The radical reforms of Tsar Nicholas II ultimately laid the foundation for the future successes of the Russian Empire. The rapid industrialization policies, economic reforms, military reforms and cultural reforms led to future military successes of the Russian Empire but also made the country into arguably the most oppressive state the world has ever seen.
Policies for Rapid Industrialization
Early Policies
The Russian government’s “Policies for Rapid Industrialization and National Development” as they were known internally began with the government's nationalization of foreign-owned industry as well as many key privately owned Russian industries. These policies of nationalization without reimbursement were in many ways a strategy the late Tsar used to lessen foreign and Capitalist influence in the nation as well as centralize the economy. The policy initially focused on improving agriculture and heavy industry. Modern farming equipment was built in record numbers and many small farms were merged into single large units under State control. The Russian Ministry of Agriculture was given increased power to control what crops were planted and at what prices they could be sold for. Farmers that resisted State intervention would run the risk of having their farms seized by the State. The Russian government's policies of modernizing Russian farming using tractors, combine harvesters and new large-scale farming techniques freed up millions of workers that would soon come to work in Russia's factories.
Later on, starting in 1905 the Tsar's government began to focus on heavy industry. The Russian steel industry grew with dozens of new steel mills built across the Russian Empire. Mining outputs grew considerably with new machinery and hundreds of new factories were built, dedicated to heavy industry. The oil and forestry industries saw similar improvements. The Russian government also built up a large state-owned weapons industry with the Russians producing thousands of rifles, artillery, transport trucks and even the beginnings of a navy. Transport similarly improved as rail networks were built and roads were constructed to connect the Empire. Nicholas II's early industrial policies would lead to a more wealthy and powerful Russia that was ultimately better prepared for it's future conflicts.
Social Reforms
Nicholas II masterminded reforms that would transform Russia into what scholars in the west would call a Totalitarian State. Nicholas II worked with the Russian tradition of Tsarist autocracy and greatly expanded the already authoritarian state to one that would control all aspects of life.
The Okhrana:
The Okhrana had previously existed as the Russian Empire's secret police force, but the Tsar expanded the force to untold levels. Thousands of new agents were hired and trained in all manners of cruelty to enforce the Tsar's wishes upon the people. The Okhrana would carry out organized hits against political opponents, engage in the torture of those deemed to be hostile to the State, Tsar and Orthodox Church. Anyone deemed to be Liberal, Socialist or Atheist would run the risk of being arrested and imprisoned without a formal trial by the oppressive security force. Of particular interest to the Okhrana was the universities which were seen as hotbeds of political activism. A purge of many teachers as well as more troublesome students was carried out in early 1903 as the Tsar vowed to put the Russian education system under State control. The Okhrana's acts of terror were not just limited to those seeking a higher education however, as anyone who was deemed to be a revolutionary, leftist, intellectual or otherwise acting against the desires of the Tsar would run the risk of being sent to a Siberian work camp or even killed.
The Black Hundreds:
The Black Hundreds was an ultra-nationalist organization who were among the earliest and staunchest supporters of the Tsar. They in many ways would form the basis of Nicholas II's personality cult. The organization was founded on an unwavering belief in the Tsar, Church and Motherland. The Black Hundreds attracted mainly working-class and poor Russian men, but also had members among the clergy and nobility. Compared to the Okhrana the organization was poorly disciplined and operated much like a gang of thugs that would use intimidation and violence to enforce the Tsar's will. The organization's members would conduct pogroms against Russia's Jewish population, intimidate ethnic minorities and carry out murders of dissenters with seemingly the blessing of the government.
Propaganda:
Nicholas II formed the basis for the modern theory of propaganda. The primary form of propaganda in the Russian Empire was the use of propaganda posters that combined striking visuals with catchy and memorable slogans. As the majority of Russian citizens at the time were illiterate the posters had a focus on visuals with comparatively little text. The posters were in fact designed as such that the meaning could be conveyed purely through the visuals. Propaganda visuals were omnipresent in Russian society with them appearing on the street, in newspapers, radio and in the workplace. Propaganda was intended to instill loyalty in the Tsar, devotion to the Orthodox church and to encourage selfless hard work for the good of the nation.
Media & The Arts:
The media was fully nationalized by the Russian government which gave the Tsar full control over the newspapers, publishers, radio and other forms of media in the Empire. While previously the Russian media was merely censored in that articles critical to the Tsar or government were disallowed but the new media now was only allowed to praise the Tsar. Glowing praises of Nicholas II would be daily headlines and songs in his honor were played constantly over Russian radio stations. The speeches of Nicholas II were a particularly popular subject for radio, with Moscow having a station dedicated to them. Books were written detailing the minute aspects of the Tsar's life. Even fantasy stories were not free from government influence. Libraries were purged, some so severely that they would be nearly empty for years.
Education:
The first order of business for the Tsar was to establish strict control over Russian schooling all the way from grade school to the most prestigious universities. Some of the first victim's of the cruel Tsar were professors with Liberal and Socialist minded beliefs, as well as their students. Thousands of teachers and professors would be sent to the Siberian prison camps or even outright executed by Nicholas II's Okhrana. The educational reforms initially got off to a challenging start with a shortage of teachers, especially at the higher levels of education however the problem would be corrected in later years with additional funding to train teachers. Still, a significant portion of education involved outright indoctrination into the Tsar's beliefs.
Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese war was the first major engagement of Nicholas II's new Russian Empire. In many ways it just confirmed the old notions of the superiority of European nations. The Russian Empire's success in the war, while troubling to the Western powers was hardly seen as surprising. In Russia the victory proved to further cement the Tsar as a capable and strong autocrat.
The first action of the war was Admiral Togo's sneak attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. The Admiral's plan was to score a decisive hit on the Russian fleet and cripple the Russian's naval capabilities. Unfortunately for the Japanese however the Russians were much more prepared than initially suspected and drove off the Japanese with large shore guns. The attack had failed with the Russians sinking two Japanese ships and forcing the rest of the fleet into retreat.
The first major land battle of the war was the battle of Yalu River which occurred in April, 1904. The battle was fought in northern Korea, along the banks of the Yalu River. The Japanese forces, which had occupied the Korean peninsula launched several unsuccessful offences against the Russians. The Japanese strategy of massed infantry attacks were ultimately unsuccessful and resulted in large numbers of casualties for the Japanese. Unfavourable weather conditions also made advancement by the Japanese an arduous process. The Russians, under General Mikhail Zasulich were given orders to stay on a strict defensive until further re-enforcements could arrive along the Trans-Siberian railway. The Russians, despite being outnumbered held their ground and ultimately brought the Japanese invasion to a grinding halt.
The Russian Navy would go on to score another victory against the Japanese fleet with a battle that would result in the destruction of much of Japan's fleet and the death of the ambitious Admiral Togo. The Russian fleet, victorious at sea would begin raiding transports to occupied Korea, starving the Japanese army of supplies.
By September 1904 the Japanese had kept up some intermittent offences against the Russians at Yalu. The well dug-in Russians proved to be quite able to hold their ground against the Japanese, who were now starving for supplies as the Russian fleet came to cut of Korea. The Russians, although still maintaining a defensive position would be able to seize some ground from the Japanese. This would set the stage for the defining land battle of the war.
The Russians, now re-enforced with fresh troops from the West had pushed the Japanese to a line that now reached the small Korean city of Huichon. The Russians, through an effective use of artillery and cavalry overwhelmed the Japanese forces in a disastrous defeat for the Japanese Army. The Russians managed to encircle the Japanese army and cut them down with artillery barrages and effective cavalry charges against the Japanese artillery.
With the bulk of the Japanese invasion force in tatters the Russians moved on to occupy Pyongyang where the Japanese forces surrendered after a short battle. With the Russians occupying Korea the Japanese had little hope for victory. Further naval attacks would prove futile and the prospects of launching another invasion of Korea seemed an impossibility for the Japanese.
With the failures on land at sea the Japanese were forced to make peace on February 22, 1905. Russia would annex Manchuria and Korea would be made a Russian vassal state. The Japanese government was also forced to pay reparations to Russia. In Japan the news came as a major humiliation. Riots broke out in Tokyo as a result of the peace treaty but were quickly broken up by police. The loss lowered the legitimacy of the military and rattled the government to the core. While the military was left with embarrassment the threat of the Russians, now on the Southern coast of Korea kept a sort of siege mentality amongst the Japanese. With the attacks failing and the Russians closer to Japan then ever the Japanese chose to focus on a strong defensive posture and worked to forge better relations with the United States and the British Empire who were interested in containing the Russians after their victory in Manchuria.