The Kingdom of Liberty: A History of the United States

[Roosevelt]

The Kingdom of Liberty

A History of the United States​

"Unlike the centuries-old absolute monarchies of Europe, which ruled for power and control, the American monarchy ruled for nearly the exact opposite: liberty and independence. Since Henry the First to George the Second, we have been dearly blessed with a successful experiment, a Kingdom of Liberty." - U.S. President Lester Pearson (July 4, 1964).

Chapter One - A Disunited Union

The Siege of Yorktown was the final nail in the coffin for any British hopes of holding onto their American colonies. American, French, and Prussian Armies evicted the British from Yorktown and forced Great Britain into peace negotiations with their former subjects and their European allies.

As the ink dried on the Treaty of Paris, one of America's heroes met a sudden demise. General George Washington, one of the most unifying figures of the American revolution, would not live long enough to see the product of his leadership. On the evening of March 21, 1784, General Washington was riding his horse from Arlington to Mount Vernon. An earlier storm had knocked trees and debris into the roads. At dusk, Washington and his horse failed to see a downed tree that was spanning the road. His horse tripped and the general was launched from his saddle to the ground. Washington struck his head and broke his neck, rendering him unconscious. A mail courier found General Washington an hour after the accident and recognized him almost immediately. By that time, however, it was too late. The United States had lost her father.

General George Washington, the Father of the United States (1732-1784)​

The Congress of the Confederation unanimously declared March 26, 1784 a day of mourning for General George Washington.

Two years after the death of George Washington, the United States appeared to be coming apart at the seams. The loose Articles of Confederation caused states to quarrel and impose trade restrictions on each other. The federal government of the United States lacked almost any power to stop the fragmentation. For example, Philadelphia could not raise a standing army to intervene in such problems. The power to raise a military was through the states, which were struggling to survive. This lack of authority would culminate in the infamous Shays' Rebellion.

Massachusetts Governor James Bowdoin, the successor to John Hancock, governed as the exact opposite of his predecessor. While Hancock barely enforced tax collection, Bowdoin imposed a harsh fiscal policy on Massachusetts. Taxes that had not been paid in years were recalled by Bowdoin. The dreary economic situation in Massachusetts began to deteriorate further due to the taxes and the commonwealth’s staggering debt. Along with a bad fiscal situation, Boston began to gain a reputation as a hub of political corruption and malpractice, with Bowdoin at the center of it. As expected, many of Massachusetts’ residents were angered by Governor Bowdoin’s policies. For many, it brought back memories of King George and his harsh tax policies across the colonies.

Large protests had taken place across Massachusetts since late August of 1786. Protesters across the state, calling themselves Regulators, managed to shut down the county court to seek relief from “burdensome” and depriving judicial proceedings. Governor Bowdoin condemned the protesters as “mobs” and called on the militia to quell the protests. As protests continued, the government would turn increasingly harsh and impatient with the Regulators, with Senate President Samuel Adams threatening to punish rebels by execution.

With tensions running high and a huge rift between the state and its people, it appeared a second revolution would be coming to North America.

The Siege of Springfield​

On January 26th, rebel forces led by Daniel Shays, Luke Day, and Eli Parsons launched an attack on the Springfield Armory. The militia present at Springfield, commanded by General William Shepard, were shockingly overrun by the rebel forces, being significantly outnumbered. Shepard withdrew his remaining forces and moved east. As the armory fell to the Regulators, Governor Bowdoin pleaded the Congress of the Confederation to supply an army for him, but per the Articles of Confederation, this could not be done. The Regulator militias moved east, raiding shops for food and clothes along the way. General Benjamin Lincoln, who had been headquartered at Worcester, moved south and intercepted the Regulators at Douglas, where he oversaw their defeat and the capture of Shays, Day, and Parsons. Many of the rebels scattered from the battle and thus avoided capture by Lincoln’s men. In total, the rebellion cost half a thousand lives on both sides.

While ultimately a failure, Shays’ Rebellion completely changed how all Americans felt about governing. It was clear that the decentralized Articles of Confederation was ineffective at governing and keeping order. State governments began to fear that rebellions inspired by Daniel Shays could begin in their own backyards and lead to their demise. Patriots who fought for independence feared that the Union would continue to crumble and potentially lead to British rule once again. Nearly every American agreed on one notion: a new constitution.

 

[Roosevelt]

Chapter Two - God Save The King

“If we simply allow ourselves to bicker and quarrel and have no body mediate our disputes, then we shall be reduced from a sovereign nation to a subject of the British once again. Strengthening our central government is not tyranny, it is, in fact, an antidote to tyranny.” - Alexander Hamilton (July 1787, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)

Shays’ Rebellion and its casualties was fresh in every American’s mind. Not even a decade after the end of the American Revolution and it looked like civil war was looming between the newly-independent states. States had gathered months prior in Annapolis to revise the Articles of Confederation; however, nothing would come of this meeting as several states did not attend and no changes were made. The Philadelphia Convention (later known as the Constitutional Convention) sought to avoid Annapolis’ mistakes.

The Old State House (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)​

Two major plans came from the convention, the Virginia Plan and the New York Plan, proposed by James Madison and Alexander Hamilton respectively. Madison’s Virginia plan called for a bicameral legislature determined by population and led by an elected weak executive. The Virginia Plan also enclosed term limits for legislative and executive seats to allow rotation in office. The New York Plan endorsed a bicameral legislature with equal representation in both chambers. The lower house would be elected to three year terms, while the appointed Senate would serve for life. It also supported a strong executive who would serve a lifelong term, would serve as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and approve or veto bills from the legislature. The Virginia Plan garnered support from the populous states and the south, while the New York Plan would garner support from the smaller states and the north.

Supporters of the Virginia and New York Plans locked horns for several weeks. Supporters of the Virginia Plan attacked the New York Plan as being too “authoritarian” and taking away too much power from the states. In contrast, supporters of the New York Plan attacked their opponents by claiming that only large states would have a say in the national government, while small states would have almost no voice. This deadlock would continue until the Connecticut delegation would introduce their own plan. The bicameral legislature would have an elected, population-weighted lower house, and an appointed, equally weighted upper house. The lower house would have the power to introduce and pass legislation, declare war, and manage finances. The upper house would serve as a check on the lower house, having the power to revise legislation and review judicial appointments chosen by the lower house. The lower house would choose a president to serve as the leader of the body, while a national executive would serve as head of state and ratify bills passed by the legislature. After the introduction of the Connecticut plan, the deadlock ended and progress was made. There was one lingering problem, who would be best suited to serve as the executive?

Some delegates suggested that a military figure should serve as the national executive. Others suggested a directly-elected executive who could serve for short terms. Then, an originally controversial idea took center stage: a monarchy. Some had suggested in years prior that the late General George Washington should be crowned King, but many originally dismissed the idea of a monarchy as counterintuitive for the revolution. Given the poor situation of the confederal republic, a monarchy was reconsidered by many as the populace called republicanism into question. Supporters, namely Nathaniel Gorham and Alexander Hamilton, argued that a neutral monarch with restricted powers would preserve the union and ensure that civil war or authoritarianism would never overtake the United States. Opponents, namely Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson, believed that a monarchy was too “British” and, similarly to their opposition to greater federal control, would lead to authoritarianism. Discussions about a hypothetical monarchy evolved from whether or not to have a monarch to candidates for the crown. Rumors circulated that Prince Frederick of York and Albany would be offered the throne prior to the convention, but these rumors were shut down quickly. Another candidate took center stage, a man who helped the colonists fight for independence and was held in high esteem by both Americans and Europeans.

Enter Prince Henry of Prussia.

Prince Henry of Prussia, The Man Who Never Lost a Battle​

Prince Henry had gained a strong reputation in North America. He personally supported the revolution when word of it hit Europe, and when his brother decided to recognize the United States, Henry was more than willing to help the Patriots’ cause. He arrived in North America in 1778 and commanded troops alongside Washington at the Battle of Monmouth. Washington and Prince Henry successfully defeated Clinton’s army on June 28th, killing 600 and capturing 1,500 soldiers. Prince Henry would oversee the defeat of Baron von Knyphausen at the Battle of Springfield, also known as the “Battle of the Germans” due to most units and commanders hailing from the German states. Following Springfield, New Jersey was secured by the Patriots and Prince Henry was moved to South Carolina, overseeing a victory against Banastre Tarleton at Cowpens. His signature battle, however, was Yorktown, where his Prussian volunteers, combined with American and French forces, forced Lord Cornwallis to surrender and pushed Great Britain to peace negotiations. Despite Prussia going to war with Austria over the Bavarian throne in 1782, Henry decided to stay in the United States and resided in Philadelphia, maintaining his rank of Brigadier General in the Continental Army. Because of this, Prince Henry was a frequent dinner guest of many of the Philadelphia Convention’s delegates.

When Prince Henry’s name was thrown in as a candidate for the monarchy, nearly every member of the convention knew who he was. He had been a voice for the Enlightenment and was a man they fought alongside. He was easily trusted, and American opinion of Prussia was high. The convention voted on the proposal for a monarchy and, by a 8-3 vote, the monarchy was now officially part of the Constitution.

The final draft of the constitution contained three equal branches: the legislative, the monarchical, and the judicial. Article I of the Constitution established the United States Congress. The Congress was designed per the Connecticut Compromise, with a population-determined lower house and an appointed upper house. Article II of the Constitution established the Monarchy of the United States. The monarch was formally established as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, designated as the head of state, and would approve or veto bills that passed through Congress. To prevent the entanglement of the monarchy with politics, members of the royal family are forbidden from voting or attending Congress without a formal invitation from the President. Finally, Article III established the Supreme Court. Justices for the Supreme Court would serve life-terms, would be nominated by the House of Representatives, and approved by the Senate.

The first United States General Election was held from November 1788 to March 1789, electing the first House of Representatives. The American Whig Party, led by Massachusettsan John Adams, secured a majority in the House, with James Madison’s Liberty Party in the minority. The Whigs swept seats in New England and the northeast, while the Liberty Party performed best in the south. The 1st United States Congress convened in New York City and elected John Adams as the President of the Congress.

John Adams, 1st President of the United States
​

A week after Congress convening, officials relocated from New York City to Philadelphia to attend the coronation of King Henry at Christ Church (the United States was officially a secular state, however monarchs could choose where they would be coronated). After Henry took the oath and the bishop placed the bejeweled crown on the king's head, people both inside and outside the church chanted:

"God save the king!"

"God save the king!"

"God save the king!"

Any and all feedback is appreciated.

 

[Roosevelt]

Chapter Three - The Decade of Revolution

“The events in France are most disturbing. The public execution of the king and the chaotic violence in the streets of Paris are antithetical to the ideals of liberty that the revolutionaries claim to support. His Majesty’s Government calls on the French government to cease their massacres and restore peace to their nation.” - Foreign Affairs Secretary John Jay (September 1793).

Just three months after the ascension of King Henry to the throne of the United States, an American-inspired revolution would break out in France. On July 14, 1789, a group of rebels would storm the French armory and prison known as the Bastille. A symbol of oppression and autocracy, the destruction of The Bastille would ignite the flames of revolution in France.

Storming of the Bastille​

France had been in turmoil since the Seven Years’ War. The nation had been failing to pay off its debts and entry into the American Revolutionary War only made the situation worse. King Louis XVI, heavily influenced by the aristocracy and the clergy, continued to raise taxes on the Third Estate, resulting the already-impoverished lower class to suffer even more. A series of bad decisions and miscalculations by Louis XVI pushed the peasants and commoners to revolt against the status quo. King Louis was forced to relinquish many of his powers in 1791 as the revolutionaries attempted to institute and Anglo-American style of government; however, this government would only survive for a year. The French Revolution became increasingly radical and bloody after King Louis and his family attempted an escape from France to the Austrian Netherlands, leading to his powers to be suspended indefinitely. Paranoia began to spread across France that the traditionalist powers of Europe (namely Austria and Prussia) were plotting to invade France to reinstate Louis XVI’s absolute rule and quell the revolution, leading to the Assembly voting to declare war on Austria and Prussia, igniting the French Revolutionary War. Roughly six months after, the monarchy was formally abolished and the French Republic was declared.

King Louis XVI and his family arrested at Varennes (June 21, 1791) ​

The newly established National Convention, dominated by radicals, puts the deposed king on trial for “conspiracy against public liberty” and finds him guilty. By a single vote, he is sentenced to death and publicly executed on January 21, 1793. The extremely controversial execution of King Louis XVI led to the breakdown of diplomatic relations between Great Britain and France, leading to the British joining the growing anti-revolutionary coalition. Despite this, the Jacobins solidified their grip on power, expelling the moderates, ratifying a new constitution, and establishing the Committee of Public Safety. The Convention and the Committee of Public Safety would soon begin rapidly arresting and executing suspected opponents of the Revolution. Between June of 1793 and July of 1794, 16,000 French citizens were tried and executed under Robespierre’s rule. It was not until Maximilien Robespierre gave a fiery speech to the Convention, claiming there were traitors and demanding their arrest and execution, that his reign would end. The Convention rose against him, ordering the arrest of him and his brother. On July 29, Robespierre and his allies were publicly executed, and the Reign of Terror was finally over.

The next year would be objectively better for France. In April, France and Prussia officially signed a peace agreement, putting Prussia out of the French Revolutionary War and recognizing France’s claim on the left bank of the Rhine. Spain would sign a peace deal three months later, granting France control of Saint Domingue. In August, a new constitution is ratified, inspired by the American and British bicameral legislatures. The executive would be known as the “Directory” and composed of five Directors. France would turn her sights to Italy, where General Napoleon Bonaparte would carve out “sister republics” as allies. Spain would also sign an alliance with France and declare war on Great Britain in August. France would attempt an invasion of Ireland by the end of the year; however, a storm wrecked much of the French fleet and the operation was deemed a disaster. As peace neared with Austria and Great Britain, the government of France was badly divided. Recent elections gave the Royalists, running on a peace campaign, majorities in both chambers. Rumors circulated that a coup may occur against the Royalist majorities shortly after the elections, but nothing would come of it that year.

The unstable peace between France and the rest of Europe would begin to falter in the spring of 1798. In April, the Royalists deepened their majorities in the government. This worried many who supported the republic and the revolution, namely General Jean Moreau, a devout revolutionary and an opponent of a Bourbon restoration.

General Jean Moreau, an effective commander and a pragmatic revolutionary​

Jean Moreau fought hard to preserve the revolution, and he did not want to see a return to the past. He decided to take matters into his own hands. On 5 Prairial (May 24), General Jean Moreau and his army marched into Paris. Moreau and his army stormed Parliament, declaring the government dissolved. The Royalist deputies were shocked with what they witnessed, while republican deputies were delighted to see Moreau storm Parliament. Moreau declared that a new constitution would be drafted and that the revolution shall be “forever preserved.” His constitution would declare him “Consul,” a military position that would be appointed for a ten-year term. The Congress of France would be established, with a directly elected House of Representatives and an appointed Senate, with equal representation for each department. The new elections secured republican majorities in both chambers.

For roughly six months, the only nation at war with France was Great Britain, which had been barely engaging France since the exit of Austria in October of 1797. Because of this, General Napoleon Bonaparte set sail just days before 5 Prairial to invade Egypt, held by the Ottoman Empire. That year, however, Britain and Austria organized a new coalition to attack France, this time with the Russian Empire. Napoleon Bonaparte, bogged down in Egypt, was cut off by the Royal Navy and was stranded. He withdrew his forces from Syria and concentrated back in Egypt, where he successfully fought off attempts by the British and Ottomans to take back Egypt. Bonaparte’s reputation would suffer from this campaign. He suffered defeats as his army became outnumbered and many of his men succumbed to the plague. General Bonaparte was forced to surrender to British forces after the Siege of Alexandria, thus ending fighting in Egypt. In Europe, the military situation had gone better for France. Russian and Austrian forces were routed from the Helvetic Republic in a decisive victory for France. Consul Moreau led troops to victory in Bavaria, namely at the Battle of Hohenlinden. Shortly after, Austria sued for peace for a second time. By 1802, the French Revolutionary War had finally ended.

Now, time to head back across the Atlantic.

The United States had avoided entangling itself in the French Revolutionary War, officially maintaining a neutral status. Public opinion was initially favorable towards the revolutionaries as they sympathized with their cause and understood their struggle, but as news of atrocities reached the United States, opinion turned against the French Revolution. The Adams Government held a firm position against the revolution shortly after the king’s execution in early 1793. King Henry I and President Adams, along with many members of Congress, condemned the execution of Louis XVI and believed the revolution was becoming too radical. During the war, the United States was harassed by both the British and French navies despite being neutral. To avoid a full-scale war with Great Britain, Foreign Affairs Secretary John Jay drafted a treaty with the British to resolve conflicts stemming from the Treaty of Paris and opening trade with Great Britain and her colonies. James Madison and the Liberty Party denounced this treaty, claiming it violated American neutrality and was strengthening the Whig Party’s control of Congress. Despite this, the treaty (known today as the Jay Treaty) passed the Senate and was approved by the king. After holding their majorities in the 1794 elections, President Adams took more controversial moves against violations of neutrality. Known as the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Adams Government tightened restrictions on immigration and granted the government power to deport immigrants and non-citizens from hostile nations. This would later doom the Whigs four years later, and in 1798, Madison’s Liberty Party took control of Congress.

The World in 1802
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Much of this is similar to OTL, but don't worry, the butterflies will keep getting stronger from here.

​

EDIT: Made minor corrections on map.

 

[Roosevelt]

Chapter Four - Let The Eagle Spread Her Wings

“We are a beacon of hope, a beacon of freedom, and an example to the world. The best option, naturally, is to let the eagle spread her wings across this continent.” - President James Madison (March 1808)

Shortly after the conclusion of the French Revolutionary War, the United States lost her first king, Henry the First. The king passed away in his sleep at Woodford, the royal residence in Philadelphia, on August 3, 1802. As the king his wife, Queen Wilhelmina, were passed childbearing years when Henry was coronated, the Adams Government passed the Succession Acts of 1790, designating that Henry’s younger brother, Augustus, would be crowned king.

Augustus I, King of the United States​

Just like his brother, King Augustus was coronated at Christ Church in Philadelphia. At the age of 72, he became the first king to reside in the District of Columbia, living in the newly completed Independence Manor. Fortunately for Augustus, his reign would be marked by the United States doubling in size and the birth of Manifest Destiny.

Early depiction of Independence Manor​

Madison, who had been serving as President since 1798, was under pressure by the growing number of nationalists and expansionists in his party. There were two targets that were desired, the British-held Canadas to the north and Spanish-held Louisiana to the west. The United States and the Canadas (known as British North America) had once been under the same flag, but the Canadians had refused to join the rebellion with their American neighbors. Its low population made it appear as an easy target, however the Americans would risk an invasion by the formidable British Army and potentially be reduced to a colony again. Spanish Louisiana was desirable for just one city: New Orleans. The Madison Government, namely Foreign Affairs Secretary Thomas Jefferson, had been trying to buy Louisiana from Spain, but the Spanish were stubborn in their negotiations. Three offers were made between 1802 and 1807, which were all declined by the Spanish government. King Augustus endorsed the purchase of Louisiana, but regardless, Spain continued to reject Madison’s and Jefferson’s proposals.

To the south, American settlers had begun to gradually move to Spanish Florida. Its climate was good for farming and southerners began to migrate to Florida. Over time, disagreements began to arise between the American settlers and Spanish authorities. The Spanish attempted to impose a tax on crops grown by Americans living in their colony. This angered the settlers in the area and protests in Saint Augustine broke out in March of 1807. The Spanish military was called in to disperse the protestors, however the confrontation would turn violent. Some of the protesters began to throw rocks and sticks at the soldiers, and whether by purpose or accident, one soldier accidentally fired his rifle. Several other soldiers followed suit and the crowd fled. Four Americans were killed in what was known in the United States as the “Saint Augustine Massacre.” Shortly after, a group of Americans convened in Pensacola and declared their independence as the Republic of West Florida. It was at this moment that President Madison could finally please the hawks in Congress.

Complying with the wishes of West Florida, the Americans annexed the republic, which was not recognized by Spain. Spain demanded that the United States vacate West Florida and relinquish all claims on the land. President Madison refused, and on April 1, 1807, Spain declared war on the United States. The United States Army launched offensives to target Spain’s colonial cities of Saint Augustine and New Orleans. General William Henry Harrison marched south to Saint Augustine and Crown Prince Louis Ferdinand, the son of King Augustus, led troops to New Orleans. The Spanish were easily defeated by Harrison at Saint Augustine and Harrison continued moving his army south to secure the entirety of East Florida. Colonel Andrew Jackson, a rising star in the United States Army, led a successful assault on the Spanish garrison in Pensacola, evicting the Spanish from West Florida by late August. Shortly after, Jackson would be promoted to Brigadier General for his victory.

Colonel Andrew Jackson defeating the Spanish at the Battle of Pensacola​

In New Orleans, the Spanish had deployed 15,000 more troops to the city, putting Prince Louis Ferdinand’s men at an unknown disadvantage. As he marched on New Orleans, he was unaware of the reinforcements and was forced to turn back east after it was clear he was seriously outnumbered. The First Battle of New Orleans was a success for Spain as they held the port city and suffered minimal casualties. Jackson’s army moved in from the east to reinforce Crown Prince Louis Ferdinand’s second attempt. Before dawn on September 30, the Crown Prince and General Jackson led a surprise assault on the city. The Spanish commander, Miguel Ricardo de Alava, scrambled to fight off the advancing Americans. By noon, the city was close to falling into American hands. However, disaster would strike for the Americans. At roughly one o’clock, Crown Prince Louis Ferdinand turned on his horse and ordered his men to march forward to the city’s ports. A Spanish sharpshooter, mounted on one of New Orleans’ buildings, fired at the Crown Prince, striking his heart and knocking him to the ground. The man who would succeed his father as King of the United States, was now dead.

Crown Prince Louis Ferdinand (1772-1807) ​

General Andrew Jackson took command of Crown Prince Louis Ferdinand’s men, rallying them to fight with vengeance and avenge the now-deceased prince. Several accounts recorded that General Jackson referred to the Spainsh as “chickenshits” and believed shooting Crown Prince Louis Ferdinand with his back turned was an act of cowardice. On October 2, New Orleans fell to the Americans, and the Spanish had suffered another humiliating defeat. As word of the fall of New Orleans hit Europe, Spain was willing to negotiate for peace. Convening in New York, Spain and the United States agreed to the Treaty of New York, ceding Louisiana, East Florida, and West Florida to the United States. Unfortunately, the elderly King Augustus would not see the enlarged United States for very long, as on May 2, 1813, King Augustus succumbed the flu. His son, Prince Augustus, ascended to the throne as King Augustus the Second.

King Augustus II of the United States of America
​

Like his uncle and father, Augustus II was a military man. He served in the United States Army as a Colonel, seeing action against the Spanish in the Floridian panhandle. Augustus II, however, never expected to be king. He was not prepared for the throne in his teen year like his brother was. As roughly six years passed between the death of Crown Prince Louis Ferdinand and King Augustus I, Augustus was somewhat unprepared for his duties as King. For example, he attracted controversy during the 1814 elections for calling President Smith an "insane radical" and calling his opponent, DeWitt Clinton, a "reasonable, sensible man." These comments were denounced by both the press and Congress, as well as by both major parties. This became one of the few times where the monarchy (or any monarchy) had to apologize to the general public. Despite a colorful personality, King Augustus II never married. This did not mean his love life was empty as many allegations of affairs would appear during his reign (which he denied). Despite these flaws, Augustus II would preside over the United States' rise from a secondary power to a great power, and would be one of the main proponents of the incoming Industrial Revolution.

(One thing that should be noted, the Spanish-American War was fairly ironic for the pro-France Madison Government. The war was supported by the United Kingdom and opposed by the French Republic, with the Royal Navy engaging the Spanish Navy in the Atlantic.)

The Spanish-American War, while short and not terribly bloody, would serve as an inspiration in Latin America. The defeat of the Spanish by a minor power in North America gave hope to many Latin Americans that Spain was no longer the powerful empire she once was. Enter Francisco de Miranda: a revolutionary in the mold of Jean Moreau.

Generalissimo Francisco de Miranda, the Liberator of Spanish America​

Francisco de Miranda was a man who had served in four militaries and two revolutions. He had served Spain, France, the United States, and Russia. He fought for the Americans in the American Revolution and led troops alongside General Dumouriez in the French Revolution. His tenure in France was cut abruptly when he was arrested and tried by the Committee of Public Safety, only narrowly escaping execution. After nearly being executed, de Miranda’s view of the French Revolution soured, believing it had been hijacked by extremists and autocrats. He was, however, supportive of the Coup of 5 Prailial and praised General Moreau for “saving” the revolution. He returned to his home in Spanish Venezuela and believed he could implement his own revolution in Latin America. He lobbied the British (still bitter about the Franco-Spanish victory) to support an uprising in Spain’s colonies, which was privately agreed to. He had an audience with King Augustus regarding the situation in Spanish America, but not much came from their discussions as the United States attempted to maintain formal neutrality. By 1809, however, Spain had exposed herself as a shadow of her former self.

It was time for revolution.

All of Latin America witnessed Spain losing control of the Floridas and Louisiana, doubling the United States’ size and throwing an egg on the empire’s face. Generalissimo de Miranda began to rally his fellow patriots and nationalists in the autumn of 1809, and led a march on Caracas, overthrowing the Captaincy General and declaring independence from Spain. Spain, of course, decided to move their forces to crush the rebellions in Venezuela and restore order to their empire. News of the rebellion prompted the United Kingdom to recognize the independence of de Miranda’s Venezuelan Republic and sent the Jamaica Station to bombard and blockade Spanish ports.

Depiction of the Royal Navy engaging the Spanish at the Battle of Magarita​

Generalissimo de Miranda was more than delighted to have the British go to war with Spain. While he was a great military commander, his men were poorly armed and, despite their numbers, would probably not be able to fight off the Spanish Army on their own. His uprising would encourage rebellions across Spanish America, with self-proclaimed governments declaring independence in Mexico, Argentina, Chile, and Peru. By 1812, nearly all of Spanish America was in rebellion. Casualties for both sides became staggering as many of the Patriots utilized guerrilla warfare to fight off colonial troops. This was not to say that the Patriots were completely unified. For example, in what was Spanish New Granada and Venezuela, quarreling between Francisco de Miranda and Simon Bolivar led to the latter attempting to break off his own republic to oppose the Generalissimo, only to be captured executed by the former in 1814. It should be noted that similarly to the American Revolution, much of their success was owed to the United Kingdom's entry. The United Kingdom forced Spain to divert troops to fight off British invasions of their empire, namely campaigns in the Caribbean and around the Canary Islands. These diversions caused Spain to overstretch itself and eventually would lead to their defeat. The wars of independence would formally conclude in June of 1818, with the United Kingdom (negotiating for the Patriots) and Spain signing the Treaty of Brighton. Spain would be forced to relinquish their claims over all of Spanish America and would cede Cuba, Puerto Rico (renamed Port Rich), and the Falklands to the British Empire. Shortly after the peace, the Stewart-Adams Treaty was ratified by both the United Kingdom and the United States, forbidding any European power from conquering the nations of the Americas to establish an empire.

The rise of new nations in the New World would signify a divide between supporters of liberalism. The United States and the French Republics were seen as models for an post-Enlightenment society. Generalissimo de Miranda was a profound republican and used France's system as his model for the Constitution of the United States of New Granada, instating himself as "Consul" and having a directly elected National Assembly (his version of the House of Representatives) and Senate. To the north, Mexico would follow the American system. Agustín de Iturbide, who was originally against independence but switched sides in 1816, instated himself as "Emperor of Mexico" and used the United States Constitution as his model for Mexico, reigning as Agustín I. Agustín I would befriend King Augustus II to help him maintain his unsteady reign over Mexico, even signing an alliance between the two countries. As humanity entered 1820, the world had begun to change rapidly.

Map of the world at the beginning of 1820​

 

[Roosevelt]

Chapter Five - The Continental and Canadian Wars (Part I)

"Our brothers and sisters in the Canadas need the guiding and protective hand of America. For too long they have suffered under tyrannical British rule, as we did no more than sixty years ago. At long last they have taken arms and risen up against their captors, and now is the time that we spread liberty northwards." - U.S. President Andrew Jackson (August 5, 1835)

Perpetual revolutions between 1775 and 1820 had certainly changed the world order. The emergence of nation-states in North and South America signaled the end of European dominance in the New World. The United States proved she could stand on her own two feet after seizing Louisiana and the Floridas from the Spanish Empire. France humiliated the Austrians, Prussians, and British after fighting nearly a decade to stop their attempts at restoring the Bourbon monarchy. The Holy Roman Empire was reduced to nothing more than a rump confederacy. The only counterrevolutionary powers to emerge unscathed were the United Kingdom and the Russian Empire, with the latter only engaging France for a few years. As noted earlier, Britain was able to seize Cuba and Port Rich from the Spanish in the 1810s and she continued to maintain the world's largest military. In Eastern Europe, Russia had been slowly but steadily growing. Unlike the British and French, Russia was mostly agrarian and still maintained a feudal social system. However, Russia's population was continuing to grow and so did the military. She defeated the Ottoman Empire and secured much of eastern Moldavia (Bessarabia) in the mid 1810s and again in the 1820s to secure Greek independence.

Alliances stemming from the French Revolutionary War complicated the situation in Europe. France and her many puppet states maintained a close alliance with Spain. The British maintained an alliance with the Kingdom of Prussia. Austria, Prussia, and Russia formally agreed to the "Holy Alliance" against France, but clashing interests and changing diplomacy led to the alliance falling apart in the 1820s. Austria found itself at odds and frequently disagreeing with Russia's expansionist policies. France took advantage of the opportunity, with Consul Joachim Murat engaging in rapprochement with Russia. Russia would formally leave the Holy Alliance in 1828, and two years later, would sign join the Franco-Spanish-Russian alliance, now known as the "Triple Entente."​

Consul Joachim Murat, a colorful figure who would be beloved by his people​

Murat's accomplishments did not only include the Triple Entente. After his election as Consul by the Senate, Murat laid out his ambitious plans for France and the world. He set his sights on Paris, which had been "rotting" since the revolution. As France had continued to pay off her war debt, he allocated hundreds of thousands of Francs for the restoration of churches, schools, and apartments across Paris. Murat also began the construction of Roman-inspired buildings, namely La Place de Congrès, which would serve as the new home of the French Congress, and the Arc de Triomphe, a massive arch on the Champs-Élysées intended to honor the heroes of the French Revolutionary War. In the early 1820s, the Consul authorized the construction of ten new canals throughout France, easing trade and transportation across the country. However, this would all come at a cost, as Murat would enact stiff taxes to pay for his projects. Unlike the deposed King, however, Murat would impose taxes across all classes, alleviating some aggravations regarding taxes from the lower and middle classes.
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Early drawing of La Place de Congrès​

Consul Murat also promoted French expansionism and nationalism. The status of the French Empire was called into question by the leftist elements of the French Revolution, but like his predecessors, Murat would refuse to hand over or relinquish control of the French colonies. In fact, the Consul expanded French claims in Indonesia, seeing it as a major economic and strategic opportunity for France. They were, however, challenged by the British in their efforts, slowing France's aim to control the islands. As Murat left office and General Jean-de-Dieu Soult took his place, his farewell parade was attended by thousands, with many tossing flowers in his path. In their eyes, Murat had restored France's reputation and rebuilt a nation that was still recovering from war.

Across the Atlantic, the United States of America was seeking to build her own empire. Manifest Destiny, the belief that the United States should span from sea to sea, was heavily supported and pushed by King Augustus II and President Andrew Jackson. Wagon trains moved across the massive Louisiana Territory and settlers began to establish their homes in the relatively unknown Great Plains. However, they were not alone in their new frontier. Natives who had lived in the region for hundreds to thousands of years were uncertain about the Americans moving into their land. Clashes in both the Great Plains and in the east with Native tribes led to the Congress passing the infamous Indian Removal and Settlement Acts of 1827. This new act authorized the United States military to forcibly move tribes deemed "troublesome" west into what is now present-day Arkansas. Between 1827 and the early 1850s, tens of thousands of Native Americans would be deported to the Arkansas Territory, with many dying on what is now referred to as the "Trail of Tears." Most Americans would turn a blind eye to this, with some even celebrating the mass deportations.

Settlers were not just moving inside the United States' borders. They were moving both north and south into the Canadas and Mexico. To the north, the border between British North America and the United States had been relatively open to both British-Canadians and Americans. If you were to visit Toronto or Montreal during the 1820s or 30s, you would be guaranteed to meet an American living there. Ironically, Upper Canada, which was a prime destination for Loyalists following the American Revolutionary War, was now home to thousands of American citizens who migrated there between 1800 and 1830, and it was estimated that a third of its residents were American citizens in the year 1830. To the south, Emperor Agustin maintained an open border policy to Americans settling into Texas and California, and despite slavery being formally banned in the Mexican states, Agustin allowed American settlers to practice slavery in the northern territories. Texas, which was relatively empty compared to the rest of Mexico, quickly became majority American as southerners brought their families and slaves westward.
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A Romantic Depiction of Manifest Destiny​

The sound relations between the United States and Mexico would end in 1830, however. General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was a staunch opponent of the empire, marched into Mexico City on March 31, 1829, taking Emperor Agustin prisoner and instating Santa Anna as the President of the Federated Republic of Mexico. A staunch liberal nationalist, Santa Anna began to institute radical reforms, such as centralization, confiscating church property, secularization, and most consequentially, enforcing the ban on slavery. The reforms triggered revolts across Mexico, namely in Texas. American settlers formally declared independence on July 4, 1832 as the "Republic of Texas," which was recognized and supported by the United States shortly after. Within six months, Texas formally secured independence from the Federated Republic of Mexico. In response to Texas becoming a sovereign state, President Santa Anna publicly tore up the papers of the Mexican-American Alliance and decried the United States as a "force of imperialism and evil." Needless to say, this permanently tarnished relations between the United States and Mexico.

The situation in Europe completely collapsed in 1834. In the afternoon of September 1, 1834, the Spanish ship Héroe was docked at the British port of Gibraltar. A British ship nearby, the HMS Ocean was into port. Unbeknownst to the crew on-board, several of the cannons was loaded and ready to fire. Lieutenant Charles Blaires, who was conversing with fellow sailors, casually extinguished his cigar in one of the starboard cannon's touch hole. The ashes from the cigar ignited the gunpowder, firing the cannonball into the Héroe's hull. Ten Spanish sailors were killed by the shrapnel. Panicked by the attack, Spanish sailors began to load their guns and attack the Ocean. The Héroe began to list heavily to port, making it next to impossible to successfully aim and attack. Within 20 minutes, the fire that came from the cannonball ignited the gunpowder on the Spanish warship, obliterating the Héroe and killing everyone aboard, along with 12 people on land.

News of the incident spread across Europe like a wildfire. Spain called on Britain to apologize and, in retaliation, demanded that Gibraltar be handed over to Spanish authority. Britain, unsurprisingly, refused to follow Spain's demands and on September 14, Spain seized Gibraltar by force. The United Kingdom deemed this an act of war and formally declared war the day after. After Britain declared war on Spain, France declared war on the British, followed by Austria and Prussia declaring war on France. Within a week of the Battle of Gibraltar, all of Europe was at war.

The Entente strategy was simple: the French, Batavians, and Danish would try to take German ports in the north, French, Helvetic, and Cisalpine forces would move east towards Vienna, and Russian forces would move towards Vienna and Berlin, attempting to start Polish rebellions and forcing Austria and Prussia to surrender. The Entente strategy would actually bear fruit in the fall of 1834. The Entente would hold the entire Wadden coastline by October, and French troops would be marching through Hanover in November. In the east, the Russians would take East Prussia, South Prussia, and West Galicia in short order. The Entente's advances, however, would soon end in January of 1835. General Hans Ernst Karl launched his early morning offensive against the French Army at Wolfsburg. The French, unprepared for Karl's attack, were destroyed by Prussia, with nearly 12,000 soldiers killed or captured by the Prussians.​

The Second Battle of Wolfsburg (January 9, 1835)
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The Second Battle of Wolfsburg, along with the Austrian victory at Mantua against Franco-Cisalpine forces, gave hope to the Entente's enemies. The British would soon establish a blockade along the coasts of France and Spain, along with blocking off the Kattegat Sea to Denmark and Russia. In March, Field Marshall Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, would land his forces at Calais and Dunkirk, and prepared to make a beeline to Paris, hoping to force Consul Jean-de-Dieu Soult to surrender. The French, however, were expecting this to be Wellesley's plan, and planned to intercept his army at Amiens. On March 29, French forces under the command of Emmanuel de Grouchy engaged the British at Amiens. Three days of brutal fighting ensued, forcing the Duke of Wellington to retreat back to Dunkirk. Back east, the Russians were pushed out of most of Prussia, however Austria was still struggling to both the Russians to the east and the French and Italians to the southwest. As the Russians were slowly moving towards Vienna, Prussia sent two of her armies south to aid Austria, fearing that an Austrian defeat would shift the war in favor of the Entente. The Austrians and Prussians halted the Russian advance at Pressburg, and chased the Russians north to Krakow. It became apparent to both sides that this war would not end anytime soon, as both the Entente or the Coalition were at a draw.

In British North America, the Francophone Quebecois were beginning to grow restless. The expenses of the Continental War required the British to hike taxes across her empire, and support for the war in Quebec was nonexistent. The Quebecois were sympathetic with France during the revolution and were even more sympathetic now, seeing the British as the aggressors. While not necessarily pro-American, anti-British Quebecois saw hope in the successful Floridian and Texan revolutions, and if they were able to garner support from the Americans, they may not be subject to London's rule anymore. Their western neighbor of Upper Canada was not pleased with the tax hikes, too (as mentioned, they were home to a large number of American settlers), and rumblings of independence were heard across Toronto. In July, the British ordered a division of Quebecois to be raised and sent to Europe to fight the Entente. In all of Quebec, this was the final straw. They were not going to fight the French in defense of Britain.

They were going to fight the British instead.