The Union Forever: A TL

[Mac Gregor]

1949​

Part 4: The Trinity Offensives ​

On November 1, 1949 Free Americas forces began what would prove to be the decisive action of the war. Known as the Trinity Offensives, the campaign consisted of three different operations separated by thousands of miles. Taking advantage of the Free Americas undisputed control of the sea, General Henslee's plan was to apply simultaneous pressure on the two main ground fronts then, with the majority of Peruvian and Bolivian forces fixed along the front lines, make amphibious landings in the enemy’s rear to cut off their avenue of escape.

Operation Karma

In the predawn hours of November 1st, U.S. and Mexican aircraft began striking Peruvian troop concentrations and supply depots along the Maranon River. The following day tens of thousands of Ecuadorian and Colombian troops began advancing south liberating the cities of Nauta and Concordia after fierce fighting. In an effort to retake Concordia on November 6th, the Peruvians once again deployed chemical weapons. Their effectiveness however was greatly reduced by the widespread dissemination of gas masks and FA forces were able to retain the city. The heaviest fighting on the Ecuadorian front occurred along the coast where American vessels pounded Peruvian strong points in the cities of Tumbes and Talara both of which would fall by the end of the month. Less successful was a hasty Free Americas effort to capture the Peruvian city of Piura which met with failure, resulting in both sides digging in for a protracted siege.

Operation Carerra

Troopers of the U.S. 31st Airborne Division landing behind enemy lines
November 9, 1949​

After months of trench warfare centered near the Chilean town of Chanaral, Free Americas forces were finally ready to resume the offensive. Named after the 19th century hero of Chilean independence, Operation Carerra began with a 30 hour aerial and artillery bombardment of Bolivian and Peruvian positions. At noon on November 8th Free Americas infantry swarmed forwared towards the enemy trenches. Although the majority of the attacking forces were Chilean, American troops played a decisive roll in breaking the stalemate. Especially effective were American cataphract units armed with the T5 Ocelot and T7 Puma which were well equipped to cross wire obstacles and reducing gun emplacements. Another important American contribution was the landing of elements of the 31st Airborne Division behind enemy lines. This was the first major use of airborne troops in military history but it proved a mixed success with roughly a quarter of the troops being “misdropped” by their aircraft. However, the threat of FA soldiers landing behind them and on their flanks severely unnerved the Peruvian and Bolivian commanders. After 8 days of tough fighting, Free Americas troops had effectively dislodged the enemy from their positions. Moreover, news of American and Mexican landings at Arica on November 15th threw Bolivian and Peruvian forces into a full fledge retreat to the north.

Operation Hippo

U.S. Marines hitting the beach near Arica
November 15, 1949​

Operation Hippo would prove to be the most technically complex of the three offensives involving two separate amphibious landings on the Chilean coast. On November 15th, elements of the 1st Marine Division and a battalion of Mexican Naval Infantry landed amongst intense enemy fire at the port of Arica. Crucial to the landing’s success was the air cover provided by the presence of three American carriers, the USS Manifest Destiny, USS Abraham Lincoln, and USS Warrenton, that kept the skies free from enemy planes. By the end of the first day of fighting American and Mexican forces had penetrated as deep as 10 miles inland. Despite the heavy losses, the Arica landings were little more than a diversion for the larger landings to the south on November 17th at Antofagasta. After a short naval bombardment, Free Americas troops landed and immediately began pushing west catching the enemy by surprise. Despite the restricted terrain and the best efforts of the enemy, the city of Calama fell to FA soldiers after two days of bitter fighting on November 29th. The loss of Calama, effectively cut off the majority of the Peruvian and Bolivian forces in the south from their sanctuary to the north.

Taken altogether, the Trinity Offensives shattered the sense of stalemate which had characterized the ground war for the last eight months with the nations of the Free Americas taking the clear upper hand. In Lima and Sucre, fault lines in the ruling regimes widened as the prospect of victory or even a negotiated peace appeared to be worsening by the hour.

 

[Mac Gregor]

1949​

Part 5: War’s End ​

The Antofagasta Pocket

Bolivian forces surrender to a Uruguayan soldier in the desert south of Antofagasta
December 14, 1949​

With the fall of Calama in late November, the Bolivian and Peruvian forces that had invaded Chile only a year ago found now themselves in an unsustainable situation. Surrounded and under increasing aerial bombardment by Free Americas forces, enemy troops commanded by Bolivian General Marino Sedillo tried desperately on the 4th and 9th of December to break through American lines to the relative safety of the north. Both attempts failed and used up precious amounts of fuel and ammunition which, cut off from all lines of supply, the Bolivians and Peruvians could not replace. On December 14th General Sedillo surrendered his remaining 63,000 battered and starved soldiers after the Argentine government refused his request for asylum. Not wanting to be handed over to the Chileans, Sedillo originally stated that he would only surrender to the Americans. Major General Edward Knight of the U.S. Army refused however maintaining that “to surrender to one member of the Free Americas alliance is to surrender to all”. With the elimination of Sedillo’s forces virtually all of occupied Chile had been liberated by the Free Americas. Furthermore, there was now no significant body of troops between the allies and the Bolivian heartland.

The Deposition of Celso Serrano

The news of General Sedillo’s capitulation proved to be the breaking point for President Celso Serrano’s regime. Despite Serrano’s call to prepare for a guerrilla war in the Bolivian interior, the leadership of the decimated Bolivian Army had had enough. On December 20th around 4:00 AM, nearly 800 soldiers of the capital’s garrison stormed the Presidential Palace. Serrano was dragged from his bed and after some debate amongst the coup’s generals executed by firing squad in the palace courtyard. In the confusion that followed the army junta carried out a hurried and bloody purge of Serrano loyalists in the government and military and appointed the moderate civilian politician Natalio Verdugo as provisional president. Realizing that war had entered its final stage Brazil and Paraguay signed the Charter for a Free Americas on December 21st, followed by Argentina the following day. On December 22nd Verdugo formally requested an armistice with the Free Americas powers.

Peru Quits

While the situation deteriorated in Bolivia, events in Peru had already began to shift decisively against President Elbio Paz Armenta. After 22 days of near constant fighting the embattled city of Piura fell to Colombian and Ecuadorian troops on December 18th, signaling the collapse of the Peruvians’ northern front. This defeat coupled with the news of the failure to contain the American/Mexican beachhead at Arica caused widespread disillusionment with the war and emboldened Peruvian dissidents. When news of Serrano’s death and Bolivia’s armistice reached Lima tensions boiled over. On December 23rd, riots erupted throughout the Peruvian capital that police were unable, or unwilling, to contain. On Christmas Eve the protestors, now armed with munitions confiscated from government stockpiles, had effectively besieged Armenta and his supporters inside Lima’s Plaza Mayor. Around noon that day a confrontation with other leaders of his Sol Rojo party ended badly when Armenta stormed out of the meeting after they insisted that the time had come for him to step down. Rightfully fearing that a coup to remove him was imminent, Armenta took his own life that evening by a gunshot to the head. As such, the Christmas of 1949 would go down as one of the most memorable in American history as people awoke to the much anticipated news that the Peruvian military had requested an armistice and that the war was now over.

 

[Mac Gregor]

1949


Part 6: Beyond the War ​

Although much of the world’s attention during 1949 would be concentrated on the war in South America, other developments both at home and abroad would mark the year as one of the most important of the 20th Century.

Guadeloupe and Martinique join the Union

Flag of the Commonwealth of Guadeloupe and Martinique​

On November 11, 1949 Congress admitted the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Martin, and Saint Barthelemey into the Union as the nation’s 54th state under the name the Commonwealth of Guadeloupe and Martinique. Guadeloupe and Martinique (GM) obtaining statehood was unique for several reasons, including being the first of the territories acquired after the Great War to be integrated into the Union, and also the first predominately French speaking state to join since Louisiana in 1812. In the 48 years since being annexed by the United States the state’s four islands have seen rapid development in tourism, agriculture, and fishing. Like her Spanish speaking counterparts, Guadeloupe and Martinique uses English as the language of government and teaches it alongside French in public schools.

Beginning of the Indian War of Independence

1949 would mark the beginning of the end of British rule on the Indian subcontinent. On March 13 a protest in Delhi turned bloody when British troops fired into the crowd after being repeatedly struck by rocks killing 48 people and wounding nearly 150. Often compared to the Boston Massacre of the American Revolution, this incident proved to be the match to the Indian powder keg. Within days, riots had spread across the British Raj as British and Loyalist forces struggled to maintain order. On April 5, the annual party congress of the Indian Independence Party (IIP) in Calcutta was raided by police. The delegates resisted causing several deaths before the congress disbanded. Three days later the more radical members reconvened at Calcutta University as the United Front for the Liberation of India (UFLI) were a declaration of independence was issued stating “all inhabitants of South Asia currently ruled by the Government of Great Britain are henceforth and forever free from any allegiance to the same” and that “the territories of the so called British Raj now constituent the independent state of the Free Indian Republic.” The British government under Liberal Prime Minister Isaac Pickering refused to acknowledge the declaration and with the support of King Victor I reluctantly began the deployment of tens of thousands of British troops.

Germans break sound barrier

On December 2, 1949 Major Andreas Scherer of the Imperial German Air Force became the first man to break the sound barrier when piloting his rocket powered MF-49 Komet over German Kameroon. News of this unexpected development sent shock waves around the world as other militaries scrambled to catch up. Embarrassingly, news of the Germans’ triumph reached President Conner only two days after Secretary of War Bernard Kelly had briefed him that “the advent of supersonic aircraft is at least 5 to 10 years away.” Nowadays many historians point to Major Scherer’s flight as an important predecessor to the beginning of the Space Race in the 1950s.

 

[Mac Gregor]

Hey everyone and happy Independence Day! I am pleased to say that I have finally gotten around to posting an update. Hopefully more will be following soon. I have had a lot of time to think about this TL and would like to clarify that the 2011 updates described in posts # 1039 and #1058 are null and void although elements will show up in future posts. Cheers!

War’s Aftermath ​

Victory celebrations in Santiago, Chile
December 26, 1949​

The Butcher’s Bill

The Second Atacama War, known as the South American War in North America, was the largest and bloodiest conflict in the Western Hemisphere since the war against Paraguay by Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay in the 1860s. Although only lasting 13 months the war was responsible for nearly 314,000 deaths. On the allied side, Chile suffered the most with close to 98,000 killed both civilian and military. Ecuador was second with 53,000 a large number of which were civilians killed by Peruvian gas attacks. Of the Free Americas forces that intervened in the closing months of the war the United States, due to its leading role, lost the most with 12,329 killed, 37,448 wounded, and 491 missing. The other nations in the alliance lost an additional 13,599 killed in action. The aggressors, Bolivia and Peru, lost around 73,000 and 64,000 respectively. Economically, the northern part of Chile and the southern portion of Ecuador were devastated by the war and would take years to recover.

The Bogota Accords

With the war in South America over, the leaders of the Free Americas and the newly constituted postwar governments of Peru and Bolivia set to building a lasting peace. Meeting in Bogota, Colombia on January 18, 1950 the delegates over the next few months began hammering out an agreement that would ensure peace in the Western Hemisphere. Known as the Bogota Accords what actually emerged were two separate treaties. The first was the official peace treaty between Peru and Bolivia and the other belligerent powers. As stipulated in the Charter of the Free Americas, Peru and Bolivia relinquished all territorial claims on Chile and Ecuador and officially accepted their antebellum borders. Militarily, Peru and Bolivia were both forbidden to import weapons from nations outside of the Western Hemisphere, their armed forces were limited to 45,000 and 20,000 men respectively, chemical and biological weapons were prohibited, and Peru was forbidden to posses any submarines, or warships larger than 1500 tons. In lieu of reparations, a reconstruction fund was established for Ecuador and Chile financed primarily by the United States, Brazil, and Mexico. The treaty also stipulated that the post war governments of Peru and Bolivia must be “civilian led, peaceful, and democratic.” These terms did not sit well with everyone however, many of whom wished for harsher more punitive measures. Paraguay unsuccessfully argued for Bolivia’s Chaco region and there were several calls for an occupation force in the Bolivian and Peruvian capitals. In the end, the conditions proved acceptable to victor and vanquished alike and were dispatched to the various legislatures for ratification.

League of American Republics

The second treaty to be minted in Bogota dealt with hemispherical unity in the postwar era. While the Charter for a Free Americas was primarily a war time alliance an article of the charter did call for a “more permanent medium to ensure hemispherical solidarity” to be adopted. Despite the cryptic nature of this statement, it did provide the basis for what would become the first formal international union in the Americas. The new organization was styled the League of American Republics (LAR). The LAR echoed many of the sentiments of the Charter for a Free Americas such as support for democracy, mutual defense, and noninterference by foreign powers. Unlike its predecessor however, the LAR charter provided for an annual meeting of the heads of state of the constituent republics, the promotion of free trade, infrastructure integration, and greater military cooperation.

Interestingly one of the most contentious issues was where to place the League’s headquarters. While a total of 14 different locations were put forward including New York City, Washington DC, Sao Paulo, Mexico City, and Buenos Aires, the decision ultimately came down to three main candidates Bogota, Havana, and Panama City. Bogota was appealing as it was the location of the treaty negotiations and was lobbied for heavily by the Colombian delegation. However, as a national capital it was rejected due to concerns that the Colombian government would have excessive influence over the League. Havana, Cuba was also favored as it was the site of the signing of the Charter of the Free Americas as well as being in a largely Spanish speaking state. However it was ultimately Panama City that was selected due to its central location, diverse population, and connections with Simon Bolivar’s 1826 Congress of Panama. The fact that Panama was in 1950 still an American territory with a reputation for crime and vice caused understandable concern amongst other nations but it was hoped that by placing the headquarters on American soil it would aid the treaty’s passage in America’s skeptical Democrat controlled Senate.

 

[Mac Gregor]

The People of the Union Forever​

William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925)

William Jennings Bryan was born in Salem, Illinois on March 19, 1860 to parents of English and Scotch-Irish heritage. In 1878 Bryan served briefly in the United States Army during the Spanish-American War but hostilities concluded before he saw action. After mustering out Bryan pursued a legal career in Illinois and became active in Democratic Party politics. In 1888 Bryan was elected to the state legislature. In 1892 Bryan unsuccessfully ran for Governor of Illinois against future president Robert Todd Lincoln. In 1896 Bryan was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. As a congressman, Bryan made a name for himself with his impressive oratory skills. When Robert Lincoln was elected President in 1900, Bryan became one of his strongest critics and fought fiercely against the creation of the third Bank of the United States. Bryan was considered as a potential vice presidential nominee in 1904 but was ultimately passed over in favor of Jonathan Y. Ferguson of Michigan. In the lead up to the Great War, Bryan strongly opposed American intervention but moderated his position somewhat after America joined the war in 1909. During the postwar years Bryan was repeatedly defeated in his efforts to secure his party’s nomination for President due to his liberal outlook in an increasingly conservative Democratic Party. Despite these setbacks, in 1924 Bryan became Speaker of the House after the Democrats captured the House of Representatives upon the election of President Harold Abercrombie. One of Bryan’s self proclaimed proudest moments came in 1925 when he successfully passed a constitutional amendment banning the production or sale of alcohol in the United States through the House. Bryan however would not live to see the amendment fail to be ratified having passed away in his sleep on August 29, 1925 at the age of 65.

 

[Mac Gregor]

1951 Civil Rights Act​

While the fight over civil rights in the United States took a short hiatus during the South American War it came roaring back into the forefront of national attention once hostilities had ceased. In the months running up to the 1950 elections, the size and intensity of public demonstrations for and against ending segregation increased dramatically. Republican President Leroy Conner led the charge for reform while the Democrats were deeply divided on what stance to take. Many Northern Democrats broke ranks and began to back Conner’s push for integration. In the South the most ardent segregationists deserted and joined the American Conservative Party which unabashedly championed segregation. The erosion of the Democrats’ liberal and conservative wings left the moderates in control with the official position that while they opposed racial segregation it was not the federal government’s role to intervene.

Police arresting demonstrators in the Columbia Race Riot
July 9, 1950​

An important shift in public sentiment began after July 8, 1950 when in Columbia, South Carolina a deadly race riot erupted. The root cause of the riot occurred 4 days earlier when a group of black veterans including several from the recent conflict in South America were denied a permit to march in the city’s Independence Day parade. Undeterred the group sought a permit to conduct their own march three days later which was also denied due to reasons city officials cited as the group’s “radical and inappropriate nature.” Feed up, the veterans on the 8th of July marched without a permit. Confrontations with police sent to intercept the group soon became violent. When one of the protesters, 1st Lieutenant Julius Petermann on leave from the U.S. Army, was killed by a police baton to the head the demonstration spiraled into a city wide riot lasting nearly two days. When the fighting stopped after the arrival of state troops, 8 protestors had been killed and nearly 200 injured while the Columbia police suffered only 5 serious injuries. The Columbia Race Riot was broadcast nationwide to millions of captivated Americans most of whom were appalled at the heavy handed tactics the police used against the unarmed protestors. In the aftermath of the riot, solidarity marches were held in dozens of cities and new chapters of the pro-integration E Pluribus Unum Society sprung up around the country.

The 1950 congressional elections would see the American Conservative Party make considerable headway in the Deep South at the expense of the Democrats, electing a total of 3 Senators and several Representatives. Outside the South, the Democrats due to their tepid and wavering stance on civil rights lost even more ground to the Republicans who managed to capture the Senate as well as expand their majority in the House. With the Republicans now in firm control of both houses of Congress, President Conner decided to move forward with what would become the 1951 Civil Rights Act. This groundbreaking act prohibited discrimination based on racial, ethnic, or religious grounds in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public. In the weeks leading up to the final vote in congress, violence would reach its zenith in the civil rights movement as supporters and opponents clashed with police and each other across the country. On March 29, 1951 one of the most tragic episodes of the civil rights movement occurred when a bomb exploded at the Harley-McGuffy Academy, an integrated private school in Atlanta, killing 24 students both black and white. Public outrage against the bombing caused many Democratic politicians to alter their stance and come out in favor of the civil rights act. On April 24, 1951 President Conner signed into law the landmark piece of legislation after it passed both houses of Congress by a substantial margin. Civil rights icons Thomas Reynoso, as well as several decedents of George Harley and Rev. Samuel McGuffy, were in attendance. Members of the American Conservative Party and segregationist Democrats vowed to defeat President Conner in the 1952 elections and overturn the law.

Citizens celebrating the passage of the 1951 Civil Rights Act
Chicago, Illinois
April 24, 1951​

 

[Mac Gregor]

Here is the much overdue update. This might be the last one I do before leaving for Afghanistan. Thanks for all the support and the resent help with the maps. Cheers.

1951

Domestic Developments ​

Panama joins the Union

Flag of the State of Panama ​

Having spent nearly 37 years as a territory, Panama joined the Union on February 6, 1951 become the nation’s 55th state. Since the capture of the Panamanian canal during the Great War and the subsequent purchase of most of the Panamanian isthmus by the Roosevelt administration in 1914, Panama has seen rapid economic development and American immigration. As such, by 1951 Panama had become one of the most diverse states in the Union defined by a unique mixture of Hispanic, French, and American cultures. It is widely believed that President Conner’s push for Panamanian statehood in early 1951 was due in large part to ease concerns about the nascent League of American Republics’ headquarters being in an American territory. The debate over America’s other Central American canal was also resolved when the Nicaraguan Canal Zone was merged with the new State of Panama ending 58 years of territorial rule. While some rightwing elements in the Republic of Nicaragua rioted over the formal admission of the Nicaraguan Canal Zone it by and large brought closure to issue that had been festering for decades.

The 16th Amendment

Having been passed by Congress the previous year, the 16th Amendment to the constitution was ratified on May 18, 1951. Known as the “lame duck” amendment, it shortened the time between the election of a new president as his assumption of office from March 4th to January 15th. While there had been several similar proposals in the past it wasn’t until the election of President Leroy Conner in 1948 that the necessity of such an amendment became clear. A day after Conner’s election, Bolivia and Peru had invaded Chile fully realizing that they had a full four months before the incoming administration could formulate a response. The amendment also designated an earlier date for the convening of Congress and clarified what would happen if the president died before taking office.

(Full text below)

Section 1. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 15th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 5th day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.
Section 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 5th day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.
Section 3. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.
Section 4. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

 

[Mac Gregor]

Happy Thanksgiving! After several months delay here is the latest update. Please let me know what you think about the new update format. ​

1951​

Foreign Developments ​

Jubilant Indians celebrate the arrival of a column of UFLI Guerrillas. Note the captured British equipment ​

By mid1951 the Indian War of Independence was entering its third year despite the presence of over 120,000 troops from the United Kingdom and her Dominions. [1] British control over her most populous possession continued to slip as forces under the United Front for the Liberation of India (UFLI) and a variety of other movements gained support among the Indian masses. Protests, strikes, riots, assassinations, bombings, and skirmishes were common throughout the subcontinent especially in the Hindi speaking north. By the end of the year company sized elements of guerrillas were operating in the Indian countryside seizing towns and declaring them liberated in the name of the Free Indian Republic. Granting the entire subcontinent dominion status in 1950 proved unpopular and did little to calm the violence. British Prime Minister Issac Pickering found himself paralyzed by divisions in his own Liberal Party over the war and was unable to either escalate of disengage from the conflict. The Conservatives led by Sir Ryan Baxter lambasted Pickering’s Indian policy and promised British voters “peace through victory” in the run up to the general election scheduled for February, 1952.

Unsurprisingly, the Republic of Chile was the first nation to ratify the treaty establishing the League of American Republics due to the extensive damage that country suffered during the Second Atacama War.[2] Ecuador was quick to follow and by August of 1951 all of the signatories of the Charter for a Free Americas had ratified the treaty with the noticeable exceptions of the United States and Brazil. After heavy lobbying from the White House, the United States Senate finally ratified the treaty on December 16th before adjourning for their Christmas recess. Brazil would follow suit a few weeks later uniting the republics of the Western Hemisphere in what Colombian President Julio Delgado termed “unity, prosperity, and liberty”.[3]

1951 would see the release of Galaktisch(Galactic) a groundbreaking German science fiction film. The nearly three hour long movie was set in a distant future where humanity, albeit a German speaking one, has spread throughout the galaxy. Galaktisch introduced next generation special effects and was filmed in a variety of exotic real world locations including German Cameroon, Abyssinia, and in what turned out to be a director’s logistical nightmare Uyghurstan . The story focused on a young Prince Heinrich, played by Kaspar Wetterman, and his quest to reestablish the Galactic Empire of his forefathers. Galaktisch would be dubbed into English and rereleased in the United States in 1953 quickly becoming an enormous success. Although some in later generations would deride Galaktisch for its overt imperialist themes it nonetheless represented a giant leap forward in film technology, the science fiction genre, and today is seen as cultural harbinger to the impending space race.

With the rise of Tatsuo Shimoji to the premiership of the Japanese Empire in June of 1951 the ruling Kobushi party began deliberate steps to consolidate the Empire’s possessions in preparation for future expansion. Having annexed the Korean Peninsula in 1899, the Japanese government after nearly 52 years of rule, issued the somewhat oddly titled Act of Cultural and Ethnic Understanding for the Perpetuation of National Unity which curtailed many of the regressive political and economic measures the Japanese had emplaced over the last half century. The act dramatically increased the ability of Koreans to travel and work in Japan as well as serve in the military. While Koreans remained second class subjects compared to full blooded Japanese and continued to be denied access to most decision making circles it did represent an important shift in government policy to be more inclusive of ethnic minorities. Although several hardliners in the Kobushi party opposed the policy most thought it a prudent step to try and co-opt the unruly and sometimes rebellious Koreans into becoming more productive members of the Empire.

The International Committee for the World’s Fair (ICWF) selected London to host the 1951 World’s Fair. Styled the Centennial World’s Fair in honor of the 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition, which was arguably the first world’s fair, the enormous gathering celebrated 100 years of progress and international cooperation. King Victor and Queen Charlotte presided over the opening ceremonies which were used to show case the grandeur of the British Empire and her nearly 600 million subjects. Despite the organizers attempts to show only the best of British contributions to the world, the war in India cast a shadow over the event with several embarrassing anti-war protests erupting outside of the fairgrounds. Regardless of the distraction over India, the 1951 World’s Fair highlighted several of the technological innovations which would have an important impact on the 1950s. These included color televisions and a computer by the American exhibit. The Italians offered a few lucky fairgoers helicopter rides over the city of London. Most dramatically however were the Germans who stunned the crowd by initiating a sonic boom over the English Channel courtesy the Imperial Air Force. By the closing ceremonies the 1951 exhibition would be the most attended World’s Fair to date and for many be remembered as symbolizing the British Empire at its midcentury pinnacle.

Photograph of the fairgrounds on the south bank of the Thames River

​

[1] In 1951 British and Dominion forces were supported by nearly 450,000 Indian “loyalists”

[2] Known as the South American War in the United States.

[3] “Unity, Prosperity, and Liberty” would become the League’s motto.

 

[Mac Gregor]

1952
Domestic Developments ​

On the evening of June 16, 1952 what become known as the Great New York Handball Riot, sometimes referred to as the Battle of East River Bridge, occurred when rival fans of the Manhattan Dexters fought the Brooklyn Sinisters. The immediate cause of the riot was a dubious call made by the game's referee that threw the game to Manhattan, although racial tensions undoubtedly had some role in the violent clash. Ultimately six people were killed and approximately fifty-seven were injured before the New York City Police Department could restore order. The American Handball Association (AHA) woud not allow the Manhattan Dexters and the Brooklyn Sinisters to play each other again until 1954.

In June of 1951, Coast to Coast a Sunday night variety show premiered on the Rockefeller Broadcasting Company (RBC). Hosted by Nicholas Young, Coast to Coast would over the years headline some of the nation’s most important and influential entertainers, musicians, and politicians. Nicholas Young would have the distinction of interviewing every American president and presidential candidate for the next quarter century. Coast to Coast would run for a record 26 seasons before going off the air in 1977 making it one of the longest running American television shows of the 20th Century.

At their party convention in Chicago, the Democrats nominated Wilber Gibbons, the senior senator from the State of Jefferson, as their candidate for president in the 1952 presidential election and the young up and coming governor of New York, Paul Francis Delano, as his running mate. In Philadelphia, the Republicans unanimously re-nominated President Conner and Vice President Vanderbilt for a second term. President Conner entered the 1952 campaign with several significant achievements under his belt including winning the South American War, the 1951 Civil Rights Act, and the creation of the League of American Republics. However, ongoing unrest over racial integration and a sluggish economy presented his wily opponents with plenty of opportunities to attack his policies. The Democrats tried to paint Conner as an out of touch idealist who was ignoring the views of the majority of Americans in order to pursue his own radical domestic and foreign agendas. Conner in turn claimed that his administration had done more to promote equality at home and peace abroad than any administration since Robert Todd Lincoln. In the end, President Conner was reelected by a substantial margin winning over 52% of the popular vote. The Democrats fared better then in 1948 but trailed at 46% of the popular vote. The pro-segregationist American Conservative Party, who had re-nominated governors Charles Hinnant and Joseph Gladson, embarrassingly carried only Mississippi and Alabama, the candidates’ home states. Republicans retained their control over both the House and Senate despite slight Democratic gains.

​

 

[Mac Gregor]

1952​

Foreign Developments​

Sir Ryan Baxter
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom​

During the 1952 United Kingdom General Election the Tories were swept back into power after spending nine years in the opposition. Within weeks of taking office Conservative Prime Minister Sir Ryan Baxter began a massive buildup of British military forces on the subcontinent in order, as he put it, “to ensure the safety of the subjects of the Dominion of India and the effective execution of the rule of law.” Unbeknownst to the public, Sir Ryan was already forming planes to dismantle the unmanageable Dominion of India into smaller more controllable territories. This became apparent when Burma,which had remained relatively quiet during war, was separated from in India in December of 1952 and given a measure of self-government under the title the Commonwealth of Burma.

On April 8th the first session of the League of American Republics was held in Panama City. As the LAR headquarters was just beginning construction the heads of state of the 14 nations met in the plush Grand Isthmus Hotel. Items on the agenda included further funds for reconstruction in Chile and Ecuador, a unified policy towards the dictatorial government of Jacobo Chavarria in Venezuela, and a common rifle caliber for better military integration.

While a severe recession gripped the country, Chinese President Zhu Jianying’s administration was rocked by a series of debilitating scandals involving senior cabinet ministers receiving bribes from a number of foreign companies in return for favorable trade deals. With Zhu’s government perceived to be hopelessly corrupt and incapable of handling China’s problems support for the militant Union of Chinese Patriots (UCP) surged. The UCP promised the desperate Chinese people a return to greatness and espoused irredentist claims against China’s neighbors. Such saber-rattling did little to calm nervous investors deepening China’s economic crisis and prompting some to predict national upheaval or even civil war if conditions did not improve.

In November Spanish author Leopoldo Marquez published De los Reyes y Hombres a satirical work on Spain’s deeply conservative Carlist monarchy. Spanish King Carlos IX was not amused however and had Marquez arrested on charges of sedition against the crown. The septuagenarian Marquez would die in prison three months later officially due to a heart attack. Many however suspected foul play, making Marquez into a martyr for anti-Carlist elements and sparking several weeks of deadly riots in Madrid and Barcelona. In the months following Marquez’s death De los Reyes y Hombres would become an international best seller and today is often listed as one of the most important literary works of the Twentieth Century.

Aftermath of anti-Carlist riot in Madrid
October, 1952​

 

[Zoidberg12]

I've been reading this timeline for little more than two months, and I have to say, it one my favorite and best timelines on this board! I love the alternate American history (American history is a favorite subject of mine). You did a great job with how the Civil War went and the Great War, the latter which had some nice, subtle analogies to OTL. Also, love how far reaching the butterflies become. It's a great timeline, and I'll be sure to catch up (left off at the "1913-1920" chapter).

Two more things: I can't wait for this to be reposted in the Finished Timelines board. Also, I made this.....

 

[Mac Gregor]

1953 ​

Domestic Developments​

Youths dance to Swag
New York City, 1953
​

The 1953 introduced Swag Music to American airwaves with the release of the album Street Lights by Arnold “Arnie” Arias and the Pumas. Having fermented in the dancehalls and nightclubs of Panama during the late 1940s, Swag blended elements of Ruckus and Groove music with Panama’s distinctive French and Hispanic culture. While Swag never fully displaced Groove as the dominate music for young people in America it did gain a massive following in South America and Europe, especially France, due to its strong Latin and French influences.

In Quesada vs. the Commonwealth of Cuba the United States Supreme Court ruled eight to three in favor of upholding the constitutionality of the 1925 National Language Act which made English the official language of the United States. Writing for the majority, Chief Justice Pratt commented that while the Constitution didn’t explicitly mention anything concerning the establishment of a national language it was permitted under the necessary and proper clause of Article 1, Section 8. Pratt wrote that “mandating English for official government business, even at the state level, does not constitute discrimination against non-English speaking peoples” and is an important factor in promoting “national cohesion”.

In October, the Liberty Auto Company became America’s largest automobile manufacturer after merging with Conestoga Motors. The 1950s would see foreign companies like Germany’s Reichwagen and Italy’s Sonnino make important inroads into the American auto market. Liberty‘s chief domestic rivals however would continue to be Lexington and Weicker, collectively known as the “big three”.

A Liberty Auto Company Assembly Line
Detriot, 1953​

 

[Mac Gregor]

1953​

Foreign Developments​

Flag of the Commonwealth of Ceylon​

With the huge influx of troops over the past 12 months the British made marked progress during 1953 in reversing the tide of the Indian rebels although fighting continued at the highest levels seen yet, mostly concentrated on the north Indian plain. In keeping with the plan to divide India into more manageable portions, the Commonwealths of Ceylon and Madras were created by the end of the year. Like Burma, these two commonwealths were deemed the “more loyal” parts of the subcontinent and granted control over most of their internal affairs. This also freed up more British troops to be redeployed to the unstable north. With the war waging on and casualties soaring many of the Indian princely states began petitioning London to be recognized as independent states. In the United Kingdom opposition to the war continued to grow. The death of King Victor in June, who had spent nearly 51 years on the thrown, did little to calm the situation. His son, now styled King George V, in an address delivered a few weeks after his coronation urged “unity and understanding” from his increasingly divided subjects.

On August 12, a magnitude 7.2 earthquake devastated most of the Ionian Sea islands. With 512 dead and billions in damages it was Greece's worst natural disaster in centuries. In the weeks following the earthquake Russia was the chief donor of international aid to the Kingdom of Greece. Emperor Peter IV and Greek King Constantine II even made a joint visit to islands in September signifying the Greco-Russian alliance and to many Greece’s place inside the Russians’ sphere of influence.

In September, the Union of Chinese Patriots took power after the fall of Zhu Jianying’s government in elections widely condemned as fraudulent. Dewei Chou, an intellectual turned politician, was installed as the republic’s new president. The UCP’s inexperience in running the unwieldy Chinese bureaucracy was soon apparent as the economic situation worsened and inflation soared. Many in the Chinese government tried to divert the people’s attention by blaming the country’s woes on Japan citing that empire’s occasional interdiction of Chinese commercial and fishing vessels. To prevent the harassment of its merchant shipping the Chinese Navy dispatched the cruiser CNS Yueh Fei to the Formosa Strait in late November. On December 19th the Yueh Fei strayed into Japanese territorial waters and was summarily sunk by Japanese aircraft based on Formosa resulting in the death of 196 Chinese sailors. The Chinese however maintained that the Yueh Fei was sailing in international waters when attached.[1] National outrage prompted President Dewei Chou to issue an ultimatum demanding that Japan not only apologize and pay for the damages but also publically renounce the use of Formosa as a naval and air base. When the ultimatum expired unanswered at midnight on December 27th, the Republic of China declared war on the Empire of Japan.

The CNS Yueh Fei minutes before sinking
December 19, 1953
Strait of Formosa

​

[1] It wouldn’t be until nearly two years after the conclusion of the war until an international team led by Germany determined that the Yueh Fei had indeed crossed into Japanese waters when attacked.

 

[Zoidberg12]

I'm all caught up! Excellent, simply excellent! Things are really starting to get serious in Asia. The Indian War continues to rage on, China and Japan are duking it out, God only knows how all of this is going to end.

Two questions; is Japan still under the contorl of the Kobushi Party? Also, I remember "the Great New York Handball Riot". Is that what Baseball is called ITTL, cause I remember you called it baseball earlier. I assume that was retconned.

On a side note, let's hope this wins a Turtledove folks.

Also, here are some wiki infoboxes! Fixed the Second French Empire one. Plus, I also made an infoxbox for the Great War.

 

[Mac Gregor]

1954

Domestic Developments​

First Transistor Computer
Ohio Institute of Technology
June, 1954​

After nearly two years of sluggish growth the American economy entered a mild recession during the first quarter of 1954. Economists differed as to the exact cause of the recession. Some cited the war in Asia and the near total stoppage of trade with China and Japan. Others believed it was the scandals that plagued the Bank of the United States under bank president Robert Carstarphen. President Conner would relieve Carstarphen in February and appoint Allison Jensen, then an assistant secretary of the treasury, as the first woman ever to be made head of the Bank of the United States.

The first transistor computer came online at the Ohio Institute of Technology in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio on June 19th. After over a decade of relying on vacuum tubes, the transistor was an important step in computer technology. Some benefits of transistor computers were that they were considerably less bulky than their predecessors and did not generate nearly as much heat making them far more practical. Throughout the 1950s and early 60s transistor computers continued to develop but remained largely in the hands of universities, government agencies, and large businesses.

During the 1954 congressional elections the Democrats captured the House of Representatives for the first time since 1948. The Republicans managed to hold on to the Senate but only by one seat. The primary cause of the Republican defeat was widely believed to be the recession however, the Democrats also capitalized on President Conner’s response to the Sino-Japanese War. As the turbulence over integration lessened support for the American Conservative Party continued to wane with its remaining members mostly defecting back to the Democrats over the next two years.

On November 30th at 2:46pm a 4kg meteorite struck and killed a man near Sylacauga, Alabama. The causality, a Mr. Lionel Toft, was grilling in his back yard when he was hit. Adding insult to injury it was discovered that Toft was only home that afternoon because he had been laid off from his job at the Sylacauga post office that very morning. The story garnered nationwide attention and had at least two important repercussions on American culture. The first was a surge in interest in astronomy with the United States Army Air Corp even launching a study of near earth objects. The second would be the coining of the term “toftian” as a synonym for an extremely unlucky string of occurrences.

Toft's Meterorite​

 

[Mac Gregor]

1954​

Foreign Developments
Part 1 ​

Japenese forces landing on Hainan
January, 1954​

The first three weeks of the Second Sino-Japanese War would see little activity except for the submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy driving to port most of China’s merchant and fishing vessels. The calm would come to a sudden end however when the Japanese launched Operation Izanagi, the invasion of the island of Hainan on January 20, 1954. Located off the coast of China’s Leizhou Peninsula, Hainan was China’s largest island and home to over two and half million people. The choice to attack Hainan was obvious for the Japanese who wished to protect their access to their allies in Southwest Asia. Also Hainan being an island allowed the Japanese to bring their superior naval power to bear while offsetting China’s superior numbers on the ground. The Chinese expected that a move might be made against Hainan though and bolstered the island’s garrison to nearly 105,000 troops under General Heng Bai of the 30th Infantry Corp.

The operation began with carrier based Japanese aircraft making a surprise attack on four Chinese airfields. Within an hour China lost the majority of its fighter aircraft on the island and with it their ability to seriously contest the Japanese landings. The strike on the Chinese airfields also saw the combat début of Japan’s first mass produced jet fighter the Tachibana J86 which would decimate the propeller driven aircraft of the Chinese Republican Air Force. By the end of February, the Japanese had landed nearly 128,000 men with more arriving every day and began to push inland. The first large scale engagement of the war occurred on February 16th at Dongluzhen in which the Chinese and Japanese traded fire for over three days. The Chinese were eventually forced to yield the city after the dense fog that often blankets northern Hainan during the winter lifted allowing the Japanese to use their air superiority.

As Chinese forces began falling back on the island's capital city of Haikou, Peiking decided that an attempt must be made to break the Japanese blockade and reinforce Hainan. Against the wishes of the Chinese Navy, President Dewei Chou ordered the fleet to sail and give battle to the Japanese. On March 9th, the combined Japanese and Chinese fleets met in the South China Sea about 135 miles southwest of Hong Kong in what would be the largest naval battle since Dogger Bank in 1909. The Japanese with their clear advantage in aircraft carriers had the advantage from the beginning, destroying or crippling all of China’s capital ships in wave after wave of attacks. The one high point of the battle for the Chinese was the sinking of the Japanese battleship Echigo by a Chinese submarine. By the time the smoke cleared after nearly 11 hours of fighting it was clear to all that the Japanese had won a historic victory. Less than half of the Chinese fleet made it back to port losing a total of 46 ships and 8,929 men compared to 4 vessels and 418 men for the Japanese.

With the fleet destroyed and resupply across the strait of Hainan cutoff the Chinese defenders prepared for a last stand at Haikou. After 52 days of a tenacious defense, General Heng Bai and his 57,000 troops were forced to surrender on April 29th due to lack of supplies and ammunition. Upon hearing of the garrison’s capitulation President Dewei Chou is rumored to have sobbed uncontrollably.

Japanese troops celebrate the fall of Haikou
April 29, 1954​

 

[Mac Gregor]

1954​

Foreign Developments​

Part 2​

Flag of the Kingdom of Kashmir and Jammu​

1954 proved to be a pivotal year for the war in India. Britain continued to make progress in establishing security along the peripheries of the Dominion of India while at the same time losing ground to the rebels in the Hindi speaking regions of the North Indian Plain. With the devolved governments of Burma, Madras, and Ceylon working relatively well the British authorities pursued their plan of transferring troops from the more sedated regions to actively pursue the guerrillas. Although not widely known at the time the British military withdrew virtually all of its soldiers from the usually contentious Northwest Frontier Province. While this did free up thousands of troops for use elsewhere the area soon fell to local Pashtun warlords. However, more cuts would need to be made in order to shore up the military situation. While British India contained hundreds of princely states only a few were selected to be recognized as sovereign nations. In May, the British Foreign Office established relations with the Kingdom of Kashmir and Jammu as an independent state followed by Sikkim the following month. In an even bolder move, Hyderabad, Travancore, and Mysore were all allowed to leave the Dominion of India by the end of the year. While the particulars of these new nations’ respective governments differed considerably they all contained a monarchy of sorts and, at least for the time being, remained closely allied to the United Kingdom on most economic and foreign policy matters. Reaction to the secession of these territories from the Dominion of India varied widely. Shivraj Yadav, who since the start of the war had risen to become the leader of the United Front for the Liberation of India, decried the act as the “sundering of India” a term used to great effect in UFLI propaganda. Even some members of Prime Minister Baxter’s Conservative Party opposed the policy with one Member of Parliament remarking “explain to me again why we are fighting a war to keep India British only to relinquish the largest of our princely states?” Liberals in parliament however supported the measures viewing them as a way for the United Kingdom to disengage from the subcontinent, a view point shared by many in the United States and the rest of Europe. Amongst Indians loyal to the crown support was mixed largely divided along geographical and ideological lines.

In June, the Kingdom of Portugal hosted the 10th Summer Olympic Games. King Fernando IV presided over the opening ceremonies in Lisbon. The 10th Olympiad would be the largest seen yet with the Sultanate of Morocco, the Khanate of Mongolia, and the Republics of Peru and Bolivia among the nations making their debut appearances. For the second consecutive Olympiad the German Empire remained the leading medal winner.

Flag of the Kingdom of Mysore​

 

[Mac Gregor]

1954​

Foreign Developments
Part 3​

Bartlett Metivier
National Republican
10th President of the French Republic​

The 1954 French presidential election witnessed incumbent Cloridan Lavoie lose to Bartlett Metivier of the centrist National Republican Party. With the National Republicans also winning a plurality in the French legislature, Metivier successfully rolled back many of the socialist economic measures that his predecessor had emplaced. In foreign policy Metivier began pursuing closer ties with the Republic of Italy with the aim to create a republican counterbalance to the German Empire on the continent.

After the fall of Hainan, the war between China and Japan entered its second and final stage. With air and naval superiority the Japanese began to pummel a wide range of targets along the Chinese coastline. One of the most devastating of these attacks was on Shanghai on June 1st resulting in nearly 17,000 casualties, mostly civilian. The resulting fire destroyed most of the city and its harbor. A similar attack befell Nanking a month later to nearly the same effect. Despite having a greater population (503,000,000 to Japan’s 119,000,000), China could not bring its numbers into action against the Japanese. The Chinese Republican Army found its ranks swollen by conscription but with no means to close with the Japanese on their island strongholds or defend against their attacks from the air. Further compounding China’s problems was the utter lack of significant foreign assistance. While the Russian Empire wished to see an end to the fighting, competing claims over Russian Manchuria prevented the Chinese from receiving substantial aid. Britain at the time was tied down in India and could offer little in the way of money or military supplies. The Kingdom of Laos was forced to remain neutral after Japan’s ally the Empire of Vietnam threatened to intervene if Laos provided assistance. Germany opportunistically sold weapons to both sides. Even America, a longtime ally of the Republic of China, found itself unable to offer more than a low interest loan due to congressional reservations about supporting the belligerent and undemocratic Union of Chinese Patriots, citing that it was China who had first declared war against Japan. Disregarding Congress, President Conner authorized the War Department to covertly ship several anti-aircraft batteries to the Chinese creating a scandal that would mire his last years in office. By early autumn, the Chinese war effort was on its knees. The Japanese blockade was strangling and already weak economy. Famine conditions were spreading across the country and the constant Japanese air raids were laying waste to Chinese cities. The anticipated Japanese invasion of the mainland never seemed to materialize though small scale incursions kept the massive army reshuffling their forces along the coast. After a series of deadly food riots in Peking, President Dewei Chou begrudgingly signed a ceasefire with the Japan on November 9, 1954 knowing that the country could not survive the winter with the Japanese blockade in place. Having been in power for little more than a year the Union of Chinese Patriots had, despite their promises for national renewal, led China to inglorious defeat. Ten days after he signed the ceasefire, Dewei Chou was removed in a coup by elements of the Chinese Republican Army led by General Zhang Kun, effectively ending the First Chinese Republic.

Republic of China
1921-1954​

 

[Mac Gregor]

1955​

Domestic Developments ​

Artist depiction of Maia​

In February, American astronomers at the Nowakowski Observatory in Beale, Arizona announced the discovery of a new moon of Jupiter.[1] Originally termed Jupiter XII, the small moon was eventually given the name Maia after a mythological consort of Jupiter and mother of Mercury. Maia would prove to have some odd characteristics including moving in the opposite direction around Jupiter than most of its other moons. In future years it will be discovered that Maia is actually just the largest of seven irregular moons that orbit Jupiter, all of which are believed to have resulted from the fragmentation of a captured asteroid. Collectively these moons became known by astronomers as the Maia group.

The first successful kidney transplant between living patients occurred on April 13, 1955 at David B. Hill Memorial Hospital in Albany, New York. In earlier attempts immune reaction to the transplanted kidney had resulted in organ rejection. To prevent this Martha and Dorothy Cazanciuc, identical twin sisters, were selected. The operation was widely recognized as a milestone in medical science. By the end of the century more than 18,000 kidney transplants will be conducted in the United States every year.

In August, President Leroy Conner became the first American president to be impeached by the House of Representatives over his involvement in providing the Chinese Republican Army with around two dozen anti-aircraft batteries for use in their late war with Japan, a violation of the Munitions Nonproliferation Act. News of the so called “Chinese gun scandal” first began to be made public in late 1954 and by the following summer engulfed the national media. Many of Conner’s fellow Republicans decried the investigation as a witch hunt by the Democratic controlled House. Conner defended his actions as measures necessary for the protection of the United States and hence fell under his duty as commander-in-chief remarking “I would rather give the Chinese the tools to fight the Japs now than have future generations send American boys to fight them later.” Although easily acquitted by the Senate the scandal greatly reduced Conner’s political capital in Washington and cast a shadow over his remaining time in office.

President Conner in a heated exchange with reporters
July, 1955​

[1] OTL’s Flagstaff, Arizona

 

[Mac Gregor]

1955​

Foreign Developments​

Flag of the State of China​

In the months following the deposition of President Dewei Chou, General Zhang Kun consolidated his hold over the country. On February 6th, Zhang announced the formation of the State of China along with his new title of “Leader of the People”. With the Chinese Army fanning out across the country to maintain order, Zhang wisely beseeched Europe and the Americas for shipments of foodstuffs before China’s famine worsened. Many Western nations were less than thrilled by Zhang’s coup against the elected government but most realized that he was the new political reality in China. With foreign aid pouring in, Leader Zhang began the onerous task of repairing the considerable damage left from the late war with Japan. While most in China appreciated the stabilizing of conditions following the disastrous war many liberals at home and abroad viewed Zhang as a rank opportunist for seizing power during the post war chaos.

Prague, the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia, was selected to host the 1955 World’s Fair. Many visitors commented that the small country, and by extension the fair, seemed as much German as Czech from the bilingual signage to Hohenzollern King Conrad II. Regardless, the exhibition did showcase the impressive advancements Bohemia had made since the devastation of the Great War. Some foreign highlights of the fair included a ballet performance from the Russian Empire, camel rides courtesy the Kingdom of Mesopotamia, and a demonstration of an early video cassette recorder by the United States.

In the 1955 German Elections the ruling Social Democratic Party was replaced by a center-right coalition government of the German Conservative Party and the Christian Democrats. Florian Krueger, the new Conservative Chancellor, was an unwavering supporter of the monarchy and made repeated references to the Emperor as the “bulwark of the German people”. Krueger pressed for a more assertive German foreign policy and a robust military as seen by the construction of massive airbase for the Imperial Air Force on the outskirts of Friedrichburg in German Cameroon.[1] In economic matter’s Kruger favored keeping Germany as the hub of European commerce and began measures that he hoped would lead to the creation of a continental customs union.

1955 would prove to be the bloodiest year of the war in India for those fighting for the crown. Despite the increase in casualties, British and Loyalist forces scored some impressive victories over the rebels including killing Shivraj Yadav the leader of the UFLI during a raid on the city of Jaipur. Though turning him into a martyr for independence, Yadav’s death along with other reversals caused the Indian resistance to begin fracturing. The UFLI continued to be the dominant movement but other organizations, usually based along ethnic or religious lines, splintered off and began waging their own campaigns against the British and occasionally each other.

British troops on patrol in Bengal
November, 1955​

[1] OTL’s Douala