Capitulum XXIV: The struggle for unification and the Franco/Italian Cold War
When France allied itself with the Kingdom of Sardinia to undermine Austrian presence in the Italian peninsula, it never intended for the creation of an unified Italian state. In fact, France was already wary of Sardinian and, later on, North Italian expansion in the Mediterranean. France aimed for the creation of four Italian kingdoms: the Kingdom of Northern Italy, the Kingdom of Central Italy, the Papal States and the Kingdom of Southern Italy. Sardinian colonies were to remain under the controll of the Kingdom of Northern Italy, but the French also aimed to undermine Italian position in these regions in order to them to become French.
French Plans for Italy
So when the North Italian Federation begun improving relations with the Papal States and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, there were already problems with the two nations. The North Italian Federation tried a peaceful mean to unite the Italian peninsula, to avoid confrontations with great powers that didn't approve the Italian unification, such as Austria, Britain and, to a degree, France.
In particular, problems arose regarding the Papal States. France had deep interests with the Papal States, with the majority of the French population being catholic and a strong believer. On top of that, the Papal States had been under the French sphere of influence for a considerable time, and many military advisors in the Holy See were, indeed, French. So the French were rather surprised that the North Italian Federation attempted to gain the side of the Pope for an unification, alongside the Two Sicilies. On December 12 1858, the French government proned the Papal States to kick North Italian delegates in order to "defend the sovereignty of the Holy See." This incident today is recalled to be the beginning of the so-called "Franco-Italian Cold War", a period of territorial and economic competition between the North Italian Federation (Later on the Kingdom of Italy) and the Kingdom of France (Later on the Second French Empire and, later on, the French Republic). Relations were made worse when it seemed like the North Italians decided to venture away from France and forge an alliance with the North German Federation, seeing the North Germans as possible allies for the complete destruction of Austria and the complete unification of the Italian people with the support of the "German Brothers".
New hostilities between France and the North Italian Federation occurred when French troops stationed in the Papal States had a minor skirmish with North Italian ones near Livorno on June 20 1859.
Things between the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the North Italian Federation were far better. On October 21 1859 Vittorio Emanuele II di Savoia met with Francesco II delle Due Sicilie in Naples, for a treaty of friendship between what were essentially the two dominating powers in the Italian Peninsula. Vittorio Emanuele II promised to support any Sicilian effort in modernization. This was proven when the North Italian Federation begun the construction of its first railroads, which included both the Papal States and the Two Sicilies. Trade agreements and the construction of railroads in the Two Sicilies leaded to the formation of, on January 11 1860, of the North Italian/Sicilian alliance, a mutual agreement of defense against foreign aggression.
But thing with France didn't look good. In an attempt to expand its North African holdings, some North Italian colonial contingents attempted, on January 07 1860, to expand in Algeria, in the territories not controlled by the French. It went as well as you would expect: on March 01 1860 said colonial contingent was discovered by the French, and shortly after the French government issued an ultimatum to the North Italian Federation: they were to leave all claims on Algeria or face war. The Northern Italian Federation chose the former, not yet feeling prepared for a war against France.
On a more positive note on the North Italian side, with the rise of the North German Federation, the French did not have the power to block both the Germans and the Italians, which gave much breathing space for the North Italian Federation, which was considered the least threatening of the two. Meetings between members of the North Italian government and the ones of the Papal States and the Two Sicilies proved that unification was possible and under North Italian grasp. But, Vittorio Emanuele II and Camillo Benso di Cavour intended to slow down a bit. Sure, Italian unification could be achieved easily on a map now, but not a cultural unification. Italy had been divided for centuries, leading to all the various states to essentially be completely independent, and the accents were so thick that members of two different neighboring duchies could not understand each others.
On top of that, while the North Italian Federation was the industrial powerhouse of the Italian Peninsula, the Two Sicilies and the Papal States were still mostly rural with very few factories. It also didn't help that the Papal States were not that thrilled in losing their temporal power. So, as Alessandro Manzoni once said, "Before we can make Italy, we need to make the Italians." As such, time was needed for agreements between the Papal church and the possibly new Italian government, and both the Two Sicilies and Papal States needed to be modernize to catch up with the rest of the country.
By September 01 1861 the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was far more modernized than the agricultural lackluster prior, and was somewhat on par with the North Italian Federation, and by March 15 1862 there was a final agreement between the Papal church and the North Italian government, the Law of Guarantees (Legge delle Guarentigie). In it:
-the pope's person to be sacred and inviolable;
-insult or injury to the pope to be treated on a par with insult or injury to the king's person; discussion of religious matters to be absolutely free;
-royal honours to be paid to the pope; that he have the right to the customary guards;
-as an indemnity for the loss of his domains, as an annual sum in perpetuity, the pope was voted 3,225,000 lire to cover all the needs of the Holy See (College ofm Cardinals, Roman congregations, embassies, etc.) and the maintenance of church buildings;
-the Lateran and Vatican palaces, as well as the Villa of Castel Gandolfo, to remain the property of the pope; these articles assure the pope and all engaged in the spiritual government of the Church, as well as the college of cardinals assembled in conclave, complete liberty of communication with the Catholic world, exempt them from all interference with their letters, papers, etc.;
-the clergy to have freedom of assembly;
-the government to renounce the "Apostolic Legation" in Sicily, and the right of nomination to major benefices, with reservation, however, of the royal patronage; the bishops are not obliged to take the oath (of allegiance) on appointment;
-the Exequatur to be maintained only for the major benefices (except in Rome, and in the suburbicarian sees) and for acts affecting the disposition of ecclesiastical property;
in spiritual matters no appeal to be allowed against ecclesiastical authority; the civil courts, however, to be competent to pass judgment on the juridical effects of ecclesiastical sentences. Provision to be made, by a future law, for the reorganization, conservation, and administration of all the church property in the kingdom.
-the right to active and passive legation, and immunity of envoys accredited to the Holy See within Italian territory.
-A political treaty recognising the full sovereignty of the Holy See in the State of Vatican City, which was thereby established, accompanied by four annexes:
--A map of the territory of Vatican City State
--Maps of buildings with extraterritorial privilege and exemption from expropriation and taxes (owned by the Holy See but located in Italy and not forming part of Vatican City)
--Maps of buildings with exemption from expropriation and taxes (but without extraterritorial privilege)
--A financial convention agreed on as a definitive settlement of the claims of the Holy See following the losses in case of Italian Unification
-A concordat regulating relations between the Catholic Church and the Italian state
With the North Italian Federation becoming a constitutional monarchy on December 22 1860, Francesco II delle Due Sicilie and Pope Pius IX granted special positions in the new Italian government, a referendum was issued, which leaded, finally, on March 22 1862, to the union between the North Italian Federation, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Papal States. Finally, after almost 1300 years, Italy was united.
Italy after its unification on March 22 1862
To celebrate this grand event, on April 01 1862 the Altare della Patria, also nicknamed "Vittoriano", was commissioned in Rome, the new capital of the Kingdom of Italy, a grand building meant to represent the struggle of Italian unification. It would be finished 50 years later, in 1912, but already in 1889 it was visible for the public. One major step for Italy had been completed. While at first there would be some issues with the southern regions of Italy, a new Italian state was finally born. But this was just step one for Italy. The peninsula was secured: the Mediterranean was the next target.
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