1765
Russian war of succession, 1761-1766
As soon as Czarina Elizabeth died Peter III assumed throne. It started to look all well in the first months until the tension between Peter III and his wife Catherine turned worse and Peter III had her poisoned. As soon as this happened, the Russian nobility and Military leaders supporting Catherine turned against Peter III and chose the captive Ivan VI as their new Czar. Peter feared for his life and fled to meet his Army without letting know the situation. His Army in Holstein was called back to Kamenec Podolsky. As soon as he met his Army in Warsaw, he left for Kiev. When Peter arrived in Lvov, he heard from messengers that the governor in Kiev was waiting to arrest him. Peter III left with his Army of 80,000 men to the Baltic. Peter III surrounded Jelgava and enforced a treaty with the Swedes, Where Sweden could have protectionship over Courland. For Sweden, this would be more than enough. Sweden saw potential in taking over Danzig as well which would have started a war with Prussia.
As soon as Peter III secured the Baltics he started his march to St. Petersburg. Peter III arrived in Narva by 1762. In Februari 1762, Peter III forces had beaten the pro-Ivan Army of 40,000 men. Peters victory gave him a free attempt to move to St. Petersburg. When Peter arrived, he found the city to be empty. His scouts had seen a large retreat to South. It seemed that Peter III had now the upper hand in the West. By the end of the year, the old capital Moscow was taken as well. Ivan VI supporters fled to both Kazan and Kiev. The factions now where at fight with both Peter III as well as each other. Ivan VI remained in Tsaritsyn.
in 1763, Peter started his campaign in Kiev. His Army besieged both Kiev and Kazan. Peter, whose Army grew up to 120,000 men was now superior. In 1763, something what Peter III never expect happened. King Stanislaw of Poland-Lithuania broke the siege of Kiev and forced Peter to retreat to Poltava. Stanislaw saw the chance to break Russian influence in Poland and hoped that Russia remained at war for a longer time. But when it looked like Peter III was winning near the Polish-Lithuanian border, his desperation eventually led to an attack on Kiev and succeeded. In an attempt to capture Peter III, both the Kiev Cossacks as well as the Polish Lithuanian Army and the pro-Ivan forces besieged Peter during the siege of Poltava. Peter III feared that his Army would turn against him the longer he waited and decided to break the siege. Peters forces, supported by one of his general who he personally disliked, General Rumyantsev, for his positive opinion on Catherine. Both Peter and Rumyantsev broke through. The Polish-Lithuanian defeated, the pro-Ivan factions broken in the Ukraine and the Kiev Cossacks surrendered to Peter III. With the day, Peter III got more support from former supporters of the enemy nobles. One of them was the hero of Kazan who broke Peters siege: Alexander Suvorov. Undefeated and feared. His annoyance with Orlov made him switch side although mutual dislike between him and Peter III. When Suvorov changed his allegiance to Peter in 1764, it was assumed as a matter of time until Peter III would win. What was in 1761 seen as Peter III last days on earth was now different. People were thinking what Peter would do with Ivan VI once he got captured. As far as Peter was concerned, Orlov was a dead man once he had captured him. Peter gave Suvorov an Army of 30,000 men to attack Poland-Lithuania. In 1765, Peter started personally to besiege Kazan and captured it without much trouble. By early 1766, Peter had captured Tsaritsyn and Ivan VI. Much to everybody's surprise, Peter spared Ivan and allowed him to stay but guarded for people to never use him as a tool. One could say, Peter did not see Ivan as the threat but the people around him. The supporters of Catherine either switched sides or fled. Orlov, the leader of the pro-Ivan faction had apparently left Kazan as soon as Suvorov betrayed him. Peter III send his agents to track down Orlov and bring him back alive. He offered 50,000 rubles for him caught alive. When Peter realised Orlov fled to the Crimea he threatened with War which would lead to war with both the Ottomans as well. Eventually, Mustafa felt that the existence of Poland-Lithuania was in danger and he had to prevent the Russians to halt them. When Peter III refused, war was declared in 1768. Although slightly tired of war, Peter had battle hardened forces in by the end of the 1760s and experienced commanders. Orlov himself was in Istanbul when the war was declared, as he felt no longer safe. By the time Peter III died he returned to St. Petersburg by order of prince Paul.
The Fortification of the Straits, Seddul Bahr, 1765
Since the first Venetian War in the 17th century, the Empire faced enemy navies to blockade the straits as an act to bring the Ottomans on their knees. Venice as a Naval Power was as good as over. But the enemies using these tactics aren’t gone. Since the day Mustafa had ascended his throne he feared that the Russians might use Malta as base and blockade it. One of the long term goals was to conquer Malta and oust the Knights. For now, he couldn’t do it yet as it would attract other European powers in the conflict as well. Not until a Major war breaks out. And the fear is real. If the Russians get the idea to use Malta as a base, and the Knights accepting this is a grave reality, the Ottomans are in deep problems. Before even planning such campaigns, the defences need to be strengthened. In this case, the old forts near the Straits need an upgrade. There is a need for new forts in some important parts of the straits. Although the project was set up for much later, Mustafa hastened it after hearing the Russian merchants were acting suspicious near the Straits. Without letting anyone to know, Mustafa ordered the building of the Strait defences. Within the next 5 years, 8,000 Janissaries have to be settled on all Aegean islands except, Rhodos, Crete and Euboea. In order to motivate them they are paid 3 akce more. The fleets base will be in the bay of Marmaris as the harbour offers more protection against enemy fleets. Some more forts are built on islands around the Straits.
Ismail Safavi, from conqueror to schizophrenic
The Shah has returned to Iran for quite some time. As soon as he entered he formed his own Army. Rather small, he got support from the Qajars tribe. Ismail ordered the Qajars to subdue Tabarestan and move towards Mashad from there. Ismail wanted to secure the Zagros mountains first before advancing on the former capital of Isfahan. With 18,000 men Ismail advanced on Hamadan. His intel has informed him that Karim Khan has to subdue Qashqai Tribes around Shiraz. But nonetheless, the Zand forces are still in Kermanshah, Sanandaj and Lorestan. Knowing that the Zands will not get themselves trapped in Hamadan, they’ve retreated and are waiting for Karim Khan to have his hands free. As soon as Hamadan was taken, Ismail ordered his supportive Turkmen cavalry from Azerbaijan to advance in Lorestan and cut off the Zand forces between Shiraz and Kermanshah. Either the forces in Kermanshah rebel against Karim Khan or they surrender.
However, Ismail made one tiny mistake. Due to underestimating Karim Khan's time to secure Shiraz he decided to stay in Hamadan and sent 4,000 cavalry to raid and subdue Lorestan. When Ismail realised Karim Khan was advancing towards Kashan he immediately retreated and sent a messenger for his Turkmen cavalry to retreat to Ottoman Lands before being trapped by Zand forces. Ismail met with his remainder of forces in Qom and retreated back to Qazvin out of fear for encirclement in Tehran. Ismail secured Hamadan for only a little time. His cavalry force retreated from Lorestan but left for Qom as well and arrived only two days after Ismail arrived. This might have been the game changer for Ismail. Only 4 days after Ismail left Qom, Karim Khan arrived and took the town. A week later, Karim Khan burned Tehran and took anything valuable left behind. Instead of going after the Safavi forces in Qazvin, as Ismail hoped, Karim Khan left for Isfahan to wait out Winter. A smart decision but it might not have been the best decision eventually.
The Qajars however, were more lucky in their campaign. The Qajar Tribe took Rasht in the first month of the campaign and Golestan in the 3rd month. In three months of time, Tabarestan was subdued by harsh treatment and terror campaigns against the locals.The Qajars moved forward to Mashad but only to return when the population of Tabarestan wanted nothing to do with either Ismail or the Qajars. When the Qajars returned the uprising was harshly put down and there was continuous reign of terror until the Qajars left by order of Ismail Safavi. The Qajars advanced to Mashad for a second time. The local Afshars in the city, were in a sorry state and unable to prevent the Qajars to raid Mashhad and occupy it. The Afshar forces surrendered and Adil Shah was sent to Ismail in Soltaniyeh were he would be strangled. The Qajars now held Khorasan and Tabarestan. On the map it was a large region but in reality, it was one of the least wealthy parts. Regardless, even Ismail feared about the Qajar power.
What Ismail would help would be the second Qashqai rebellion. Karim Khan would have to subdue them yet again and Ismail would then advance with the Qajars on Karim Khan all the way to Shiraz. If successful, Karim Khan would have no place to run. It would take some time but Ismail will be victorious. Just like the stories he heard from Russian merchants about how Peter III regains his realm. Unfortunately for him, he would never see if Persia ends up as Safavid ruled realm.
What nobody really knew was that Ismail had already planning to kill anyone who had ties to rulers of Persia outside of his own family. Be it from the Afshars or Zands or even remaining Safavids. Anything that might slightly threaten his rule. Regardless if they desired it or not. One of his later targets would be Joseph von Semlin. Although Joseph remained in Vienna and posed no real threat as one would think, Ismail III would sent assassins to either bring him back to Persia or kill him and any other relatives he has. During the War for Persia, Ismail slightly got more paranoid about to lose his throne to pretenders. In 1771, Joseph, the son of Nader Shah, was surprisingly captured with his wife and sons by Ismails mute assassins and brought him over to Dalmatia in haste. Due to these assassins sent to even Europe, the Europeans referred it as the dangerous Persian shadows who will take you to places where no soul can find you ever again. Maria Theresa was by no means pleased and at first demanded his return to Austria. When Ismail refused it did not really help as it was far away. Maria Theresa tried to ask Mustafa III to mediate between Ismail and her. Mustafa wished not to meddle with Persian affairs as this one did not bother him. A small attempt was made to show Maria Theresa about the Ottoman goodwill but without results. In 1774, the year Ismail died, the last son alive of Nader Shah was executed. Realising he had only sons, they were executed as well. The realisation that he had to kill even little children made Ismails mental condition worse and in only 3 months later, Ismail died. Before he died, he was sometimes screaming after waking up, panicking Allah is going to punish him. When they tried to help him, a mysterious Sufi Dervish was brought to the palace. He told that Ismail would die because he can no longer bear his consciousness about the death of tens of children to secure his rule. He also told that his son Tahmasb, would succeed him and the day he becomes Shah, Karim Khan will lose his realm or whatever was left of it. The only thing Ismail can do now is repent, repent and ask God for forgivingness. Ismails last month was like he has seen ghost everywhere in his palace. Afraid and wanted more people in his palace to hear the sound of people alive. His son Tahmasb was the regent until his death. Whether his newly created mute assassins were effective or not, it indirectly led Ismail to his mental break down in his 40s. His son Tahmasb however would be the most effective leader the Safavids had since Abbas the Great.
The Egyptian Cottonfields
“Cotton! Best of all the Middle East! Proud Egyptian Cotton!”. This was what merchants were shouting in the markets of Alexandria. In the 18th century, Egyptian Merchants played their important role as buyers of cotton from Egypt. Since the early 18th century, the demand for cotton was high in Europe. The demand was offered with American and Indian cotton. However, due to the long distance of it, some merchants from Europe looked from closer to home. Especially by Russia, Austria, Poland Lithuania and Italian states. In order to even manage to challenge the American and Indian cotton trade, the governor of Egypt was offering fundings to any landholder growing these. Making it more easier to get Egyptian cotton for less amount of time. It looked like a growing business, largely led by Egyptians, mostly Coptic, and in lesser degree Greeks. The cotton business looked so attractive that it even attracted British merchants in 1765. Due to the capitulations, the British merchants had better chance to buy and sell trade goods and harmed Egyptian merchants. This led to protests by the merchants and together they demanded from the sultan to abolish the capitulations, which the Sultan wouldn’t and couldn’t. In the 12 years afterwards, the British would lose their capitulations and once again bring life back to the Egyptian merchant class. The abolishment of the British Capitulations was once discussed in 1765 but Mustafa felt not secure to abolish it yet. His successor would do it for him however. And it would be the beginning to abolish it all.
Although attractive, the decline in the Egyptian cotton trade started when the Mamluks attempted to revolt in 1770. Many merchants fled Egypt for Syria leaving the vacuum for the British Merchants. When the rebellion failed it took at least another 10 years to return to 1765 status. From then on it would grow modestly until 1805 where it would grow exponentially.
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