece utilizing the argument that the war had been prolonged repudiated important particulars of the pre-war treaty and retained occupation of all the conquered districts in their possession. Seeing the treaty as trampled, Bulgaria and Romania soon became involved and by July the Ottoman empire was pushed out of Europe except for its small enclave around Istanbul. Lodge and Roosevelt watched uneasily fearing the war may draw in Austria-Hungary and Russia. Fortunately it did not involve any of the great powers, however both Lodge and Roosevelt saw that a Balkan crises would be the event most likely to trigger a general European war.
Fall session
With Congress returning to for its fall session Roosevelt was convinced to push through more infrastructure projects. The first was the Hancock Highway. Conceived in 1912 by Indiana entrepreneur Carl G. Fisher, the highway was to run coast to coast. Roosevelt believed that infrastructure was one of the ways the US was superior to its southern neighbors, he believed that as a nation surrounded by enemies the US must be able to move men and supplies rapidly between the east and the west. Congress easily passed the measure as it meant thousands of jobs across the country and the and it was formally dedicated October 31, 1913. The Hancock Highway would run 3,389 mile coast-to-coast from Times Square in New York City to Hancock Park in San Francisco, through 13 states: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and California.
Roosevelt administration was also quick to push for emergency relief funds for the Great Lakes Region after a terrible winter storm ground the mid west to a halt. This was a major test for the relatively new National Guard system, their skillful handling of the situation was a testament to Upton’s Reserve system put in place more then two decades before. Despite all the successes of the first year, their was still push back to Roosevelt’s domestic reforms. The first constitutional challenges to Roosevelt’s child labor bill had already been filed.
1914
Domestic Affairs
Across the nation the impact of Roosevelt’s reforms could be felt. Roads were under construction, new exams were being administered for federal jobs, new army training ground were being constructed and tens of thousands of children were no longer employed and going to school. In January Roosevelt visited Michigan to tour the worlds first assembly line and praise Henry Ford for giving his workers a forty hour work week. Outside Mr. Ford’s plant Roosevelt promised even more reforms. Including an end to predatory trusts that stifle competition and raise the price of goods, a minimum wage law for women, an eight hour work day and Limited injunctions against strikes.
By and large most people had supported the end to child labor and Civil Service reform, however Roosevelt’s new proposals would directly affect business owners profits. After an increase in the Corporate Taxes the nations business owners were organized, threatening to unseat those Senators newly up for election in 1914. Led by Conservative Boies Penrose of Pennsylvania and Frank B. Brandegee of Connecticut. As a result opposition to Roosevelt’s programs hardened. His first Bill the Rivers and Harbors Act, which increased spending to improve the nations water born transportation, easily passed. But His next proposal for an eight hour work day, Roosevelt ran into his first true defeat. Old Guard Democrat as they were now being called were able to block a vote on the issue for months. A vote was stalled well into the summer. Roosevelt’s call for a national medical association to provide adequate health care for the nations poor also was moving slowly in the Senate. Roosevelt toured the country on behalf of both issues, but he could not even convince Lodge who called them a “radical intrusion into the affairs of private business." Lodge did not agree with Roosevelt with the extent of the need of the government to intervene in the economy on non-defense related matters. Roosevelt tried touting the Health care association as a defense issue, to ensure the American man was healthy enough to resist its enemy but to little avail. Not giving up Roosevelt proposed a Farm Relief Act, which would help extend credit to farmers and buy unsold grain incase of war time necessity. Again powerful forces in Congress attempted to block the President.
Frustrated with Congress’s inertia Roosevelt chose to use executive powers to offer relief. His first Act was to use the power of the Strategic Wage Price Control board to set railroad rates for farmers hoping to ship crops across the country. Railroad magnates protested, but there was little they could do. He then used the Wage Price Control bill to mandate an eight-hour work day in all munitions factories, armament factories, navy shipyards and other defense related industries. Next Roosevelt declared hundreds of the Nations natural wonders as landmarks, as a part of his powers under the Antiquities Act. This included hundreds of miles of the Grand Canyon, Old Faithful, the Devils Tower and more than fifty other natural wonders.
Constitutional challenges were immediately brought against the Presidents new executive orders. Roosevelt took his case to American people, he began a whistle stop tour of the country drawing huge crowds. A further victory came in late April when the Supreme Court upheld his Child Labor Law as a part of the Federal government’s police powers issue.
Opposition to Roosevelt’s Agenda
Not every American worker was happy with the Roosevelt reforms. Many socialist workers still considered Roosevelt a class enemy. Labor agitation also continued in both 1913 and 1914. These included a major Copper strike in Michigan, a silk workers strike in Paterson New jersey, Street Car workers strike in Indianapolis, an automobile worker strike in Detroit. Roosevelt tried his best to support mediation efforts, which led to some successes. Not all strikes were resolved peacefully. 1914 would see one of the worst incidents in labor history. A seemingly benign strike among Colorado miners resulted in what came to be called the Ludlow Massacre. The massacre was the culmination of a bloody widespread strike against Colorado coal mines, resulting in the violent deaths of between 19 and 26 people; reported death tolls vary but include two women and eleven children, asphyxiated and burned to death under a single tent. The deaths occurred after a daylong fight between State National Guardsmen, Pinkerton camp guards and striking workers. In retaliation for Ludlow, the miners armed themselves and attacked dozens of mines over the next ten days, destroying property and engaging in several skirmishes with the Colorado National Guard. Roosevelt relying on assessment of the conservative democrat governor of Colorado chose not to intervene. This decision would come back to haunt Roosevelt in the post-war period of labor unrest.
Roosevelt’s appeal threatened many orthodox Socialists. Roosevelt offer of reform with nationalist and militarist overtones, undermined the Socialist message of revolution and international workers solidarity. The fact that Roosevelt’s message was so popular was double threatening. To counter Roosevelt's New Nationalism, Socialists candidates and Republican isolationist joined forces to protest Americas continued drift into Prussian militarism. The Anti-Militarist League and Socialist Party staged rallies across the country. The largest was held in Union Square, Manhattan, which was attended by 5,000 to protest Roosevelt’s increase military spending. Several violent incidents that's day foreshadowed the Remembrance Day Riots the next year.
Roosevelt and the Remembrance movement responded decisively. Members of the Soldier’s Circle and the US armed forces threw the largest Remembrance Day parades in history. From Boston to San Francisco millions turned out for the parade. In Philadelphia Roosevelt ordered fly bies from dozens of the US reconnaissance planes, a parade of the newest artillery and armored cars. In Boston Lodge was “Commander” of the parade, which included a full review of the North Atlantic Squadron. Across the country soldiers had to be called in to protect Confederate, French and British Consulates and embassies from being destroyed by angry mobs. Confederate newspaperman William English Walling gave a vivid description of the rally in newspapers throughout the south. Most disturbing were the ominous chants of the Philadelphia crowd chanting for Roosevelt and Revenge. He never forgot Roosevelt’s Mechanical like face behind spectacles which did not show his eyes” and “Roosevelt’s which he bore in a predatory grinn.”
Third Balkans Crises
After a significantly more contentious spring then the year before both the President and Congress looked forward to summer recess. In late June Congress left for their home districts and Roosevelt joined his family on Long Island. Lodge was preparing to join his family vacationing in Maine when newd broke on June 28th that Heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated by Serbian nationalists. Fearing the volatility of the Balkan’s situation Lodge immediately reached out to his contacts in the German and Austrian Foreign Offices. At first there were no indications that this matter seriously jeopardized peace in the region and Lodge left for Maine, but remained in close contact with the Senate.
However by July 4th intelligence from Berlin indicated that the Kaiser was pushing the Austrians toward war. Roosevelt and Lodge immediately returned to Philadelphia. Roosevelt made an emergency recall of Congress. It was becoming increasingly clear that Germany and Austria- Hungary were preparing demands for the Serbian government that were designed to be rejected. On July19th Secretary of State Lansing asked the Austrian ambassador whether they intended to make war on the Serbians. Ambassador Dumba replied to the Secretary of State: “If the Austro-Hungarian government is not going to abdicate forever as a great power, she has no choice but to enforce acceptance by the Serbian government of her demands by strong pressure and, if necessary, by resort to military measures.” He further stated that the an ultimatum to Serbia would come within the week.
Roosevelt immediately called a cabinet meeting, inviting also the Chiefs of Staff of the Army and Navy and Senator Lodge. Its purpose to discuss what options were available should Austria Hungary declare war on Serbia. The meeting began with Secretary of State Lansing presenting what he felt was most likely to happen. Lansing believed that the prospect of war was unlikely. Despite Austria’s blustering, the Europeans would reach some sort of deal that would punish the Serbs, but allow Austria-Hungary to save face. Lansing suggested that the US support Britain’s attempt to mediate the great powers.
Lodge disagreed. Lodge believed that the Serbia was a destabilizing element in the Balkans. Lodge warned that the Serbs acted like an anarchist in the international system. The Serbs wanted to dominate the Balkans in a United Slavic State. They would continue to push the Austrians through terrorist attacks until Austria’s Balkan subjects revolted or war broke out between Serbia its Russian ally and Austria- Hungary. It was coming to a point for Austria-Hungary that war would be more preferable than slow disintegration, provided they have Germany's backing.
Lansing countered that if Germany backed Austria- Hungary and war broke out in the Balkans, this could be construed an aggressive war and the US would not be bound to declare war. After speaking to the Italian ambassador this would be Italy’s most likely course of action. Further that if war with Austria Hungary and Serbia broke out Russia would declare war on Austria Hungary, Germany on Russia and France would join as well. Lansing argued that by the terms of the Entente Cordial Britain would also not be bound to declare war as it has no treaty with Serbia.
One of the eventualities the Cabinet debated was if Britain remained out of the war, which Lansing believed they would. If the war remained only between the continental powers, should the U.S. Intervene? Roosevelt believed that in a purely continental matter the Quadruple Alliance powers would be the likely victors. However if Britain entered the war and threw behind the Entente the weight of the entire British Empire there was a good chance Germany would be defeated. However if Britain remained neutral and the Confederate States remained neutral, the US could act as a guarantee that Britain remained out of the fighting. Lodge pointed out that The U.S. would better be able to send aide to Germany with food and supplies, if the U.S. And Britain remained neutral. After hours of debate it was agreed that everything hung on Britain. If Britain declared war the Confederacy would be compelled to declare war or risk losing its allies forever. The US would then have to declare or risk losing its allies as well.
It was at this point that Navy Chief of Staff Sampson reminded Roosevelt that according to the Navy’s War Plan (which was classified to everyone except the President and Secretary of the Navy), the Navy required 6 days notice to be in place when war was declared. Chief of Staff Adams also reminded the President that full mobilization would take one week to be capable of beginning offensive action under the Modified Plan Blue.
At this point Roosevelt asked each of his senior service chiefs whether the nation was ready for war. Each responded that despite abhorring war the US was as ready as it ever was. Though the Navy was inferior in size to both the British and the German, neither could rival the US’s power in the West Atlantic or Pacific. The Army would like to have grown to a million men, but the US was still more powerful than the combined Armies of the CSA and Canada. Roosevelt adjourned the meeting until further developments.
On July 22nd the Austrian ambassador visited Secretary of State Lansing with a copy of the ultimatum to be delivered to Serbia the next day. Lansing immediately sent this to Roosevelt, who called an informal council of his closest advisors made up of Lodge, ex-President Mahan, Secretary Root and Major General Leonard Wood. From the text of the ultimatum it was clear that the Austro Hungarian government meant to force a war. Like the Cabinet the group agreed that US involvement in a purely continental affair was to no ones benefit. Better the US allow Germany to smash France and Russia, and act as a counter wait to Britain preventing its involvement. Lodge in the meantime would contact his friends in the German Foreign Office to determine how they would feel about the US remaining out of the war.
On July 23rd the Austrian Ultimatum was sent to Serbia to expire on the 25th. and President Roosevelt summoned the German and Austro-Hungarian Ambassadors. At this point President Roosevelt informed the German Ambassador Count von Bernsdorf that the US intended at the moment not declare war on Russia or France, however the US would act as planned as a threat to force Britain’s neutrality. However this was not to be revealed to the British lest they think the US was unprepared for war. Through friends in the Foreign Office and in Berlin, Lodge learned that Kaiser at first acted with shock believing the US had abandoned the alliance. It took several hours for the Chancellor to calm him down and remind him that the US’s influence on Britain’s calculations on whether to declare war was the point of the alliance. The Kaiser quickly telegraphed the President as if it had been the Kaisers plan all along.
After this events moved rapidly British Foreign Minister Sir Edward Grey telegraphed Secretary Lansing and Confederate Secretary of State Thomas Watt Gregory to ask if they would join in offering mediation in a neutral location such as Sweden, Switzerland or Holland. Grey and Wilson hoped this would help to prevent the US from declaring war and possibly remaining neutral. Both American Secretaries of State agreed. It was at this point that intelligence from with the Kaiser's government reported that the Kaiser was frantically trying to convince the Czar not to intervene. Together Lodge and Roosevelt drafted a personal letter from Roosevelt, encouraging the Kaiser "to face this crises with the same coolness and confidence he has shown in the many previous crises. His majesty must resolve to pursue peace or war. It cannot pursue both. Either way your American allies will support you."
On July 25th with the expiration of the Ultimatum Austria Hungary declared war on Serbia and began bombarding border fortifications. In quick procession Russia declared war on Austrian, Germany on Russia, France began a General Mobilization, and Italy and Belgium declared their neutrality. The US secretly orders its navy to mobilize, the US Army was placed on high alert.
At this point the British begin a last minute effort to prevent the war on the continent from becoming a global war, Britain threatened Germany that it will block the entrance of the High Seas Fleet into the channel. Germany in the meantime demanded the Belgians allow free passage of German Armies through their territory, which must be answered the next day. Lodge who was watching events unfold with President Roosevelt at the War Department told Roosevelt that this meant Britain will declare war. Britain will not allow Germany to seize channel ports. Roosevelt agreeing that war with the Entente was inevitable ordered the Pacific Fleet to set sail for the Sandwich Islands.
On August 3rd After failing to cease their mobilization and for their violation of German air space, Germany declared war on France. Britain ordered a General Mobilization, including the disembarkation of one division of marines headed towards Canada. Having failed to answer Germany, German troops invaded Belgium. Wilson quickly ordered his ambassador to personally deliver Roosevelt a note that proposed a mutual declaration of neutrality. Roosevelt refused to answer the question. On August 4th Britain declared war on Germany. The US responded by ordering a General Mobilization. On August 5th the Confederate States declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary, despite not naming the US in the declaration of war. The CSA immediately ordered a General Mobilization.
On August 6th Roosevelt called an emergency session of Congress. Because of the enormity of the situation, Roosevelt broke tradition and personally addressed the combined assembly directly. Until then Presidents had delivered their messages to Congress and President’s did not address the Congress in person. In his speech Roosevelt told Congress:
“The World is engulfed in war! For the past month the nations of Europe have slouched further and further towards war. We have worked to mediate the struggle and offer peaceful solutions, but Serbia a nation of anarchist have wanted nothing but war. Our brave Austrian allies were forced to fight or suffer under continuous attack by black hearted, bomb throwing anarchists. It is clear that Russia and France would use this as a pretext to crush the German Empire as well. Our brave Germans and Austrian Allies did not ask for our help defeating the decrepit Russians and indolent French. However now Britain the source of so much misery for our great nation for since we were still its servants, has decided to crush our continental allies as well. Beckoning their lap dogs Canada and the Confederacy, the morally coward Wilson was all to willing to beckon his master's call and declare war on Germany.
The choice for us now is simple war or neutrality! Do we allow Britain, France, Russia and the Confederacy to crush our allies when it took us so long to earn their respect? Do we remain neutral or do we throw ourselves into the struggle and save our future. With a great moral issue involved, neutrality does not make righteousness, for to be neutral between right and wrong is to serve wrong. Now our great enemy to the south asks us to remain neutral, a neutrality as complete as that of Pontius Pilate. Shall we have peace or shall we have righteousness!
Further do we risk our future on a bargain of peace? Do we believe our foes that after Germany they will not turn on us? I cannot put the fate of our republic in the hands of European Empires and slave masters! I ask you today for a declaration of War! A declaration of war against the Entente nations of Britain, France, and Russia fighting our Teutonic allies. I further ask you for a declaration of war against the our great foe, who has sought to humiliate us at every turn! I ask you for the right to repay our great enemy, who has sown a great Debt of vengeance. Let them reap our great revenge! I ask for a declaration of War against the Confederate States of America!
The response was thunderous applause, Congress voted overwhelmingly for war. Only a handful of Socialist and isolationist Republicans Congressmen and Senators dissented. The vote was followed by a cry of joy and excitement not heard in that august body, since the days before the War of Secession. Congressmen and Senators openly wept for joy, Lodge admitted that he could not contain himself in the moment either. Eighty six year old Congressmen James A. McPherson of Ohio declared “now we have our vengeance on the world!” He then led the body in singing "Sword of Remembrance." [5] It is said that Senator Debs also cried but for other reasons.
WAR!
[1] Later a North Atlantic Squadron Commander in the Great War, He replaced Admiral Henry T. Mayo after his disaster pus attack on Halifax.
[2] Roosevelt’s father Theodore Roosevelt senior had long fought for civil service reform. Unlike his son he clung to the dying Republican party. He had been in the running for to be the New York Port Custom Inspector, as a neutral party but Tammany hall democrats and Spoilsman republicans conspired against him. Roosevelt senior died shortly after that.
[3] In fact at the outbreak of war two field commanders Frederic Funston and Ambrose Bierce suffered heart attacks and strokes requiring their removal. Adams became completely overwhelmed by the CS Army Attack through Maryland and Pennsylvania.
[4] Ludendorff’s proposal would not be enacted in Germany out of fear that it would lead to an over-democratization of the German Army. Some older US commanders felt the same way but were not enough to overcome opposition.
[5] A song set to john brown’s body written and made popular by Julia Ward Howe and made popular after the Second Mexican War.