The Philippine Empire: Revolutionary War 1823-1826 (Revised)

[Krueger]

Reports of widespread banditry in Cagayan caused Mariano to next lead his forces there. He assigned Ambaristo to guard the Ilocos provinces, and had ordered a preparation from November 30 to December 10, to regain the army's strength since they were wrecked with desertion and high number of casualties. They departed for Cagayan on December 26, but before that they had celebrated Christmas as their victories in battles were a thanksgiving from the Lord.

Reaching Cagayan by foot on January 5, on Langnangan[1] he quickly restored order, town by town, until he reached Nueva Segovia[2], the capital of Cagayan. In actuality, only northern Cagayan, from Langangan to Gattaran was pacified, while the rest is still under the control and domination of bandits.

This would not be the first time that Mariano is involved in bandit pacification. He often volunteered in suppressing bandit activity in Luzon provinces, most notably in the province of Cavite. However, this situation in Cagayan was different: every town has at least dozens of bandit gangs roaming around, with some even voluntarily joining them, and waiting for a passerby to come and then rob them of their goods. In some situations, they would also held their captives hostage until a ransom had to be paid.

To help solve this problem, Mariano decided to call on Parang, who was busy fighting the Spanish in northern Cavite. However many doubted that Parang would solve the problem since the latter was also a former bandit before joining in 1823. However, his battle tactics and style of fighting were the primary reason why Mariano chose him as the one who could solve this. He also knew that since he was a former bandit, he knew when does a bandit attack, and where they hide. He sent out his emissary to Manila on January 7.

The emissary reached Manila nearly two weeks later, on January 22 due to problems with communication, undefined roads and rough terrain. The request of Mariano was then later sent through Laguna that same day, and it arrived to Parang by January 24. When it arrived, Parang already captured the remains of Spanish Cavite, seizing all galleons and other vessels docked in Cavite el Viejo[3], although 5 of those galleons had escaped and fled to Pampanga. The said ships were the ships destined and scheduled to carry Martinez to Iloilo in case Pampanga fell to the rebels.

Parang responded with yes, but he, first had to rest his entire army due to the Cavite campaign being long. After 2 weeks, he marched his army from Bacoor, Cavite to Langangan, Cagayan with a force of 800 on February 11. They would arrive at the said town after another two weeks, on February 25.

When the army arrived in Nueva Segovia, Parang met Mariano while the latter was training new recruits for the Philippine army. They ultimately decided that they shall began their campaign, on March 1, for preparation. When March 1 came, they immediately took action.

They easily pacified most of lowland Cagayan by doing Parang's tactics, while some skirmishes occur, most often the bandits would surrender upon seeing the two generals' well-equipped and numerous army. These bandits either joined the army or returned to normal life.

Problems began when they just recently pacified Camarag[4]. They sort of wonder on how to pacify the mountainous terrain of southern Cagayan since it is barely has any military presence and the terrain is rough. Luckily, with the help of Ilongots and Kallahans they recently recruited from the highlands, they were able to pacify most of the region by March 19.

With the pacification of Cagayan complete, the entirety of the Philippine army and of the emperor's government could now focus on Pampanga, the final province not yet under rebel control.

[1] - Renamed Santa Praxedes in 1964
[2] - Renamed Lal-lo in the mid-19th century(?)
[3] - Renamed Kawit in 1901
[4] - Renamed Echague in 1848

 

[Namayan]

are the 5 galleons Manila galleon size or sloop or frigate size?

 

[Krueger]

are the 5 galleons Manila galleon size or sloop or frigate size?

Both.

2 of them are Manila galleons, for disguise, while the 3 frigates would try to confuse the enemy for a smooth escape by Martinez.

 

[Krueger]

Prelude
With the entirety of Luzon now under Philippine control, Andres I, his generals and the Assembly could now focus on Pampanga.

Since the start of the revolution Pampanga was a major supplier of most of the Indio loyalist troops against the rebels. It was also the Kapampangans that were mostly the main ones fighting other natives that rebelled against Spanish rule. The most prominent of the Kapampangan principalia, notably the Macapagals, one of the branch families that descended from Dula Bunao of Tondo (c. 1503-1575), the lakan before the rebellious Agustin de Legaspi (c. 1550-1589). One of Dula's descendants, Juan Macapagal (c. 1620s-1680), helped the Spanish in defeating the rebellions of Maniago, Malong and Almazan from 1660 to 1661. Due to the Kapampangans' zeal for service, there is one saying that "one Castilian plus three Kapampangans equals four Castilians". That saying shows how Pampanga served with the Spanish, loyally for hundreds of years, even though they were the one of the last to stand out in 1571, in the Battle of Bangkusay.

Thus, when revolution broke out, the Kapampangans, just like their ancestors had joined en masse to crush the revolutionaries. However, in this time, for the first, loyalty has been questioned due to the fact that most of the soldiers who conscripted are peasants, some Sangleys and those from the polo y servicios. They were looked upon with suspicion since the 3 peoples were the most likely to rebel as they had done since the 1570s. Another factor in the suspicion was that the governor-general doesn't know on how loyal the soldiers were, unlike the principalia. Basically, every Kapampangan soldier had developed suspicion among each other, even to the closest of all people. Even the principalia was also under suspicion for some unknown reason by the peninsulars.

This is something that Andres and his generals knew, and to their advantage.

Preparations on Both Sides
Andres I, once more intially led the campaign for the capitulation of Pampanga. On a meeting in Fort Santiago, March 2, 1824, they drafted on what is known as the Calba plan, which stated that the armies of Andres I, Calba and Mariano shall surround the borders with Bulacan and Nueva Ecija, while the border with Bataan was militarized. The
borders with Pangasinan and Zambales were either mountainous or unexplored that renders any plan of escape invalid. The small lowland strip between the Zambales mountains was also garrisoned by the provincial guard.

Andres, however had to recall Mariano from Cagayan, which was stationed at Bayombong. Passing the relatively mountainous road between Pangasinan and Cagayan, his emissary reached Mariano's camp by March 28, just in time for Mariano to head back since by then he had largely rested his army back to strength.

Before leaving, Mariano garrisoned and appointed each of pro-Filipino gobernadorcillos and local chiefs to ensure that no opposition would be ensued by the Spanish. Parang was assigned to guard the province. He left by April 2 and arrived 4 days later.

Initially, when they met again on April 10, Andres wanted a force of 30,000 to conquer Pampanga, however Mariano argued that 30,000 is such a fantasy number as the number of soldiers in the Philippine army by April was over 11,000. They ultimately decided that they would start the campaign with about:

• Headed by Andres I: His Majesty's Brigade (increased to 3,000), the new San Jose Regiment (600), and the La Naval Regiment (540), stationed in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija.
• Headed by Mariano: 1st General's Brigade (division of the unified brigade, increased to about 900), the new Candon Regiment (some from the Candon Volunteers, about 590) and the Silang Regiment (about 560), stationed in San Rafael, Bulacan)
• Headed by Calba: 2nd General's Brigade (division of the unified brigade, about increased to about 900), and the regiments stationed in Hagonoy (Tabuco having 580, Bulacan having 530 and Malabon having 540)

In total, there are about 8,740 men assigned to conquer Pampanga. Most of them were professionals as they were trained by each of their commanders for 2 weeks from April 13 to April 27. They also took friars that are easily ridiculed as translators for the Philippine soldiers, just like in the previous campaigns up north.

Meanwhile, the Spanish set up booby traps and skirmish lines across the road to Bacolor, the capital of La Pampanga. Other important towns such as Guagua, Mexico, San Fernando and Macabebe were also heavily garrisoned, each by over 900 troops as well as thousands of volunteers. The most garrisoned of the towns was Macabebe, as it was the place where the 5 galleons that fled from Cavite had landed.

There are about 20,000 troops ready to defend Pampanga, most of them being irregulars, and only some were trained properly. Aside from Martinez, Pedro Macapagal would be his camp-de-aide for Pampanga's defense. Martinez knew the reputation of his clan being loyal to the Spanish since the 17th century.

Start of the Conquest
Trumpets of war was blown on May 3, after some feud between both sides in Pulilan, one of the last Bulaqueño towns remained under Spanish rule. The feud resulted in exchanging gunfire between them. About 30 were wounded while only 2 were killed.

Martinez used this as a pretext to go to war against Calba's forces in eastern Bulacan. However, because most of the Spanish forces are irregular and inexperienced, they quickly disintegrated and led to the capture of Pulilan, Baliwag and Apalit. Candaba fell after a 3-day siege from May 4 to 7.

The forces of Mariano and Andres initially charged their forces to Pampanga.

Northern theater
Mariano and Andres' forces met in the town of Arayat on May 12, after conquering towns along their paths. They decided that Mariano shall take the northern towns while Andres shall join forces with Calba in the south. They departed own ways on May 16.

His army initially reached the town of San Bartolome[1], in which they occupied without much resistance. They then advanced next to Tarlac, where they initially met some resistance by soldiers who refused to open the roads leading to the town itself. Mariano decided to besiege them in an effort to starve, and surrender them. Tarlac later succumbed to starvation and dissent on May 20. Mariano also used psychological warfare to receive the surrender of numerous towns, such as the siege of Tarlac, where he ordered his soldiers to spread false information about the fact that Tarlac was destroyed, all women were raped, houses burned to the ground and friars' bodies killed and mutilated. This turned out to be effective, as news about this quickly spread terror among neighboring towns that caused them to surrender under Mariano in a matter of days.

One notable exception here was the towns of Capas and Angeles, in which they refused to believe that all of these happened and they instead are lying to let them surrender to the heretic, treacherous rebels. They also sent two armies, each of about 300 to combat Mariano. The armies, to the surprise of everybody, defected to Mariano and merged as the San Nicolas regiment. With all of their armies gone, the two towns surrendered, with Capas on May 24, and Angeles 2 days later. Porac and the newly created Floridablanca welcomed the rebels.

By May 30, all of northern Pampanga was under the control of the Empire.

Southern theater
Andres reached rebel-controlled Candaba on May 17, after resting and later went to Calba's camp in Apalit the next day. There, they decided to march to Bacolor in an attempt to capitulate Pampanga.

Mariano also considered sending forces to completely surround Bacolor. However, he decided to capture towns in southwest Pampanga, initially starting with Lubao on June 1. They then took Sexmoan[2] that same day with some minor fighting and besieged Guagua the next day.

Back north, Bacolor was under heavy siege by Calba and Andres, and the populace began to be weary of war. Food prices in the capital soared due to the fact the most of it was being instead diverted as military rations, however, the rations itself were few, as most rice crops were destroyed when locusts swarmed the ricefields in May.

So severe the situation that Guagua instantly surrendered on June 3 due to starvation, the other towns followed soon after. By the time June 6 rolled in, only towns from San Fernando to Macabebe remained under Spanish hands.

The Spanish Escape and Celebration
Now Martinez had to make a choice: continue fighting against the Filipinos and be captured, or escaping to Macabebe and fleeing to Iloilo. The latter was chosen.

On June 10, about 10:00pm of the night. Martinez with Macapagal who escaped the frontlines 3 days earlier to Bacolor, along with most of his surviving cabinet as well as 500 loyalists, secretly marched from Bacolor, to Macabebe to evade capture. They arrived about 1:00am midnight on June 11 due to total darkness and the difficulty of roaming at night due to the fact that most of their torches were left behind in Bacolor. Reaching the shore, he immediately ordered a firing of their few cannons as a signal that they wanted to voyage bound for Iloilo. Fortunately, 3 marines that were still awake guarding one of the ships saw them, and informed the captain of the Fernando V.

The said captains alerted the other ships, which was immediately met with a response. The reaction was mixed since some of the marines on board initially think that they are Filipinos disguised as Spanish remnants. Confusion liquidated when they saw them holding rojigualdas and the Pampangan infantry flags. With all on board by 3:00, they left, and headed towards Mindoro on 11:00am. Then the trip to Panay lasted until June 12, reaching Iloilo by the afternoon.

The three armies, when entering Bacolor on June 11, morning had initially believed to encounter resistance among the inhabitants, but was surprised when they gladly cheered and welcomed Andres I and his subordinates as if they were happy to see liberators enter their locale. The same goes for the other remaining towns when they themselves surrendered hours later.

The next day, the first celebration of Independence Day was held at front of the San Guillermo Parish Church. Andres I was greeted with hundreds of crowds when he had begun his speech:

"The conquest of Pampanga is really only the beginning of this independence. We shall sail down and march to the Visayan cities. The Spanish domination of this nation, all had began in Cebu, and shall end with Cebu. Viva Filipinas libre!"

All those present, including the soldiers cheered cries:

"VIVA LA INDEPENDENCIA! VIVA FILIPINAS LIBRE!"

Mass celebration occurred in the other provinces of Luzon when news reached the capitulation of Pampanga. The Imperial Assembly then declared Luzon and other captured islands as the Free Territory of Luzon.

[1] - Split into Concepcion, Tarlac and Magalang, Pampanga after a devastating flood ravaged the place in 1860
[2] - Renamed Sasmuan in 1991

 

[Krueger]

In Iloilo, Martinez immediately took residence on a casa on Calle Real de Iloilo. There, with his ministers, complained about the agony he felt during these particular days.

According to Macapagal, in his memoirs dated 1844, which was now hired as the commander-in-chief in western Visayas at the time, Martinez complained to him that he was all the number one reason why Spanish rule in Luzon collapsed, he also blamed himself for trusting the Novales brothers too much. He even said the following:

"Damn those sons of señor Damian[1], if that man was still alive I am sure that I may had told him that I would never forgive the entirety of the Novales clan, till death."

Macapagal also said that during this particular complainment, he also wanted to resign as governor-general. He said that he was too humiliated to face king Ferdinand VII in person since he lost the bulk of Spanish Asia. He requested a successor also. Macapagal said that he convinced Martinez not to pursue his actions as it might cause his legacy and that of his ministers to be ridiculed, forever in history. He encourgaed him to stand firm in the war, and seek help from the Almighty to stand.

It was due to Macapagal that Martinez was able to put things together in times of despair. He then afterwards decreed that mandatory conscription shall be implemented, every town shall contribute a food quota and had the Armada de los Pintados reactivated and repurposed after years of neglect. These were supported by the people of Visayas and Spanish Mindanao. Martinez also ordered to the governors of the Panay provinces, Cebu[2], Leyte[3], Samar[4], Misamis[5] and Negros[6] to improve local governance to prevent revolts, and also to suppress the one in Bohol that is going on for 80 years.

[1] - Disputed on whether Andres and Mariano were sons of Damian Novales
[2] - Cebu from 1818-1854 included the provinces of Bohol and Siquijor, excludes the Poro Islands
[3] - Leyte from 1768-1960 included Biliran and Southern Leyte, includes the Poro Islands until 1900
[4] - Samar was a single province until 1968
[5] - Misamis from 1818-1850 included the coasts of the Misamis provinces, Zamboanga provinces and Caraga provinces as exploration of interior Mindanao didn't start until the mid 19th century
[6] - Negros was a single province until 1890

 

[Krueger]

Andres I, in a bid of effort to secure Philippine independence, needs some country, a power to be exact, to recognize this new nation. He knew how the British supported their Hispanic American brethren in gaining independence by sending the British Legion, former British soldiers of the Napoleonic Wars who initially sought to continue their military careers and to escape poverty in their homeland, and cooperating with the United States in their Monroe Doctrine.

Thus, he appointed Ventura de los Reyes, by then aged 73, a former deputy of the Cortes of 1812. He knew that de los Reyes had a reputation for discussing and giving his plans for the betterment of the then, backwater but culturally important colony. Accompanied by Roxas, and his son Jose Maria, they departed on July 30, 1823 with only 2 galleons, flying the Philippine flag to ensure recognition. They arrived at Singapore two months later, on September 3.

The administrator of Singapore at the time, John Crawfurd saw this as an opportunity to break the loosening, but still uncontested Dutch monopoly of trade. He believed that the Philippines as an independent nation would be a great trading partner, and as to use its ports to sell opium to the Chinese. However he welcomed them as private residents to avoid diplomatic protests from the Spanish. He nevertheless sent a letter bound for London on September 6.

Crawfurd suggested to de los Reyes that a private resident of the Philippines shall remain in Singapore to keep them informed of the events happening in the Philippines, and this information would be sent out to Britain. His son Jose remained in Singapore as the first overseas consul of the Philippine state, while he, Roxas and the rest of the party departed to London on September 14. On the way to Europe one ship went to Spain to receive Varela, and the other reached London 6 months later, on February 9. They were then accepted in Parliament since the letter sent by Crawfurd arrived 5 days ago.

The British, like the olden days, would be in happy to support any cause that could weaken one of their old adversaries, Spain. Although they were allies in the Napoleonic wars, their policy was to keep Spain separate from the French post-Napoleonic period, which was feared would break the European balance of power whilst the British wanted to preserve their colonial interests around the world. It was also to monopolize emerging markets in South America, and this time, the Philippines. There de los Reyes successfully secured British loans that would be delivered in 5 years. He was also the first Philippine ambassador to Britain.

The position of British ambassador to the Philippines was granted to William Farquhar, which a couple months ago was the Resident of Singapore before being replaced by Crawfurd on May 1, 1823. Farquhar sailed with the galleon headed by Roxas on September 30, along with 3 British merchant ships that were cruised by former British soldiers of the Napoleonic wars, who would serve the Filipino cause just like their comrades did in Spanish America.

Meanwhile, back in the Philippines Andres I was eager to send another embassy, this time to China. However Andres I later shelved the idea since there was no prominent figure in the country to be an ambassador. Although many of those surround him suggested friars, he deeply distrusted them in foreign affairs since they might instead encourage the Chinese to support the Spanish side.

 

[Krueger]

Juan Antonio Zulaibar, the archbishop of Manila, died on March 4, 1824 after nearly 20 years of service. His legacy was controversial among Filipinos since he fully supported the activities of the friars and priests that resulted sometimes in abuse.

With no leading figure in opposition to the revolutionaries' plan of reforms, Andres I could now focus on the planning of one of his main goals: to reform the Catholic Church in the Philippines. First, he appointed Hilarion Diaz as Zulaibar's temporary replacement. Unlike Zulaibar, which despite Andres's efforts to support reforms that resulted in vain, this Diaz was somewhat easy to ridicule or was uninformed of the rebels' plan for what could happen in the Church's future role, and was also supportive (somewhat) of reforms. Diaz was to remain in this position until Rome sends a new replacement or Rome accepts his position as archbishop. He also became a member of Andres's group, the first on what he calls The Association of Philippine Intellectuals and Authorities for Reform. He himself was a member of this group. The ship bound for Rome departed by March 10, 1824 disguised as a Spanish ship.

Using Diaz as a political bargaining tool, the emperor was granted religious powers to intervene in friars' affairs, thus starting the rivalry between the friars and Andres I and future heirs, that lasted until the 20th century. He also ordered that any activity of the friars should at least send a party to inform of the Archbishop directly, or through the bishops under the supervision of the archdiocese. According to Andres I this was to initially prevent what he deemed "unexpected and shocking" events from occurring without his knowledge. This caused reports of friar and monastic abuses to decrease as they could no longer do their bidding since Andres ordered local captains in a particular locale, if when the friars refused to obey the emperor, they could just bring soldiers, and a peasant mob with them, threatening to seize their lands, or even imprison them.

Taking advantage of these events, disgruntled local clergy composed of mestizos, creoles and Indios as well as enlightened and liberal insulars then sent a petition to Andres I to gave more powers and responsibilities to them, that could make their statuses equal to that of the "regulares".

The movement for the empowerment of the seculares was led by Mariano Gomez, a local priest who was the parish priest of Bacoor since June 2, 1824. He wrote about the abuses committed against Filipino priests by their peninsular counterparts, and how they were discriminated against. He also demanded that monastic orders shall accept Indios, mestizos and sangleys in their orders.

 

[Krueger]

The Empire held Bicol and Cavite, places in the Philippines that has a substantial number of shipyards, especially Bicol since the place was known for shipbuilding since the 1570s. The loss of these to the Filipinos was devastating for the Spanish as some of the most valuable shipyards as well as important naval bases such as Cavite Viejo and Legaspi were the places where most of their ships was anchored. The sudden mutiny of numerous sailors resulted in even more losses, as most of them often row the galleons towards Philippine-controlled territory. Thus Martinez ordered that every Spanish inspector shall be present in the ships to prevent this from happening.

As for the Filipinos, this enabled them to establish, the then loosen, semi-piratical Philippine Navy that basically consisted ships either captured from the naval bases or being brought from the Spanish side by mutineers. In total, the Philippines had about 30 ships. The Spanish, meanwhile, also had equal the number, as most of the ships that remained under their ownership were stationed in Iloilo, Cebu and Tacloban.

A certain naval captain and merchant named Diosdado Pinagpag[*] offered his services to the Empire after he saw it as an opportunity to continue his career as a marine since his last job as a merchant was permanently interrupted by the war. He secured audience with Andres I in the Palacio and discussed his plan as supreme admiral of the navy and its planned improvements. The plans were taken into consideration by Andres, but was still reluctant to assign a random man one of the highest military positions. Nevertheless, he ordered him to prepare naval practices. The navy was still mostly untrained by January 30, 1824.

Andres I, was still reluctant on how Pinagpag would keep the navy afloat, but that changed when his page reported to him that Pinagpag had trained his marines on how to position cannons properly on the ships, how to properly put sails and for his captains, he taught them how to command their appointed ships. He also handed out punishments to those who would not comply with ordinances. He also approved of patrolling the Luzon coast everyday to prevent any Spanish bombardment of Philippine coastal towns.

Now, having full trust in him, he bequeathed the position of admiral of the navy, and the training of the navy was finished by June 25, just in time for the planned liberation of Visayas and Spanish Mindanao.

[*] - Fictional name

 

[Krueger]

(After 5 days from an outing, I could now continue this thread. Lets continue on how this thread would go.)

Naval Preparations
Pinagpag then set out his plans for the conquests of the provinces of Calamianes[1], Batanes and Mindoro[2] and of the nearby islands off of eastern Luzon as well as the isolated towns of Palanan, Cagayan and Casiguran, Nueva Ecija.

Since the navy only had about 30 ships at the time, Pinagpag decided to use only 10 of them since the Spanish naval forces were mostly present in Visayas.

• 5 ships were headed by Jose Antonio de Ynchausti, for the conquest of the outlying islands of Luzon and Batanes province
• 5 ships headed by Pinagpag himself, for the conquest of Calamianes and Mindoro

Aside the 10 ships, there were also small armadahans built by the Laguenses and small karakoas built by the Kapampangans, which the former was recently revived in order to assist in the war. The armadahans themselves were built in order to function like naval ships, and it carries supply trucks and equipment while the karakoas carried ost of the infantry and artillery. All ships had lantakas and European cannons ready for fire.

Pinagpag knew that this would be swift since the Spanish barely had any naval presence in the following areas planned for conquest. The rest of the ships not commissioned for the conquest were used to patrol the seas.

On July 4, 1824, the parties departed ways from Manila to their areas of conquest.

Conquest of the eastern outlying islands and Batanes
Ynchausti reached the coastal town of Magallanes on July 7, due to changing wind patterns and monsoon rains, they then departed to Bacon[3] a day later and finally to Legaspi on July 9.

From Legaspi, Ynchausti decided that 3 ships headed by himself would conquer the out lying islands, specifically the Pollilo Islands, Alabat off the northern Tayabasin coast, islands north of Ambos Camarines and other minor islands, while the other two shall head north to take Casiguran[4] and Palanan.

The conquest started on July 11, where Ynchausti departed from Legaspi and ordered the two ships bound for the towns north. He first took the mostly uninhabited islands north of Camarines and went to Catanduanes, where the inhabitants gradually accepted Philippine rule since the Spanish barely took any chance to inspect and check the inhabitants who were struggling with the Moros and local pirates. Afterwards, they sailed to the Polillos on July 15, where just like Catanduanes, accepted Philippine rule, except the town of the same name due to heavy Spanish presence. Ynchausti decided to fire artillery barrages unto coastal villages used for trading, and as a result, town livelihoods collapsed, and surrendered that same day.

Alabat island was taken a day later by Ynchausti.

The ships destined northward arrived on July 12, and Casiguran was taken that same day. Palanan fell on July 14. Batanes later capitulated after 5 more days.

Conquest of the Calamianes and Mindoro provinces
Pinagpag reached Mindoro by July 7 and first took the Lubang islands. From there he decided to before conquering Mindoro, he cannonized Batangas towns that were still holding for a year. The said towns fell since most buildings were damaged by artillery.

With the entirety of Luzon secured under total Philippine control, he set out to conquer Mindoro. On July 10, Pinagpag sailed his forces south. They first took Baco, an important town in the province.

From Baco, Pinagpag then sent a force of 500 to capture the entirety of northern Mindoro. The force swiftly passed by from that town they had captured to Barrio Pola, since there is barely any Spanish force left in the area. Having secured northern Mindoro, Pinagpag could now send fleets that could conquer Marinduque. Southern Mindoro was later taken between July 14 and July 16. He also took areas of northern Capiz[5] and Camarines not conquered last year[5].

They sailed to Marinduque on July 15, in which they immediately docked upon Boac. There is some minor resistance towards the island until they reached Santa Cruz, where friars were the ones that led the defense of the town. It was garrisoned by 200 Spanish and loyalist Indio troops. The siege would last for only 2 days. Other than that, the expedition was largely on track since it conquered the first territories outside of the Luzon mainland.

He arrived at Palawan island on July, and swept across it with ease since the island itself was barely populated and most of the population was concentrated at Taytay and on small villages lined along the coast by Cuyonons and Molbogs. By July 19, all of Palawan was under Philippine hands except for the north. Pinagpag blockaded Taytay for 3 days (July 21-24) and the town later surrendered due to mass unrest and hunger among the populace.

[1] - Encompassed modern Palawan province until 1858, where it was divided into Castilla and Asturias respectively. Became a province again later and encompassed the territories of former Castilla
[2] - Mindoro from 1668-1901 included Marinduque, incorporated briefly to Marinduque on June 23, 1902 losing Lubang to Cavite and some southern islands to Antique, and separated again on November 21. From 1902-1950 it was largely correspondent to the modern, separated Mindoro provinces.
[3] - A separate municipality from 1754 until 2000, where it was merged with Sorsogon (muncipality) to form the city of Sorsogon of the present
[4] - Included Dilasag until 1959, and Dinalungan until 1966
[5] - Now consists of the provinces of Romblon and Masbate, created in 1853 and 1864 respectively. Both provinces had their province status revoked and restored (Romblon in 1907-1917 and again in 1942-1946. Masbate in 1906-1920)

 

[Krueger]

For tens of hundreds of years, the Visayans along with the Pampangos and others in pagan northern Mindanao had loyally served the Spanish and had fought side by side ever since 1565.

That, however doesn't mean that region is completely in favor of Spanish interests. The first such rebellion led by a Visayan happened in recently conquered Hindu-Buddhist Cebu, where Dagami fostered rebellion by killing several Spaniards at the beach until he himself was turned over by the last rajah, Tupas and was quartered later. Others also occurred within the Visayas in the next two centuries, such as Tamblot's rebellion in 1621, Bankao's in 1622, one led by Sumuroy in Palapag, Samar in 1650 and another led by Tapar in Oton on 1663. The most serious out of these was that of Fransisco Sendrijas, also known as Dagohoy, in the year 1744 where he managed to defeat the Spanish and had control on most of Bohol by the time of 1746. He briefly went back to Spanish rule in 1768 until 1770 where he and others rebelled once more, and since 1772 they prohibited any Boholano within their control to mingle with the Spanish, or else they would had their lives cut short.

Dagohoy was aged 99 when he first heard of the revolution coming from Luzon. He saw this as an opportunity to reclaim parts of Bohol that went back to the Spanish. The timing could not have been better, when Andres I ordered Pinagpag to sent a fleet of 5 to Bohol under Severino Tinalaoc[*] on August 10, 1824 to request assistance for the liberation of Visayas against Spanish yoke. He sent one of his sons by the name of Roberto[1], also known as Handog to receive the Filipino fleet. A treaty was signed in the mountains by the two sides, in which the Republic of Bohol would become an independent province out of Cebu after Philippine victory and that Roberto shall become governor for 15 years after the death of his father. They also celebrated Dagohoy's 100th birthday.

Thus when the Spanish sent another force, as usual to crush the Boholanos, they were confused on to such why there are sealion flags that were held by the Dagohoy rebels, and the fact they marched like a normal army in command and not as guerillas. Alyas Handog led the charge at Loay, in which the Spanish were defeated, and from there once more the rebellion in the island rolled like a typhoon: only the areas surrounding Tagbilaran and the towns of Guindulman, Ubay and Jagna remained under Spanish rule.

Authorities in Cebu were alarmed to the fact that revolution had reached Visayas from Luzon and had established a presence in the island. They immediately sent troops to fight the now reinforced Dagohoy rebels.

Samar was another island of the Visayan archipelago that was sparsely inhabited due to its terrain and most of the populace lived in the coast.

The howling wilderness of Samar made it a perfect center for rebellion, as Samar was also one of the most rebellious places in the Philippines along with Bicol and Moroland in the past centuries. It is also the only island in Visayas to allow the Sons of the Country to establish lodges and meeting houses. After the initial victory at Bohol, the Samareños rebelled on August 15, 1824. The entire province fell in a matter of 3 days, with friars not adhering to Philippine rule found themselves expelled and had their lands confiscated. Pro-Spanish gobernadorcillos were overthrown, and some were even deported to the wilderness.

In Capiz[2], several bands of the Sons took over its interior, as well as the territory inhabited by the Panay-Bukidnon[3], descendants of the pre-colonial Aklanons, Hiligaynons, Karayas and Kapidnons.

This new set of events alarmed Martinez even more, and also granted him some instances of resigning, depression, and even suicide.

[*] - Fictional name
[1] - Identified only as Handog, actual name unknown
[2] - Capiz from 1717-1853 included Aklan (separated in 1956) and Romblon
[3] - Another name for the Sulodnons, and not to be confused with the province in Mindanao

 

[Krueger]

The ship that was sent to Spain by de los Reyes arrived on October 9, the other that went to Britain arrived two days later.

Andres I was initially pleased because the ship bound for Spain not only had Varela and Ortega on board, it also had the Bayot brothers who were senior military officers rebelled a year prior to his in 1822 because of the sudden replacement with peninsulars. Joaquit Bayot brought along with him, some weapons that he purchased using money he earned in Spain by serving in his prison time, as well as some Jesuits who wished to preach in an independent and unhostile Philippine state. Roxas, meanwhile presented Farquhar with him, and the Brit also laid out the plans of the British for the Philippines, including trade, relations regarding territory and loans secured by de los Reyes.

Farquhar also presented the British Legion, as additional reinforcements from the kingdom. Andres I incorporated the British Legion in the Philippine army as the following regiments of Draque, Albion, Providencia and Jorge III. Prussian volunteers of the British Legion became its own regiment of 300: the Federico II regiment.

Andres I also informed Varela of his post, the imperial president, by which he posthumously granted the position to him without Varela's knowledge at the time. Varela was sworn in as president on October 15.

The emperor also had a talk with the Bayots, whose they wanted to become generals. He appointed them as generals, however, in the liberation of Visayas and Spanish Mindanao as they were born in Taytay, a Visayan town of Calamianes. Andres informed his generals of the following events. In the meantime, Pinagpag and Ynchausti had returned after assaulting and battling the Moro pirates that attempted to sack and raid settlements in Bicol, Mindoro and Samar. Both suggested to the emperor that a peace settlement should be reached and signed by the Moros. According to both a peace treaty should be put into consideration so that raids would be minimized in the future in order to prevent more destructive raids that could have an effect on the Philippine economy in the affected regions.

One major problem for the Philippine government is that most peace treaties signed by the Spanish with them often ends in vain or being violated by the two. Another is that even though the sultans themselves adhere to the terms, local datus would often ignore it and continue their daily raids.

 

[Krueger]

Pinagpag was ordered by Andres I to go south and sign treaties of peace with the Moro sultanates. He departed from Cavite on October 17, and arrived at Sulu 3 days later.

His crew, upon arriving to the Suluan shore, felt tension and a threat of an imminent attack due to the long lasting rivalry that lasted 3 centuries. Pinagpag told them to shove off their fears and act like normal merchants that wanted to trade just like the usual. Indeed, the Tausugs also felt tension, as they believed that Pinagpag and his fleet were sent by the Spanish to reiterate the attempted capture of Sulu. Nevertheless, they welcomed them possible for peace albeit with suspicion on both sides.

A datu named Tineleng[*] caught Pinagpag's attention and was very suspicious on their intentions. Pinagpag explained that they were here for peace, not war. Some of Katchil's supporters thought so since they carry the blue-red bicolor, and not the Spanish flag. Despite his reluctance, the Muslim datu accompanied Pinagpag and his force of 1,000 to the Sultan's court at Astana Putih[1].

The entirety of the Suluan court is actually divided on whether to negotiate relations between the sultanate and the empire in the north. Some even suggested to fend off the delegation sent from Manila since they were just like the Spanish who had tried to subjugate them years prior. Negotiations went on for week, and in the end, the Sultan of Sulu decided that they would stay neutral from the chaos up north, although they agreed to nominal trading.

With peace secured with Sulu, Pinagpag then sailed to Maguindanao on October 29, arriving at the coastal town and capital of Kuta Watu[2] a day later. There is somewhat less tension since unlike the Suluans, who conduct daily raids whether ordered directly by the sultan or by his vassal datus independently, they often raid less and was mostly focused on trading with the British, Dutch, and the Spanish. They were also mostly concerned on guarding their controlled lands and the expansion of Maguindanon influence towards the pagan Lumads since the last major war with the Spanish in the 1660s, albeit with small land raids and skirmishes in the following years.

The current sultan, Kawasa Anwar Ud-din himself had signed the most recent peace treaty between Maguindanao and Spain, in his first year of 1805. His father and predecessor Kibad Sahriyal negotiated peace 2 times in his reign, 1780 and 1794 respectively. They agreed that Maguindanao shall become a vassal of the Philippines, something that the Suluans also agreed to by paper only. As for the Maranaos up north, they accepted the Philippine status of becoming a vassal since they initially thought that the negotiation were concerned about trade.

Still, all of the 3 Moro states were at an all time opposed to be becoming a part of the newly, Christian-dominant Philippines due to their pride of becoming independent from Spanish rule since the 1570s. All would also send in delegates to the Philippine state after the war, and had hoped that it would help them protect their sovereignties from European powers, especially the British and the Dutch.

[*] - Fictional name
[1] - Located in Indanan and meant "white palace" in Tausug
[2] - Renamed Cotabato in 1860, and still referred to in Maguindanaon

 

[Krueger]

Preparations
As early as July, Andres I ordered the preparation for the land invasion of Panay. By September the number of soldiers in the Philippine army numbered about 50,000 due to mandatory conscription, defection from the Spanish and voluntary service. About 35,000 of them were irregulars, while the remaining 10,000 were regulars. An additional force of 3,100 composed of 4 British (700 each) and one Prussian (300) voluntary regiments arrived by October, totaling the number to 53,100. The number of personnel in the Philippine navy were about 6,000 in number, with half of those on board. All in all, it totaled 59,100 for the Philippine armed forces.

Panay under the Spanish was the first target for a liberation of Visayas and Spanish Mindanao. Iloilo, its major city was the second most prominent of all Philippine cities only after Manila, and was a trading hub long before the Spanish arrived. It also houses the colonial government led by Martinez when he fled the walled city.

Besides being a major bastion of the Spanish colonial government, it was also one of the most pro-Spanish regions in the country. Andres knew that the Visayan conquest would not be easy since unlike Luzon, Visayas was a group of islands and that most of them were pro-Spanish, with only Bohol and Samar island being rebellious. In a meeting with the Bayots on September 5, it was decided that when night had set, guerilla-style tactics would be put in place, while in the day regular military tactics would be used. Andres mustered about 15,000 men. It was composed of the following. The campaign would be led by the emperor himself, and the camp-de-aides Joaquin and Manuel. The emperor put all responsibilities at home to Varela.

The campaign army would be composed of the following:

Brigades:

• His Majesty's Brigade (3,000, under Andres I)
• 3rd General's Brigade (1,000, under Joaquin)
• 4th General's Brigade (1,000, under Manuel)

Regiments under Andres I:

• San Jose (500
• La Naval (500)
• Buhaui (new, 600)
• Humabon (new, 400)
• Malabon (500)
• San Miguel (new, 400)
• Tudela (new, 700)
• La Concepcion (new, 700)
• Candon (400)
• Federico II (300)

Regiments under Joaquin:

• La Puerta (new, 500)
• Pasig (new, 200)
• San Vicente (new, 500)
• Soliman (increased to 700)
• San Nicolas (600)

Regiments under Manuel:

• Mariquina (500)
• Santa Cecillia (new, 700)
• San Luis (new, 600)
• Cabancal (new, 500)
• La Gloria (new, 200)

The army of 15,000 would be transported into a fleet of 5 ships. It was decided that they would first land in the province of Capiz.

As for the Spanish, no training of troops were ordered, instead the Indio loyalists prepared whatever weapon they can carry: bamboo spears, bamboo lantakas, bolos, even bows and arrows.

Beginning of Conquest
On the dawn of November 5, 1824, the fleet departed from the ports of Cavite, Manila and Mariveles carrying their respectives armies. There were also karakoas built to hold their supplies towards Capiz. They reached the province a day later, also at dawn. They landed at the coastal town of Calivo[1].

Since it was dawn and most of the townsfolk at the time were asleep, Andres quickly took control of the town, and the inhabitants were confused as why there are soldiers scattered around the city. Several cabezas de barangay demanded an explanation on why this is happening, it was later they realized that they were those "treacherous and heretic" soldiers the colonial administration in Iloilo have been telling for nearly a year. However the cabezas and the local gobernadorcillo decided to align themselves to the Empire since there is nothing they could do to evict a 15,000 force out of the town. Later about 2000 volunteers joined the Philippine army as irregulars. These irregulars would be trained and would be given the regiments of Banuaran (600), San Carlos (400), San Vicente (500) and Balaong (500).

One cabeza explained to Joaquin that there were rebel Sons that took control of the Capiznon interior early in July. The general, however was suspicious because he believe that this might be a trap. Nevertheless, he dispatched the La Puerta and Pasig regiments to check the situation. The two regiments returned later with representatives of the rebels, who yielded control of the interior to the Empire. As a result, only territory streching from Batan to Pilar[2] remained under Spanish control.

Only did the Spanish learnt of a Filipino presence in November 15, when fleeing residents from Capiz reported to nearby authorities in neighboring Iloilo that the Filipino rebels had reached the said province, and that most of it was overran by the rebels. Martinez ordered Macapagal to fend off the Filipinos at all cost, the principalia general hastily assembled a force of 30,000, mostly irregulars. Seeing that he could not overpower the much more well-equipped and well-trained Philippine army, Macapagal decided that guerilla and skirmish warfare shall be the norm. Northern towns were heavily garrisoned by troops, while roads leading to Iloilo and other major towns had skirmish lines built. The northern borders of the Karay-a towns of San Jose de Buenavista and Sibalom were also garrisoned and fortified to prevent Antique[3], once more the capital of the province of the same name due to the dangers of the revolution reaching San Jose, its new capital before 1823.

By December 1, all of Capiz and some parts of northern Iloilo were in Filipino hands.

Advance to Antique
Andres I ordered Joaquin to redirect his forces towards Antique, a province south of Capiz and west of Iloilo. He wanted to outflank the Spanish, who was heavily concentrated north, and from Antique the general could launch a surprise attack against the sparsely garrisoned Ilonggo-Karayanon frontier.

Marching by December 5, Joaquin's army crossed Capiz into Antique and easily took all towns. That is when they reached the outskirts of San Jose two days later, where they found a 9,000 force defending it and neighboring Sibalom. Joaquin decided to try attack but was repulsed due to unlimited arrow and artillery fire from bamboo towers, receiving over 500 casualties. He tried again the next day but was again repulsed, this time losing 700 casualties.

The Spanish then decided to launch a suicidal attack against the then demoralized and weakened Filipinos, culminating in the Battle of Barrio Magcalon, in which concluded in a decisive, but pyrrhic victory for the Spanish, in which it would be the first victory the Spanish achieved after nearly 2 years of defeat. The Filipinos suffered nearly 900 casualties, while the Spanish had 1,400. Captured POWs were later forcibly incorporated into the Spanish army. Joaquin retreated to Patnongon, a town away from San Jose.

The loyalist Indios back in western Capiz also rebelled after reports of forced crop yields by soldiers on December 10, and the Spanish recaptured Pilar. This situation was not looking good for the Filipinos in any way. However, the 3 military commanders knew that they had plenty of well-trained, well-equipped and disciplined men while the Spanish had to rely on conscripts and inexperienced troops. For the meantime, Joaquin had to replenish his dead casualties by training new recruits, sometimes by force or by promises of land, while he took the time for his wounded casualties to recover.

The Rebellion of the Idolaters
The Spanish were now very confident of their supposed victory against Andres I, and sent more forces to the frontier.

However, remnants of the rebellion regarding pre-colonial idols in the 1780s took the chance of almost devoid military presence to rebel once again. They started at Alimodian, one of the many towns that were involved in numerous revolts regarding the worship of animist idols in Christian households. Rebellion spread rapidly in the northern towns, and declared allegiance to what they thought "fellow rebels" up north and west.

This new rebellion in Panay by those who protested against the destruction of Idols, Christians who sought reform and Sons have a profounding effect on the Spanish, who were immediately shocked at it. Local pro-Spanish gobernadorcillos and their alcacerias tried to surpress the rebels but was overwhelmed and most of them suffered exile or execution.

The armies of Joaquin and Manuel took this as an opportunity to reverse losses and pushed deeper into the Ilonggo interior. Loyalist resistance collapsed in Antique and Capiz, while it troops desperately marched and escaped back to Iloilo.

The situation in Iloilo was at all-time high where civil war-like battles, between the loyalists and Filipinos have occurred as they tried to halt Joaquin and Manuel's advance, the gobernadorcillos and principalia loyalists led their troops in a suicidal charge, while friars and priests fortified themselves in their convents and churches to held out against angry peasant mobs who sought to take revenge their sufferings of abuse and discrimination. Every civilian, including the best of friends and families gradually broke relations due to differing support of either side. Macapagal was captured at the town of San Joaquin, Iloilo and was deported as a prisoner of war back to Manila.

On December 19, Martinez and his cabinet readied ships that would take them to Cebu. The voyage was conducted after 3 days and it arrived on Christmas Eve, in the night of December 24. The campaign left nearly all of Iloilo's industries destroyed, and government buildings were in ruin. Houses of prominent loyalists were reduced to rubble. The province would at least not recover for another 30 years, kickstarting in what is known in Ilonggo provincial history as the "The Era of Ruins". Remnant of Spanish Iloilo collapsed to the rebels by December 26.

[1] - Renamed Kalibo in the 1900s
[2] - Included the municpality of President Roxas (not to be confused with Roxas City, formerly Capiz) until 1949
[3] - Renamed Hamtic in the 1900s

 

[Krueger]

The entirety of Spanish Mindanao was administered as the Misamis Commandancy since 1818. Before that it was a part of Cebu, and it was the most sparsely populated out of all Spanish possessions in the Philippines. The only principal towns were Dapitan, Iligan, Misamis[1], Zamboanga and Butuan.

Since it was the most sparse out of all Spanish Philippines, it was also an ideal place for disobedient Indios, Sangleys and others as a place of exile. The emperor Andres I was one of those exiled to Mindanao when he expressed disgruntlement against Martinez back in 1823. There were also a number of soldiers who were exiled to Mindanao due to their disobedience with the Spanish policy of replacing insulars with peninsulars. Most military forces in the region were concentrated at Zamboanga and the few forts and strongholds in northern Basilan island.

The drafting of the plan for Mindanoan conquest was finalized by Pinagpag when he reviewed the coast after signing a peace treaty with the Moros. The plan suggested a fleet of 10 galleons and 50 karakoas to transport an army of 10,000. The first target shall be the northeastern Misamis where a large number of ships are docked at Butuan. The said town was already famous for shipbuilding since the pre-colonial era, and remained so throughout the Spanish colonial period. Varela ordered the preparation of military forces by November 30 and signed in behalf of Andres I by December 2, just 5 days before his untimely death at the age of 56. The Imperial Assembly thus declared Antonio Palmero, the governor of Ambos Camarines as the new president of the Empire. His brother Andres replaced him as Camarines governor.

Palmero initially changed Pinagpag's plan regarding the number of karakoas. He suggested that the 50 karakoas should be disregarded since the available number were only 20, and that building a karakoa takes too much time and effort. Palmero also added an additional galleon, towards Capiz, where Andres I was stationed for the info of the events happening in Manila, including Varela's death. The party shall be led by Mariano, and the camp-de-aide shall be Calba. Palmero ordered their departure by January 10, 1825.

From the ports of Manila and Cavite, they arrived at the Butuanon coast on January 13, at the coastal town of Tubay. From Tubay, the force was split into two, one led by Mariano shall led the march to Butuan, while the force led by Calba shall conquer the eastern Mindanaoan coast controlled by the Spanish.

Sailing with 5 of the ships, Calba led northwards, capturing towns along the way. There were also naval sieges such as in Surigao (January 17), Tandag (January 20) and Bislig (January 22), where the following towns surrendered after artillery damaged numerous buildings. Soldiers at the military fort of Caraga down south of Bislig yielded the fort to Calba on January 23.

In the north, Mariano crossed Cabadbaran and besieged Butuan on January 27. The town easily fell due to the soldiers being entirely composed of irregulars that panicked when the Filipinos fired few barrages of artillery between them. The gobernadorcillo was killed by soldiers while the friars were imprisoned for not declaring allegiance to the Philippine state.

Mariano's next target was the eastern territories of Misamis, in which the capital of the same name was located. He led his forces and departed by Feburary 1 after 3 days of preparations. They reached Cagayan de Misamis the next 4 days and successfully managed to occupy the town. However, they had difficulty in crossing the Cagayan river (of Mindanao) due to the lack of bridges. It took nearly 2 days before everyone (soldiers, commanders, and supply trucks) could get on the other side of the river. Also they had to contend with high desertion rates due to lack of food and disease.

Nevertheless, they continued marching until they reached Iligan on Feburary 8. The town surrendered to rebels after a 5-day siege due to lack of food supply, since most farmlands that supplied the town were under Philippine hands.

Mariano later realized that they were near the territories of Lanao, a Moro confederacy. Although Pinagpag secured a peace treaty months earlier, he still distrusted the Moro datus as he knew that not all adhered to the peace terms on October. Thus, he ordered his forces to be ready to fire if any Moro datu ordered an attack on the "infidels" that they deeply resented. To his surprise, no Moro dared to even attack the Filipino army due to the fact that they were armed with cannons and rifles, with the Moros only having krises in their possession. The crossing from Iligan to Misamis took between Feburary 15 and 17. Once they reached the outskirts of the capital town, it was immediately besieged for 3 days before surrendering. 5 days later, they crossed the mountainous interior and took Dapitan on Feburary 24.

All of Spanish Mindanao is now in Philippine hands, with only Basilan settlements and the fortified town of Zamboanga remained under the Spanish. As for the galleon sent for Andres, it arrived by January 12, and had Andres informed of the happenings in Manila. He acknowledged Palmero's legitimacy as president.

[1] - Renamed Ozamiz (or Ozamis) in 1948

 

[Krueger]

By the time Misamis (without Zamboanga and some Basilan towns) was captured by the Filipinos, only the settlements of southern Mindanao, Cebu, Negros and Leyte remained under Spanish hands.

Andres ordered Joaquin to sail and conquer Leyte by March. Joaquin made preparations starting in February and by the end of the month, he had reorganized and replenished his forces back to pre-conquest levels, either by conscription or voluntary. On March 3, they sailed from Iloilo and arrived at Leyte that afternoon. They decided to land at the northern tip of western Carigara[1], since it is mostly devoid of human presence. Before starting the conquest at Leyte, they took the entirety of the Biliran muncipality[2], up north. He decided to first take the Waray half of the province since the Cebuano half is more loyal and anti-rebel.

From Carigara, they sailed around and landed at the town of Barugo, and from there, they captured towns along the flatlands of northwest Leyte, with some of the townsfolk joining their cause. That is when they reached Burauen[3] on March , where the inhabitants refused to cooperate with Philippine forces, so Joaquin undertook a siege of the town. It lasted for nearly a month due to most roads being closed to the Filipinos and the town itself having a large quantity of food supply they just earned during the previous harvest of January this year. They only surrendered when the gobernadorcillo signed an agreement with Joaquin that Burauen would surrender to his army, in a condition that the soldiers shall do no harm to the inhabitants, nor loot.

Having secured the Leyte flatlands north of Abuyog, Joaquin could now concentrate his forces back to capture Carigara on March 29, and besieged it at April 2. The provincial capital withstood the siege, but fell on April 9 after a series of blockades and artillery fires that caused great damage to the town.

Joaquin decided to divide his forces into two: one led by him shall part way to Abuyog, while the other half shall be divided further for one that will conquer the relatively isolated towns of Villaba[3] and Palompon. They parted ways by April 13. Joaquin reached Abuyog 3 days later, and took it with ease since the remaining Spanish forces, in little numbers retreated further to Maasin[4]. Southern Leyte was taken in 4 days due to Spanish presence being minimal. Maasin was taken later in April 14, after a 1-day siege.

With most of Leyte now under his control. Joaquin ordered the lifting of wartime ordinances he implemented, such as curfew and military ration quota for each village. Like other military commanders during and the end of their campaign, they abolished the tobacco monopoly, which was a relief for peasants and middle-class citizens that live in rural areas since the burden of only planting tobacco for the government was now lifted.

The Camotes, a group of islands south of Leyte, was taken much later, on April 30 when Joaquin ordered a fleet of 5 locally constructed joangas carrying 200 men was sent in order to conquer it.

[1] - Included the muncipality of Leyte until 1851 (itself included Calubian until 1919) and Capoocan until 1904
[2] - Composed entirely of modern-day Biliran province (the second muncipality to be created in the future province was Caibiran in 1828, itself included Almeria until 1886 and Culaba until 1953)
[3] - Included San Isidro until 1909 (itself included Tabango until 1951)
[4] - Included Macrohon until 1904

 

[Krueger]

Prelude and Preparation
The first months of 1825 was exhausting on both sides, as the Spanish were in total disarray since most of their forces had either collapsed, or surrendered to the Filipino forces. The Filipinos, meanwhile were also in the same situation as the Spanish since all of their soldiers already wanted to go home as well as the increase of mutinies. They were also demanding pay, either by coin or land.

In Cebu, Martinez was in depression: continuing loss of Spanish territory, the defeat of their armies and the capture of his last camp-de-aide Macapagal all contributed in his desire to just surrender and put himself in isolation for the rest of his life. His last, and remaining chance of overcoming the Filipinos was the Spanish navy stationed in the colony. Nevertheless, with the urging of prominent loyalists and of the Bishop of Cebu, he prepared the 30 ships that were vacant for the past 2 years. He believed that this would be the only chance that fortune is on their side, as well as to emulate Spanish naval victories in 1646.

The Filipino generals, in need of a naval plan for victory, met at Iloilo between May 3 and 8. With all of his top generals and admirals Pinagpag and his subordinate Ynchausti, present with the exclusion of Parang who was given the responsibility of maintaining peace in Luzon, they discussed on how to execute Pinagpag's plan for a naval campaign intended to capture the rest of the Spanish possessions in Visayas. The faction led by Joaquin and Calba wanted to take Cebu and Zamboanga first, while the faction led by Mariano and Manuel wanted to take Negros first to launch an attack at Spanish Cebu on all sides. In the end, the former was favored over the latter.

They decided to utilize the current ships they have used in their previous campaigns, for less time and better conditions of preparation.

Both fortified and laid defenses on major coastal towns and ports for an impending attack if possible.

Beginning of Naval Fires
On a windy afternoon of June 1, 1825, two Spanish ships docked at the coastal town of Mabolo[1] suddenly caught fire. Witnesses recall that they saw what to be percieved as Moro pirates that shot burning arrows from afar that caused the fire. Authorties from nearby Cebu investigated the event and cannot conclude that the Moros were the ones who had set the two ships on fire, as some witnesses also recall that they use joangas, crafted like they came from the northern islands. Martinez then suspected that the Filipinos were behind this, and used it as casus belii for war. On June 4, he ordered the mobilization of 30 ships, the largest Spanish fleet that the Visayans have ever seen in their lives, and dispersed them throughout the Visayan seas. Each ship was ordered by the governor-general himself to attack and destroy any Philippine vessel they could find. 5 of those ships, laden with recruited soldiers, were sent to Luzon, Panay and Spanish Mindanao to try at least recapture some territory from the rebels.

The first naval skirmish between the Filipinos and the Spanish occurred on June 7, just off the coast of Siquijor island. A Philippine vessel was roaming around near it, when 3 vessels of the Spanish intercepted and demanded surrender. The captain manning the ship refused, they refused a second time when the Spanish conditioned that no crew member shall be harmed in return for surrender. The standoff continued, until an accidental cannon fire from the Philippine ship was fired at one of the Spanish ships. The enemy side took this as an attack and responded by firing at the Philippine vessel on all sides. The ship sank as a result, and most of the survivors, including the captain, were captured as POWs and sent off to Zamboanga.

This sparked an all-out naval war, formally between the two sides.

Early Spanish Victories
Word reached Iloilo that a vessel was sank by the Spanish in Siquijor. In response, Andres ordered the own mobilization of their own ships to counter with the Spanish threat and imminent attacks on ships by June 10. However, earlier in June 8 Martinez ordered a blocking of the Guimaras Strait in the north and south, to prevent any Filipino vessel from roaming outside of the straits. Despite this, there are over 4 ships outside of the straits unknown to the Spanish.

The strait saw numerous engagements between the Filipinos and the Spanish. One of the most well known is the engagement off the coast of Cabancalan on June 17, where both sides have equal ships (3 to 3), the Spanish made an excellent maneuver by allowing one ship to be surrounded by the 3 Filipino ones, while the other two shall freely fire against them. This tactic would be used, and repeated by the Spanish in future battles, such as the battles of Himamylan Island (June 20), and Guimaras (June 24), and the sieges of San Joaquin (June 29) and Tigbauan (July 7).

Small unrecorded skirmishes also occurred within the Guimaras waters. The ensuing battles cost the Filipinos over 9 ships, with another 4 being damaged greatly.

Outside of the Guimaras strait, the fleet of 5 sailed to Marinduque and defeated the Filipinos at the battle of Mogpog (June 21), resulting in the island's return to Spanish rule. They used Marinduque as a launching pad for pillaging and bombing coastal towns. They then took Calatagan on June 25 without resistance, and tried to advance further by attempting to capture Balayan, but was repulsed by the provincial guard who was garrisoned there.

The news of Spanish presence in Luzon alarmed Palmero. He knew that most ships are in Visayas, therefore giving the Spanish a chance to raid Philippine territory freely. He ordered the building of coastal defenses, such as bamboo forts and the fortification of Corregidor island off Bataan.

Two ships of the Philippine navy that was roaming near Camarines suddenly saw some Spanish ships approaching the Sorsogon Bay. They decided to intervene due to belief that they might reestablish a foothold for Spanish pillaging the entire Philippine coastline. They successfully destroyed the two ships on June 30, captuing its survivors and some crates floating although sustaining heavy damage. They went back to Cavite for repairs.

The Spanish also established a presence in the Bondoc peninsula of Tayabas, but later retreated due to an imminent threat from the Philippine navy who had sunk 2 of them in Sorsogon. They later encountered the Philippine vessels at afternoon off the coast of Catanauan, which resulted in a 30-minute battle. The Spanish sank one of the ships, while damaging 2 more, although their ship was so damaged by that point that they badly need repairs. They proceeded back to Marinduque.

Back in Calatagan, the Spanish tried again to take Balayan, but was again repulsed, this time by the Philippine army in Luzon along with some locals. To prevent another attack, they raided, and retook Calatagan itself. All Spanish soldiers were captured and became POWs.

The Battle of Bantayan
Pinagpag reorganized his forces and ordered the remaining 17 galleons to converge as one, unified armada. He also called upon reinforcements of some brigantines and frigates unused and docked at Cavite and Manila. The reinforcements arrived at July 17, dawn where all Spanish ships are docked.

He decided to confront the Spanish forces off Bantayan Island, part of Cebu off the coast of Negros province. Pinagpag sent a galleon, 2 frigates and brigantines to confuse the enemy to make it look like they were advancing off to capture the town of Sogod[2], and from there, Cebu. The Spanish sent off their best ships to the Sogod coast, encountering the vessels sent by Pinagpag, while the other ships were at their flank. They chased the small fleet all the way to Bantayan on July 21.

Unbeknownst to the Spanish, the Filipinos actually lured the Spanish into a trap: the actual Philippine fleet was farther by 10 miles, and a signal of fireworks coming from the decoy fleet, convinced them that the entire Spanish fleet was present. They sailed towards the flank, and surrounded the entirety of Bantayan, where the encircled Spanish had to fend off the Filipinos on all sides.

The Filipinos fired artillery upon the belagauered Spanish, for nearly two hours. It cost the Spanish 2 ships that sank, while other 3 was heavily damaged. Undeterred, the Spanish decided to bring the horrors to the Filipinos themselves, where they intentionally entangled some of their ships to the Filipino ones. The Filipinos were then forced in hand-in-hand combat with the Spanish. The Filipinos and the Spanish ordered to fire their muskets the men manning the cannons on both sides. Some Spanish ships were transformed into fire ships that were launched to burn some Filipino ships.

The citizens of Bantayan Island watched from ashore the marvelous battle they have been experiencing once in a lifetime.

In the midst of chaos, Pinagpag was shot by a Spanish marksman on a leg while helping his men aim one of the cannons against the Spanish flagship. His men transported the body onto a frigate, and tried to sails to the island for treatment, however, the Spanish fired a volley of cannonfire towards the frigate and it sank immediately. Pinagpag, however, safely returned to the shore with 15 of his men. Unfortunately, his bullet wound was infected by the saltwater while trying to lead his men swam across the shore, giving him a terrible illness that temporarily rendered him useless.

Unknown to Pinagpag, his men that are still fighting on the waters, initially thought that he died on the ocean, and suddenly, their determination, and morale to defeat the Spanish uprooted. Ynchausti used the "death" of Pinagpag to boost their fight against the Spanish, continuing to fight against the Spanish until sunset, where the surviving vessels of the Spanish escaped back to Cebu. The Filipinos declared this as a victory, and headed back to Iloilo where they held a massive celebration in honor of the Lady of La Naval, that thanks to her, the Philippines was saved from Dutch conquest 2 centuries ago. The Spanish suffered 8 losses, and had 12 ships heavily damaged. The Filipinos lost only 5 and 3 damaged.

The news of the defeat overwhelmed Martinez, and resigned the following day. Guimaras was later captured on July 23.

Conquest of Negros and collapse of Spanish reconquests in Luzon
The Battle of Bantayan decimated both sides really on hard terms, the Spanish could no longer make a naval counterattack while the Filipinos lost their trusted commander.

Andres I decided that a new operation would not be conducted until August. When August finally came, he decided to lead the conquest of Negros by himself, prepping only 3 karakoas composed of 1050 men.

Departing from Iloilo on August 5, the 3 karakoas reached the town of Ilog by afternoon, and from there, they captured towns one by one. There were minor battles and sieges like those in Himamaylan, the capital besieged for over 3 days (August 5-8), the battles at Bago on August 10, Bacolod on August 12, and another siege at Saravia[3] on August 14. They encountered zero resistance in its eastern part, as it was sparsely populated unlike the western part, although there is a minor battle at Guihulngan on August 16, and a siege of Dumaguete on August 19. The conquest ended on August 18, with Negros becoming part of the Philippine Empire.

In the north, the Spanish reconquest of Marinduque was lost after a fleet sent by Palmero decimated the remaining 3 ships docked there.

[1] - Now part of Cebu City
[2] - Included Catmon (itself included Carmen until 1851?) until 1835, Borbon until 1862, and Tubaran (itself included Tabuelan until 1950) until 1851
[3] - Renamed Enrique B. Magalona in the 20th century

 

[Krueger]

On October, a Spanish ship carrying Martinez's successor as governor-general, Mariano Ricafort Palacin y Abarca, arrived at the Philippines, reaching Manila on the 14th.

Upon their arrival, they were confused as to why there are red-blue bicolors flying around the capital, instead of the red-yellow of Spain. Nevertheless, they continued and went on to the Palacio and called Martinez, who, without his knowledge, had already fled southwards, in Visayas. The palace guards were confused, they later realized that these are Spanish officials appointed by Ferdinand VII to replace Martinez and his cabinet. Upon learning this, Palmero ordered the arrest of the all Spanish officials in front of the Palacio and interrogated them in Fort Santiago.

When the Spanish officials demanded an explanation on why they were interrogated for no reason, one soldier replied:

"These islands have been free from your government's oppression for over two years now, and since that is the case sir, your colleagues and Martinez's successor have no power or whatsoever in this Empire."

The soldiers also explained to them that Folgueras have been murdered two years ago, and that Martinez was currently in Visayas. When the colonel demanded the surrender and Spanish recognition of Philippine independence, they refused, so to prevent any kind of conspiracy from circulating, half of them was moved further south into Fort San Antonio Abad. The incident and arrival of Ricadort was concealed to the public by the government on the orders of Palmero. Their ship was seized, confiscated, and converted into a warship in service of the Filipinos.

 

[Krueger]

Andres I, after the conquest of Negros, decided that its finally time that he should return to Manila. They departed on the port of Iloilo on October 26, 1825 with his generals Mariano, Joaquin and Calba. Manuel was put in charge in the defense and conquest of the remaining Spanish territories. They reached Manila on October 28.

Palmero greeted him at the Ayuntamiento, where he told Andres the confrontation with Ricafort, which was currently imprisoned at Fort Santiago. Andres later told the president to intern Varela's remains in the Manila Cathedral. In the meantime, he allowed his forces and generals to rest for a while.

Believing the time had come, Andres formally told to Mariano that an expedition to the Cordilleras should be considered now, or in the future after Philippine independence or whatsoever. Mariano told that a future expedition shall be realized in the future. However, attracted by the sheer quantity of minerals, especially gold in the highlands, he gladly changed his mind and agreed to the expedition planned by his brother.

Preparing a force of 2,000, Mariano was accompanied by Calba, and departed on November 5 in hopes that they would find large amounts of gold deposits in the region. They reached their destination by November 8. Mariano described the place as generally mountainous, and rugged, that he had never seen before his eyes ever since. Upon their arrival, they were confronted by a force of 500 Ibalois ready to attack them. To calm the situation, Mariano introduced themselves as friends, not enemies. He also introduced certain crops such as coffee and carrot, much to the amazement of the Ibalois. He was also granted permission to purchase a strip of land, whom he established the oldest hacienda in the Cordilleras: Hacienda Froilana, named after his wife. The Ibalois agreed to put themselves under Philippine suzerainty. The Kankanaeys also did the same on November 13, with several tribal chiefs signing a sipat (a traditional treaty of the Igorots) with Mariano. The chiefs told Mariano about the gold mines' locations, however, it seems he was more interested in expanding Philippine authority within the Cordilleras. The lands of the two Igorot tribes were later named as La Trinidad after the three prominent adjacent hills he had seen.

Not all Igorots they have encountered are friendly. Some, like one incident on November 19 in the northern territories of the Kankanaeys, a group of 100 refused and drove the soldiers away. Another incident occurred on November 21 where 200 Igorots attacked some soldiers in the night. In retaliation, Calba with over 100 men captured those who committed such a crime, over half of them were executed, while another half were punished by either lashing or being involuntary servants to their chiefs for 3 years.

He then proceeded to the territories of the Bontocs on November 23, of the Balangaos on November 25, of the Kalingas on November 29, the Itnegs on December 1 and the Kalanguyas on Decemeber 4. With his arrival, so are the signing of sipats and mixed reactions of the Igorots. They also intervened in Igorot tribal rivalries, often siding one tribe over the other.

Throughout the expedition of a month, Mariano and Calba ordered the documentation of the the Cordilleras about their the terrain, the rivers and its names, culture, history, religious beliefs and others. This was subsequently compiled as The Adventures in the Highlands, published in Manila after their return. Mariano and Calba returned with success, they also took with them, some objects and artifacts from the Igorots, as well as chiefs that would become representatives of Cordillera. The entirety of the Cordilleras excluding parts that belonged to Cagayan and Ilocos Sur was named as the Imperial Territory of La Trinidad.

 

[Krueger]

Zamboanga was a fortified town located south of Mindanao, on the tip of the Zamboanga peninsula and had maritime borders with Sulu in the south. It was a launching pad for Christian conquests and defensive wars against the raiding Moros. It was briefly abandoned in 1662 when an invasion by Koxinga that never took place alarmed the Spanish to withdraw their troops there for Manila's defense. It was reestablished by the Spanish in 1712, on the orders of Ferdinand VI, but the actual reestablishment did not take place until the year 1718 due to the lack of funds.

Most soldiers stationed in the fortified town are Indios from Luzon and Visayas, local converts and Latin Americans from Mexico and Peru. A large number of them were also members of the Sons by 1803. They tried to revolt when revolution broke out in Luzon in 1823 but was instantly suppressed by loyalist officials in Fort Pilar. As a result, soldiers and officials that were involved in the revolt are removed from service, and replaced by loyalists and Peninsulars. Filipinos captured in previous Spanish wars against the revolutionaries up north were deported to Zamboanga, and their number swelled when the rest of Spanish Mindanao was captured by the rebels. When news reached that the Spanish were defeated at Bantayan, numerous soldiers and officers made up a plan.

On the day of February 23, 1826, soldiers removed from service for over 3 years now, led by their former officers, gathered and mutinied at the La Caldera fort joined by the soldiers stationed there. The mutineers rapidly took over the entirety of the municipality, and surrounded Fort Pilar. The commander refused to yield the fort over the mutineers, so the latter decided to charge at the gates, and once that was done, they killed the commander by shooting him multiple times, then left to bled to death. They also prepared the few vintas docked at the harbor and used them to take the Basilan settlements under the Spanish. Loyalists themselves were suppressed.

They sent a ship to Manila to show that the Zamboangueños had rebelled and acknowledged Philippine sovereignty over them, and it reached Manila by February 28, flying the Philippine flag held by some POWs from Panay to avoid confusion.

 

[Krueger]

Prelude and Preparation
Cebu, after the mutiny at Zamboanga, became the sole remaining Philippine possession left of the Spanish.

Andres I, who wanted to left mark in history, wanted that the final place for conquest of the Philippines shall be Cebu. As his own words, the Spanish had started in Cebu, and that they would end their rule at Cebu. Several of his colleagues also wanted to fulfill this historical moment.

As such, with the Spanish having no ability to thwart any possible Philippine invasion since most marines are already exhausted and ships having major damages, he prepared only 5 ships laden with 2,000 men. This time, the ships would undergo a blockade of the island, largely derived from the goals of the failed Portuguese blockade of Cebu in 1568.

Blockade
The blockade was conducted on March 30, 1826.

To choke the Spanish in Cebu to surrender, Andres issued decrees prohibiting the provinces of Iloilo, Negros, Leyte, Misamis and Samar as well as the Free Republic of Bohol from ever trading with the Spanish-controlled province. The result is a severe blow of the provincial economy of the province, the worst it had seen since the 15th century.

Andres also ordered to undergo minor bombardment of the province. Small villages in the coast soon had their livelihoods of fishing disrupted since their boats were the ones usually the target of cannonballs fired from ships. There were also minor rates of destruction, such as huts directed in the coast being destroyed, as well as some minor casualties.

The Spanish tried to stop the blockade by ordering its remaining ships to combat the Filipinos, but by then the marines and soldiers had enough due to nearly 3 years of defeat, lack of sufficient food supply and broken promises that caused them to mutiny. All of a sudden, the entirety of Cebu minus the capital itself and the surrounding towns are now under rebel authority, ready to welcome the rebels at any point.

Naval Siege of Cebu
The captains of the ship decided to launch a naval siege, headed by vice admiral Ynchausti against Cebu on April 12. The 5 ships, later reinforced by 3 more coming from Luzon in April 16, surrounded the city of Cebu, its neighboring towns and Mactan Island. The following places suffered from constant bombing from the ships, resulting in the loss of numerous lives and property. Merchant ships docked were also bombarded that destroyed most of them.

Ynchausti sent a request demanding the surrender of Cebu, guaranteeing protection over Martinez and a safe passage of him and officials to Manila to sign an official treaty recognizing the Philippines as an independent nation. The Spanish refused, so they decided to tighten their siege by directly bombarding the most important buildings and the most populated places of Cebu, further increasing the weary of the Cebuanos.

Since the citizens of Cebu City, of Mactan Island and the neighboring towns could not held for much longer in this situation, they gathered at the cabildo of Cebu, and demanded audience with Martinez. When they refused, they decided to storm the capital itself, searching for the governor-general. Failing to find him, they instead killed the pro-Spanish gobernadorcillo, then overthrown the provincial governor. The citizens invited Ynchausti and his force to enter the city, on AprIl 27, the day when Calipulapo[1] defeated Magellan on its shores, 305 years ago. The Philippine flag was flown in the plaza, with everybody shouting "Viva la independencia!". Thus, Spanish rule has finally ended, and a new nation was born in the Far East.

[1] - One of the earliest recorded names of Lapulapu (f. 1521), derived from the term Cilapulapu, which in turn derives from Si Lapulapu, with Si being the native form of Sri, a honorific that originated from India