Children of the mountains: Circassia
The flag of Circassia. The twelve stars symbolize the twelve tribes of Adygheker while the three crossed arrows symbolize their unity and will to fight
While Circassia, or Adyghe xeky as the region is called by the Circassians or the Adygekher as they refer to themselves, has an extremely rich history spanning over 3000 years, the beginning of the modern Circassian state is considered to be in the 13th century, when the region was overrun by the Mongol Empire. After this event the territory became firstly a part of the Mongol Empire, and later on the Golden Horde. This situation changed as Lithuanians and their allies defeated the Golden Horde and installed the Christian khan Tokhtamysh. The Horde didn’t last long after this.
As the Golden horde crumbled Circassia changed hands several times, finally slowly falling under the influence and control of the Ottoman Empire completely in the 16th century. This process was extremely slow and costly compared to other conquests of the Sultanate however, as the Adygekher fought tooth and nail against the invaders, with some estimates claiming that tens if not hundreds of thousands of Ottoman soldiers were slain before the region was subjugated. But considering the profit and prestige that owning such a territory would bring to the Ottomans, it was deemed an acceptable sacrifice for there was one resource found only in this region – Circassian beauties.
It is unknown how such an idea started, but ever since the 14th century Adygekher women were constantly mentioned as the most attractive females on the planet. For example in several Ottoman texts these women are described having „green eyes and long, dark blond hair, pale skin of translucent white colour, thin waist, slender body structure, and very good-looking hands and feet.” Possessing “a fair and rosy-cheeked face with a form of ravishing loveliness, large and lustrous eyes, and every belonging that might go to make up a Venus.”
In European sources they are described in the same manner, if not more generous than the Middle Eastern texts "The daughter of a Circassian was a dazzling beauty with the complexion of a German blonde. Besides, she possessed a sharp intellect” and "the most graceful and the most sensual-looking creatures I ever saw".
There are even texts of African origin, again, claiming the same ideal of Circassian beauty and even superiority as can be seen in this excerpt: “This natural superiority was the cause of a good deal of ill-will and envy. One Circassian woman, favoured with an aristocratic appearance, was avoided and even hated by the chocolate-coloured Abyssinian women through no fault of hers, but simply because she looked majestic.” They are sometimes even described as of being of a "hateful race of blue-eyed cats."
What’s interesting is that even men of Circassian origin are described as extremely attractive in several sources, with descriptions such as "the Chiefs are two remarkable looking men. Their imposing bearing, their romantic dress... and their natural dignity of men, stamp them as very superior... Raven haired, black-bearded, broad-browed, with wide springing eyebrows of sooty black... these bronzed and armed children of the mountains tend to put us out of love with our own specimens of men”.
This idea, and as some would even describe, a cult of Circassian beauty, led to the birth of Adygekher slave trade, as many Muslim nobles and monarchs wished to acquire some of these “otherworldly” beings. It was precisely the possible profit from this trade that lead to the Ottoman takeover of the region.
And profit the Sultonate did. Thousands were abducted and sold into slavery or forced into servitude. Entire villages were depopulated and population of the region fell drastically.
Of course, some Adygeh noble families were able to profit out of this situation. They began marrying their daughters to various Ottoman nobles and sending their sons to serve them. Thru these means they were able to establish bases of power and slowly become the highly influential in the Empire. Several members of these families are even claimed to have been advisors of the Sultans themselves.
Many of them even moved to Anatolia and brought massive amounts of their people with them, creating Adygekher exclaves where a unique blend of Turkish and Circassian culture, formed. Many of these islands of Adygekher culture survived up till the beginning of the 20th century, though due to several reasons none of them remain to this day.
It was during this time that Islam began spreading through the previously Christian population. Though as later events would show neither of these religions were able to supplement the previous religions completely and a percentage of the Adygheker population are followers of the Christian faith up to today.
Of course while some nobles were able to use this cult of beauty for their own advantage, as mentioned previously, most of the Adygekher population had nothing but hatred towards the Sultanate. Many had lost their close ones to the slave trade and despised the sultanate. This resulted several minor rebellions, all of which were put down with extreme force. But after the Four Year War, during which the province was overran by Crimean Tatar regiments from Lithuania, Circassia was able to break away and become an independent state for the first time.
However during this period Circassia didn’t become a fully unified nation. While the local rulers were able to cooperate together, there wasn’t any sort of singular leadership of the territories, each warlord or noble ruling their own realm independently. It is unknown what prevented the unification of the region, though a lack of a powerful leader and the difficult terrain of the region are often mentioned.
Of course, this left Circassia very vulnerable. And while for some time the complicated situation in the region protected the Adygekher nation from conquest, this didn’t last forever. And the leadership of Lithuania, attempting to evade a possible two front conflict with the Ottoman Empire, which was currently busy in central Asia, decided to take over the territory.
In 1744 Lithuanian armies marched into the Adygekher territories. By 1745, after nine months of conflict, complete victory over the state was claimed. This however was not true, as Circassian resistance continued to fight the Lithuanian forces for decades. In some ways, it was a repeat of the Teutonic attempts to conquer Lithuania - the locals, while outnumbered and equipped with weaker weapons, employed the environment to their advantage to successfully resist the occupants for a long time.
It was during these years of resistance that a figure, which is now regarded as the national hero of Circassia, rose to prominence between the rebellious Adygekher – Hadji Hayder Hassan. Even though he was but a second son of a minor Adygekher chieftain Hadji was able to unite his desperate people and lead a brutal guerrilla campaign against the Lithuanian forces. Not much is known about this figure besides the engagements he participated in, and what is known is considered to be mostly folk tales.
An art piece depicting Hadji Hayder Hassan raising one of the first versions of the Circassian flags.
It is unknown exactly when Hadji died, but it’s considered that it was somewhere between 1767-1769 as during these years the Adygekher resistance started slowly crumbling and dying down. By 1785 Lithuanian armies had decisively defeated the rebels, though armed resistance never truly ended. It was during these final years that the Lithuanian forces made several quite peculiar discoveries.
In several quite remote locations, mostly high in the mountains, what seemed to be shrines were found. It is unknown to what power these structures were dedicated, but one thing was clear. These shrines weren’t built to honour Allah, these were built to honour the old, pagan deities of the region. Of course, the structures were quickly demolished, but as we know from today, these primordial faiths were quite potent between the Adygekher people.
From 1745 to 1914 Circassia remained under the control of the Lithuanian Empire. Differently from several other regions it didn’t receive any autonomy; in fact due to the strategic importance Lithuanian control was heavily enforced. The Adygekher became secondary people in their own homeland. Education was only available in imperial languages. If one wished to attain any sort influence and power, they had to be deemed trustworthy by the imperial authorities, convert to the orthodox faith and of course speak the imperial languages.
This led to quite the interesting outcome. While some abandoned the Circassian language and culture, instead embracing the imperial one, others began fighting back ferociously. And not only directly, as was described previously, but thru other means. The Adygekher were hardy folk, and they weren’t going to give up their language and culture easily.
Many, various and quite interesting were the attempts by Circassians to ensure the survival of their culture. The most well-known of these was the Txilh ša-n, also known as “Book smuggling”. The creation of this highly peculiar way of cultural preservation is credited to a Muslim Imam Kustan Ogli Ismael, who was the first to write down the Circassian language in 1740.
It was Kustan who was able to organize establishments of printing houses in the Ayghe exclaves inside the Ottoman Empire. He is also instrumental in the establishment of various book smuggler groups and the distribution of the literature they had brought.
Of course in reality everything was not so easy. Printing machines were hard to come by in the Ottoman Empire, not to mention the danger that the book smugglers faced as they were forced to travel thru the most dangerous parts of the Caucasus Mountains to evade Lithuanian forces. There was also the problem in the fact that there simply weren’t texts in the Circassian language to begin with and thus many new works had to be translated and written. Not to mention the fact that as Adygekher language was only recently written down, many didn’t truly knew how to read and write in it.
This literature was distributed across Circassia with the help of Muslim and the few, but slowly increasing in numbers again, Pagan and several pro-Circassian Christian religious figures. But these spiritual leaders weren’t only distributing literature, as that would be useless in its own right. They themselves, having learnt the written Adygekher script established numerous secret schools across the region teaching the script and of course selling and/or giving out Circassian literature.
The Adygeh Txilh ša-n, together with the increasing population, led to something which would determine the future of the region – the creation of Circassian national identity. It was a long process, caused by the increased contact between various Adygekher settlements, cooperative resistance and the efforts to preserve the native culture.
And while of course, as mentioned previously, many between the ranks of nobility abandoned their old culture, many more remained, especially between the slowly forming class of Circassian intellectuals. These were the people who wrote the greatest works of the Adygekher literature and they were the ones who finished the creation of the national identity of their folk.
Generation after generation of Adygekher grew up, reading these nationalistic and patriotic works and being inspired by them to do great things. Some would join the “zhy zewen”, the so called “eternal fight” as the unending, if extremely minor, guerrilla resistance against the Lithuanians was called. Others would continue smuggling books. Others would create patriotic works of art. Others would simply create families and bring up the next generation. There was one thing which united all of these groups: a hope for a free Circassia.
And then the Great War started. Lithuania, of course, was a part of this conflict. With this conflict hopes of many Adygekher rose up as their freedom seemed so close. And it truly was.
With the Lithuanian Empire beginning to collapse in 1914 Circassians dreams were soon to become truth. As Visegradian armies, supported by various forces fighting for East Slavic independence plunged into the territories of the Empire, igniting a massive Russian rebellion the Adygekher took their chance. A massive popular revolt occurred, quickly overpowering the light Lithuanian garrisons.
Of course Lithuania wasn’t going to give up so easily and sent several expeditions to put down the rebellion. But the Adygekher rebels, now armed with proper weaponry and lead and supported by those who chose the path of “zhy zewen” would bog down and destroy each of these forces in the Caucasus.
But defending wasn’t the only thing that Circassians did. Emboldened by their successes they surged forwards, carving themselves an access to the Black Sea and thus ensuring capability to hold contact with the greater world. However, while the so called „march to the sea“ was a success, luck didn‘t follow the takeover of mixed Adygekher-Volgak territories to the north from the current borders. Here the Circassian army was stopped and even pushed back by the forces of Volga Russia. This Volgak push was of course stopped later on, but not without territorial concessions. The entire north-east third of the new Circassian state was lost to the Volgaks before a cease-fire was signed in 1917.
The failures to retake the entirety of Adygekher territories did not slow down the work performed by the first institution of Circassian government - The Apéré Hasé, this so-called in Adygehker language first council, was elected 1916 and continued their work until 1918.
And there was a lot work to be done. Circassia faced many problems. The country was extremely agrarian, only the capital of Psəxwāba contained several factories, and even then, these were mostly small complexes owned by local Lithuanian and Ruthenian magnates. The system of education was also in a horrible shape, with barely an yinstitutions of education present in the region. That‘s not even mentioning the highly influential Lithuanian and Ruthenian minorities in the region which controlled almost a third of the land.
But a bigger challenge to the new state appeared soon. As the Unitarians took over the Ottoman Empire and began enacting their policies, many Adygher who still resided in the Anatolia began fleeing towards the newly established Circassian state in an effort to evade persecution by the new government.
It was these refugees who both improved and worsened the already critical situation in Circassia. Of course the newly established and poor nation had close to no resources to take care of hundreds of thousands of refugees. But it was precisely these refugees that allowed the new nation to survive. Many of them were highly educated and skilled in various fields and wealthy which did help the new state greatly.
In 1917, using the human and monetary resources now available to them, the Apéré Hasé began several great reforms. They started with education, establishing numerous schools and other institutions of learning across Circassia. Secondly, a process of industrialisation was begun, using resources which were found by excavation teams hired by the Apéré Hasé itself. A currency was also, established, called the dyšʺ. Entire new settlements were also erected, to house the refugee populace.
But while these and countless other reforms were highly beneficial to the new Circassian state, they also had negative consequences. By the time that the Apéré Hasé ended their term and a new Hasé was elected the government apparatus of the country had become highly dependent on the resources provided by the âtӏonéré – the Adygheker noble families which had escaped from Anatolia. With time this control slowly increased, until the official government of Circassia were nothing but pawns of the nobility.
It was due to this situation that the government of Circassia was forced to make several questionable decisions. One of these was the declaration of Islam as the official religion of Circassia. This was followed by several discriminatory laws towards the non-muslim Adygheker, which comprised over a third of the population. Several changes towards both the constitution and the system of law were enacted to heavily favour the âtӏonéré.
As the time went on the situation only worsened as while the political front and various parties began to crumble to do these changes and increasing ideological difference, the grip of the nobility increased more and more.
Slowly more and more of the population became disillusioned with their leadership, especially in the ranks of the military and the peasant born intellectuals. But as long as the programs to advance Circassia and the military were funded, they were able to somehow bear it.
And then in 1934 it was announced that funding for several programs and the military shall be cut. Pensions for the veterans of Circassian wars of independence were also to be reduced. This was the breaking point for the Circassian army. As most of their ranks were comprised by those who followed the ancient religions for the last decade they faced discrimination by the government their actions allowed to create. And now they were going to cut funding them? To them the saviours of Circassia and the ones who are ready to die defending their motherland? To those who fought and bled for its independence?
Led by the Marshal of Circassian armed forces himself – Askerbiy Tlebsu the army took over the governmental institutions and captured a huge number of most important members of the âtӏonéré. Surprisingly to many, several more patriotic noble families aligned themselves with the rebels during this revolt.
Askerbiy announced that democracy had failed Circassia, that the previous government didn’t fulfil their promises to the Adygheker people and thus her, as a true leader shall replace them and bring prosperity to Adyghe Xeki. He gave himself the tittle of Uašʺo – supreme leader and started creating a new government from military personnel, his friends and those who supported their revolt.
The new dictatorial government quickly changed changd several of the laws and reversed many decisions made by the previous leadership. Islam wasn't the national religion anymore and all the laws which allowed discrimination towards Christians and the believers or ancient faiths were changed and/or removed. Every citizen was also made equal in the eyes of the law.
Various former programs were also continued, but on quite the smaller scale as the available monetary resources were quite diminished due to the new leadership.
Of course the new government also faced several dire problems. Of course after losing power the âtӏonéré became extremely uncooperative with the new government and sometimes even openly rebellious. There were also countless pro-republican or even Unitarian groups which began openly protesting and attempting to fight against the new dictatorial regime. For some time it looked like that a civil war would break out, but what occurred next changed the political climate completely.
In 1935 the leadership of the Crimean khanate approached the Circassian government with a proposal to create an alliance. While there were some disagreements over the Crimean Tatar inhabited territories, these were quickly solved and the two states became allies.
With the help of his Crimean allies Askerbiy spent the next few years consolidating his power. In 1936 the žʹao, the shadows, a highly militarized police, loyal only to Uašʺo himself was created. They began tracking people belonging to the anti-dictatorial movements and those who were considered disloyal and influential enough to cause problems to the regime. When these individuals were considered to become too dangerous to the regime they would be “removed” from society.
In 1937 the previously disorganized Circassian native religions were reorganized into the Adige Xabze. A defined system of beliefs, deities and traditions were created and the previously chaotic faith was reformed into a modern religion. Of course the highest spiritual leaders of this faith were all subordinates or allies of Askerbiy.
A shrine dedicated to Theghwiychu, protector of people.
Many businesses and corporations previously belonging to various nobles and businessmen were nationalised to provide the governmental institutions with monetary resources and allow them to exert control over the internal market.
With Crimean help the industrialisation of Circassia began speeding up again allowing the nation to become more economically and militarily powerful as countless factories were built. More mines were also constructed providing the process with more than enough resources.
While Circassia was able to create and produce their own equipment before, this usually led to sub-optimal results due to the lack of necessary faculties. After the alliance was created, this changed. Crimea began supplying their ally with weapons and helping them produce their own. This equipment allowed the Circassian army to become quite the well-equipped and modern force, though due to a relatively minor presence of landships or transports, they never reached the level of their Crimean counterparts.
As the years went on and both Circassia and Crimea began to prepare for a war against first Krajina and then Volga Russia the nation became even further militaristic. Pro war propaganda became more and more common. Greater and greater amounts of the population went through military training and more and more weapons were produced to equip them.
In 1948 the first national census took place. The population numbers were quite staggering in comparison to how desolate the region was during the last census in 1750. Over 7 million people lived in Circassia. Almost 92 percent of the population were ethnically Adygheker, with the remaining 8 being Lithuanian, Volgak or Ruthenian. Somewhere around 59 percent were Muslim, 28 were believers of the Adige Xabze, with the remaining population being either Christian or atheist.
The Circassia army was expanded even further after this, reaching 300 000 men. This was done in preparation for the planned upcoming conflict between Crimea and Krajina. This conflict happening from 1949 to 1955 was called the Crimean war and it would become a defining event in Circassian history.