In the 3rd Century BC the Gauls were thought of throughout the "civilised world" as just another set of Celtic barbarians, a loosely defined term at the best of times which seems to have been just simply thrown around to define most of the "Northern Barbarians" However despite classical thinking the Gauls, like the other tribes of Europe, had an advanced and unique culture of their own.
By all appearances the Gauls seemed to the Greeks and Romans to be everywhere throughout Europe and Asia. There were Gauls from the tip of Brittany to Anatolia itself and they all seemed to just share some Gallic-Barbarian culture that existed among them. Of course this was a belief born of the idea that Hellenism and the like were superior ways to live than other cultures so many Greek and Roman thinkers simply grouped them together as barbarians. In all fairness the Gauls were a very spread out people having achieved such a state by various invasions such as the invasion of 272 BC which led to a number of Gauls settling down in Anatolia and forming a state known today as the Galatians. But this diaspora of Gallic peoples and tribes led to cultures evolved very differently and indeed some of the most unique cultures of the Ancient World can be found in some of the outlying Gallic states. A similar example can be seen in various Greek colonies around the Black Sea and Mediterranean as many intermingled with Thracians or Scythians and their cultures mixed and intermingled. Over time these cultures, like those of the Gallic tribes, evolved and formed new incredibly unique cultures.
But to understand how Gallic cultures evolved over time we need to look at what is generally considered the base Gallic culture or at least as close as one can get to a base culture.
Language
According to historians from the time Gaul itself was dominated by three major languages which were:
Gaulish
Aquitanian
Belgic
Depending on the region depends on where these languages would have been most prevalent but it is very likely that at areas where two or even all three languages met there was of course exchange of words and the languages changed. Not withstanding the fact, of course, that there would have been other languages within Gaul which rarely if ever gained large prominence. In general however we can see already the beginning of cultural evolution in the form of language. By the 3rd or 2nd Century BC the Gaulish language was very much similar to Latin which was likely a result of how the Gauls intermingled with the Romans and Italians. In the 4th Century for example the Gauls launched an invasion of Italy and managed to raid as far South as Sicily. In areas such as the Po Valley therefore where the contact between the Gauls and Romans and Italians was at it's maximum is likely where the process by which Gallic became more and more like Latin would first have begun as slowly that spread throughout other parts of the Gaulish language.
In comparison archaeological evidence suggests that the Aquitanian Language was part of a group of languages known as the Vasonic group of languages for which other examples are usually found in Northern Iberia. Evidence also shows that the Aquitanian language was spoken by tribes and groups on both sides of the Pyrenees. This suggests heavy contact with the Iberian tribes on the other side of the Pyrenees themselves so that the language both spread and evolved. Depending on political circumstances such contact may have been less or more or even about the same as the contact between Gallic Tribes in the Po Valley.
The Belgic language is the one we have the least evidence for but due to it's position and archaeological evidence suggesting Belgic tribes migrating from the traditional Belgic region to the British Isles, it's likely theirs had a linguistic mixture with Germanic languages and some British influence in those tribes who migrated.
Due to the way these languages evolved it's quite possible to make approximate divisions of Gaul around where the each language was likely to be most predominant.
Of course at points where two or more languages met there would be the intermingling of languages so that in areas around where Gaulish and Aquitanian met there would be areas where the language would be predominantly Gaulish or Aquitanian but there would be elements of both languages.
In all likelihood areas such as Brittany were predominantly Gaulish in language. This is important because it can establish therefore as Gaulish being the almost original language with Belgic and Aquitanian being more foreign languages which had spread in over time. Undoubtedly all three languages however would have changed to a point where there would likely have been a decent ability of understanding among those who spoke the languages. While they weren't exactly the same by any means there would have been some ability to understand one another.
Social Structure
Politically the Gauls had a unique and complex political system. Originally they had Kings similar to many other states at the time and by the 3rd Century BC some tribes probably still did. But in general the Gallic social structure seemed to be fundamentally based around the Council of Elders who would elect a magistrate to run the tribe yearly. Among some tribes there were titles which were similar to Kings but their influence was still held down by the Council. In general it seems as though they had a similar political system to the senate in Rome.
However there was one very important aspect of the Gallic tribes. The Druids. They were both political and religious and likely held great sway over matters of state due to having a revered status among the people.
Religion
Religiously the Gauls were massively diverse, syncretism [1] based on location near to Romans or Greeks or even the Punic Carthaginians was a common occurrence. The sheer distance they were spread over also led to huge differences in religion. The Belgic tribes in Britain or even in Belgica wouldn't have had the same religion as the Gaulish tribes in Southern Gaul around Massalia who probably even had a different religious system to the Po Valley tribes or the Aquitanian tribes. Of course then, being surrounded by the Greeks, the Galatians would likely have had a completely different religion to any of them.
As a result it's hard to nail down a set of beliefs of even Gods at times due to syncretism. The difference between a set of myths and a religion is that myths don't have a proper structure. Look at religions nowadays they will generally have a head of the religion somewhere. The lack of religious unity is exactly why these kind off belief systems died off in comparison to the other religions. Therefore it does become easier to talk about Celtic beliefs. Once again there are many many Gods and compiling a pantheon becomes difficult especially when you look at the Belgic cultures in Britain and try to compare their Gods to the other Gods it ends up with contradictions and eventually syncretism.
However it does become easier to nail down a basis for beliefs namely ideas such as polytheism, animism and certain other beliefs. According to Greek and Roman historians animism was strong amongst the Celts and animals such as the boar took on special significance. In fact the boar is believed to have been a pretty sacred animal for the Celts. Some scholars have even speculated that the Celts venerated certain trees all of which would point to animism.
Cultic practises are also believed to have played a part in Celtic beliefs. According to Roman and Greek historians the Celts were particularly fond of the religious practise of head hunting by which they would cut off the heads of enemies as trophies and symbols. According to other historians they held the head in very high regard and believed they could gain the power of the deceased by taking their head. While this seems unlikely there is evidence in the form of numerous skulls with no bodies being found in large quantities in particular areas and seeming veneration for the head from artefacts so it's likely there is some basis to this claim.
The Celts had a priesthood of sorts made up of the Druids and, in parts of Ireland, even poets. The druids are believed to have been especially important in Celtic religion as they performed ritual worship, sacrifices and interpretation of signs. They were effectively the main religious authority of the time for the Gauls themselves and were the centre of Gallic religion. All worship would have involved the Druids somewhere, sacrifice and even many political decisions.
3rd Century BC- The Anti-Roman and Pro-Roman Tribes and the Linguistic division
During the 3rd Century BC there was a rising power in Italy, the Roman Republic. After a victory over the Carthaginian Empire in the early parts of the century, the Romans grew to become a significant power in the Italian peninsula. Of course the immediate effect of this on the Gauls came in the form of the Gallic tribes in the Po Valley. By about 250 BC it would have been possible to divide them between Pro-Roman and Anti-Roman tribes.
Both tribes, however, started experiencing cultural changes at the time. During the 3rd Century BC both the Pro and Anti Roman tribes starting becoming more Romanized. As a general but by no means comprehensive rule the military culture of Rome became more prevalent in the anti-Roman tribes who's warfare changed gradually as they fought the Romans more and more. Meanwhile the more peaceful cultural aspects of Rome went to the more Pro-Roman tribes who effectively imported Roman culture and had more experience with the peaceful aspects of Roman culture. That isn't to say that these were steadfast rules or that they are all-encompassing but they do help understand the basic cultural changes at the time.
Within the Pro-Roman tribes we can see a more definite process of Romanization. These were the tribes that embraced Rome as an ally and friend and were the ones more susceptible to Roman culture. For example within some tribes there is evidence of some very Roman traits to them including the adoption of various Roman luxuries and even the construction of theatres and Romanized art. The point is that as the Pro-Roman tribes went along they steadily imported Roman culture and started converting to said culture. Religiously there was also conversion through syncretism by which the Gallic Gods became more and more Roman and more and more associated with the Roman gods until such a point at which the two would have been completely interchangeable and the Gallic Gods started to die out.
However that is not to say that there was a complete Romanization of these areas. While the nobility and upper class definitely embraced Roman life, further down what evidence we have points to a steadily more Latin-Gallic culture and no where is this more prevalent than in the language. Throughout the 3rd Century BC we start seeing a new form of Gaulish forming. As it was Gaulish was already very similar to Latin but the tribes up North had much less contact with the Romans and any Latin-speaking states so their language became far less Romanized until by about 230 BC we start seeing the first evidence of a Gaulish split starting to take place.
However soon the Second Punic broke out in the late 3rd Century and this would change Gaul even further. After years of bloodshed the war finally ended in 203 BC after Hannibal finally defeated the Romans at the battle of Rome. While the Roman republic wasn't destroyed it was broken up and divided by a pretty significant amount. But the effects on Gaul were to be massive and these are once again best seen in the linguistics of Gaul.
In the Po Valley there was still the process by which the Gaulish language was becoming more similar to Latin while in the North there was less of a change taking place. But in the Po Valley the Gallic tribes were left with two sort of distinct groups which were culturally different and yet still Gallic. To explain you now had the Latin-Gallic tribes who had been the primarily Pro-Roman tribes and had a much more Romanized culture with large amounts of syncretism within the pantheon. But also they had adopted some other Roman elements such as Roman art and the use of mosaics but a notable change came in pottery and ceramics. The Gauls there had adopted a type of pottery which was a unique mixture between the traditional Roman and Gallic styles of pottery. The design was a mix of Gallic style and Roman symbolism for example there was heavy use of symbols such as wolves and eagles as opposed to boars which were especially popular in Gaul. However the style was still distinctly Gallic and for a while the pottery itself became incredibly popular around the Western Mediterranean although it met with limited success in Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean.
Linguistically the Po Valley tribes were now speaking effectively a different language to the other Gallic tribes in Transalpine Gaul. The language now became known as Cisalpine Gaulish or Latin Gaulish. However while this language was becoming a distinct language with the people, the nobility and leaders still preferred the use of Latin as their main language.
However there were also the Cisalpine Gauls who were mostly the anti-Roman tribes. Culturally they were far less Romanized and a lot more traditionally Gallic. There was far less Roman influence in art and pottery but there was influence elsewhere. Militarily the Cisalpine Gauls have been noted to have short swords than the other Gauls of the time and heavier armour which is reminiscent of Roman infantry with their gladii and heavy armour. Not only that but the Cisalpine Gaulish language soon began spreading there by large as well.
By the end of the 3rd Century BC and the very beginning of the 2nd there were 4 distinctive linguistic groups within the Gallic tribes as a whole:
-Aquitanian
-Belgic
-Transalpine Gaulish
-Cisalpine Gaulish
However the Carthaginians had spent time establishing their own influence in Southern Gaul and as the 2nd Century BC began there began a definite move towards yet another linguistic split in the Gaulish language and even more cultural change towards Punic influence.
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[1] Syncretism: The process by which two or more gods generally from different pantheons of cultures may be fused together to form one God. Eg. Zeus-Ammon (Zeus and Amun)
By all appearances the Gauls seemed to the Greeks and Romans to be everywhere throughout Europe and Asia. There were Gauls from the tip of Brittany to Anatolia itself and they all seemed to just share some Gallic-Barbarian culture that existed among them. Of course this was a belief born of the idea that Hellenism and the like were superior ways to live than other cultures so many Greek and Roman thinkers simply grouped them together as barbarians. In all fairness the Gauls were a very spread out people having achieved such a state by various invasions such as the invasion of 272 BC which led to a number of Gauls settling down in Anatolia and forming a state known today as the Galatians. But this diaspora of Gallic peoples and tribes led to cultures evolved very differently and indeed some of the most unique cultures of the Ancient World can be found in some of the outlying Gallic states. A similar example can be seen in various Greek colonies around the Black Sea and Mediterranean as many intermingled with Thracians or Scythians and their cultures mixed and intermingled. Over time these cultures, like those of the Gallic tribes, evolved and formed new incredibly unique cultures.
But to understand how Gallic cultures evolved over time we need to look at what is generally considered the base Gallic culture or at least as close as one can get to a base culture.
Language
According to historians from the time Gaul itself was dominated by three major languages which were:
Gaulish
Aquitanian
Belgic
Depending on the region depends on where these languages would have been most prevalent but it is very likely that at areas where two or even all three languages met there was of course exchange of words and the languages changed. Not withstanding the fact, of course, that there would have been other languages within Gaul which rarely if ever gained large prominence. In general however we can see already the beginning of cultural evolution in the form of language. By the 3rd or 2nd Century BC the Gaulish language was very much similar to Latin which was likely a result of how the Gauls intermingled with the Romans and Italians. In the 4th Century for example the Gauls launched an invasion of Italy and managed to raid as far South as Sicily. In areas such as the Po Valley therefore where the contact between the Gauls and Romans and Italians was at it's maximum is likely where the process by which Gallic became more and more like Latin would first have begun as slowly that spread throughout other parts of the Gaulish language.
In comparison archaeological evidence suggests that the Aquitanian Language was part of a group of languages known as the Vasonic group of languages for which other examples are usually found in Northern Iberia. Evidence also shows that the Aquitanian language was spoken by tribes and groups on both sides of the Pyrenees. This suggests heavy contact with the Iberian tribes on the other side of the Pyrenees themselves so that the language both spread and evolved. Depending on political circumstances such contact may have been less or more or even about the same as the contact between Gallic Tribes in the Po Valley.
The Belgic language is the one we have the least evidence for but due to it's position and archaeological evidence suggesting Belgic tribes migrating from the traditional Belgic region to the British Isles, it's likely theirs had a linguistic mixture with Germanic languages and some British influence in those tribes who migrated.
Due to the way these languages evolved it's quite possible to make approximate divisions of Gaul around where the each language was likely to be most predominant.
Of course at points where two or more languages met there would be the intermingling of languages so that in areas around where Gaulish and Aquitanian met there would be areas where the language would be predominantly Gaulish or Aquitanian but there would be elements of both languages.
In all likelihood areas such as Brittany were predominantly Gaulish in language. This is important because it can establish therefore as Gaulish being the almost original language with Belgic and Aquitanian being more foreign languages which had spread in over time. Undoubtedly all three languages however would have changed to a point where there would likely have been a decent ability of understanding among those who spoke the languages. While they weren't exactly the same by any means there would have been some ability to understand one another.
Social Structure
Politically the Gauls had a unique and complex political system. Originally they had Kings similar to many other states at the time and by the 3rd Century BC some tribes probably still did. But in general the Gallic social structure seemed to be fundamentally based around the Council of Elders who would elect a magistrate to run the tribe yearly. Among some tribes there were titles which were similar to Kings but their influence was still held down by the Council. In general it seems as though they had a similar political system to the senate in Rome.
However there was one very important aspect of the Gallic tribes. The Druids. They were both political and religious and likely held great sway over matters of state due to having a revered status among the people.
Religion
Religiously the Gauls were massively diverse, syncretism [1] based on location near to Romans or Greeks or even the Punic Carthaginians was a common occurrence. The sheer distance they were spread over also led to huge differences in religion. The Belgic tribes in Britain or even in Belgica wouldn't have had the same religion as the Gaulish tribes in Southern Gaul around Massalia who probably even had a different religious system to the Po Valley tribes or the Aquitanian tribes. Of course then, being surrounded by the Greeks, the Galatians would likely have had a completely different religion to any of them.
As a result it's hard to nail down a set of beliefs of even Gods at times due to syncretism. The difference between a set of myths and a religion is that myths don't have a proper structure. Look at religions nowadays they will generally have a head of the religion somewhere. The lack of religious unity is exactly why these kind off belief systems died off in comparison to the other religions. Therefore it does become easier to talk about Celtic beliefs. Once again there are many many Gods and compiling a pantheon becomes difficult especially when you look at the Belgic cultures in Britain and try to compare their Gods to the other Gods it ends up with contradictions and eventually syncretism.
However it does become easier to nail down a basis for beliefs namely ideas such as polytheism, animism and certain other beliefs. According to Greek and Roman historians animism was strong amongst the Celts and animals such as the boar took on special significance. In fact the boar is believed to have been a pretty sacred animal for the Celts. Some scholars have even speculated that the Celts venerated certain trees all of which would point to animism.
Cultic practises are also believed to have played a part in Celtic beliefs. According to Roman and Greek historians the Celts were particularly fond of the religious practise of head hunting by which they would cut off the heads of enemies as trophies and symbols. According to other historians they held the head in very high regard and believed they could gain the power of the deceased by taking their head. While this seems unlikely there is evidence in the form of numerous skulls with no bodies being found in large quantities in particular areas and seeming veneration for the head from artefacts so it's likely there is some basis to this claim.
The Celts had a priesthood of sorts made up of the Druids and, in parts of Ireland, even poets. The druids are believed to have been especially important in Celtic religion as they performed ritual worship, sacrifices and interpretation of signs. They were effectively the main religious authority of the time for the Gauls themselves and were the centre of Gallic religion. All worship would have involved the Druids somewhere, sacrifice and even many political decisions.
3rd Century BC- The Anti-Roman and Pro-Roman Tribes and the Linguistic division
During the 3rd Century BC there was a rising power in Italy, the Roman Republic. After a victory over the Carthaginian Empire in the early parts of the century, the Romans grew to become a significant power in the Italian peninsula. Of course the immediate effect of this on the Gauls came in the form of the Gallic tribes in the Po Valley. By about 250 BC it would have been possible to divide them between Pro-Roman and Anti-Roman tribes.
Both tribes, however, started experiencing cultural changes at the time. During the 3rd Century BC both the Pro and Anti Roman tribes starting becoming more Romanized. As a general but by no means comprehensive rule the military culture of Rome became more prevalent in the anti-Roman tribes who's warfare changed gradually as they fought the Romans more and more. Meanwhile the more peaceful cultural aspects of Rome went to the more Pro-Roman tribes who effectively imported Roman culture and had more experience with the peaceful aspects of Roman culture. That isn't to say that these were steadfast rules or that they are all-encompassing but they do help understand the basic cultural changes at the time.
Within the Pro-Roman tribes we can see a more definite process of Romanization. These were the tribes that embraced Rome as an ally and friend and were the ones more susceptible to Roman culture. For example within some tribes there is evidence of some very Roman traits to them including the adoption of various Roman luxuries and even the construction of theatres and Romanized art. The point is that as the Pro-Roman tribes went along they steadily imported Roman culture and started converting to said culture. Religiously there was also conversion through syncretism by which the Gallic Gods became more and more Roman and more and more associated with the Roman gods until such a point at which the two would have been completely interchangeable and the Gallic Gods started to die out.
However that is not to say that there was a complete Romanization of these areas. While the nobility and upper class definitely embraced Roman life, further down what evidence we have points to a steadily more Latin-Gallic culture and no where is this more prevalent than in the language. Throughout the 3rd Century BC we start seeing a new form of Gaulish forming. As it was Gaulish was already very similar to Latin but the tribes up North had much less contact with the Romans and any Latin-speaking states so their language became far less Romanized until by about 230 BC we start seeing the first evidence of a Gaulish split starting to take place.
However soon the Second Punic broke out in the late 3rd Century and this would change Gaul even further. After years of bloodshed the war finally ended in 203 BC after Hannibal finally defeated the Romans at the battle of Rome. While the Roman republic wasn't destroyed it was broken up and divided by a pretty significant amount. But the effects on Gaul were to be massive and these are once again best seen in the linguistics of Gaul.
In the Po Valley there was still the process by which the Gaulish language was becoming more similar to Latin while in the North there was less of a change taking place. But in the Po Valley the Gallic tribes were left with two sort of distinct groups which were culturally different and yet still Gallic. To explain you now had the Latin-Gallic tribes who had been the primarily Pro-Roman tribes and had a much more Romanized culture with large amounts of syncretism within the pantheon. But also they had adopted some other Roman elements such as Roman art and the use of mosaics but a notable change came in pottery and ceramics. The Gauls there had adopted a type of pottery which was a unique mixture between the traditional Roman and Gallic styles of pottery. The design was a mix of Gallic style and Roman symbolism for example there was heavy use of symbols such as wolves and eagles as opposed to boars which were especially popular in Gaul. However the style was still distinctly Gallic and for a while the pottery itself became incredibly popular around the Western Mediterranean although it met with limited success in Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean.
Linguistically the Po Valley tribes were now speaking effectively a different language to the other Gallic tribes in Transalpine Gaul. The language now became known as Cisalpine Gaulish or Latin Gaulish. However while this language was becoming a distinct language with the people, the nobility and leaders still preferred the use of Latin as their main language.
However there were also the Cisalpine Gauls who were mostly the anti-Roman tribes. Culturally they were far less Romanized and a lot more traditionally Gallic. There was far less Roman influence in art and pottery but there was influence elsewhere. Militarily the Cisalpine Gauls have been noted to have short swords than the other Gauls of the time and heavier armour which is reminiscent of Roman infantry with their gladii and heavy armour. Not only that but the Cisalpine Gaulish language soon began spreading there by large as well.
By the end of the 3rd Century BC and the very beginning of the 2nd there were 4 distinctive linguistic groups within the Gallic tribes as a whole:
-Aquitanian
-Belgic
-Transalpine Gaulish
-Cisalpine Gaulish
However the Carthaginians had spent time establishing their own influence in Southern Gaul and as the 2nd Century BC began there began a definite move towards yet another linguistic split in the Gaulish language and even more cultural change towards Punic influence.
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[1] Syncretism: The process by which two or more gods generally from different pantheons of cultures may be fused together to form one God. Eg. Zeus-Ammon (Zeus and Amun)