Chapter X - Fin de Siècle
(1880s and 1890s)
The 1880s and 1890s were often referred to as peaceful years, due to there being no wars between the major European powers. Instead, the last decades were characterized by the extreme growth of German industry, which has by now asserted its place as the major power on the continent. The growth of industry in the Zollverein benefited the German sphere of influence greatly, as both Hungary and Scandinavia saw huge growth in all sectors. And not only that, as arts and sciences also boomed in this era, so much so that it is still one of the most common eras presented in German movies. It was also the era when Moltke died in peace in his estate in Graz. Regarded as a hero all over the Empire, his grand statue stands proudly on the Hauptplatz in Graz, with the humble inscription "the Great Silent One".
As arts, sciences and industry blossomed in Europe, the Fin de Siècle would not be called peaceful elsewhere. The Great Powers, especially after the 1885 conference have been expanding their influence with force around the world. The French Empire in particular was expanding rapidly in not only Africa, but also Indochina, which even lead to a war with the Qing Empire. While Napoleon III was mostly remembered for his renovations in Paris and around the country, he was anything but a successful military leader, both his Mexican and his Italian adventures ending in failure (even though his expansion of French interests in the Mediterranean were successful). He has also been criticized in allowing the Habsburgs to unite Germany, thereby sidelining France in Europe. His son, Napoleon IV was in turn very successful in promoting French expansion, creating a huge empire in Africa, and Asia, even defeating China in war. His rule was also characterized by expansion of the navy, greatly perplexing Britain, raising tensions and almost culminating in a war over Fashoda in 1898. The French were quite aggressive in pushing their claims in Africa from early on, but tensions abated a bit after the 1885 conference, where France came to an agreement with Germany over the future of the Congo. German colonialists have already started to establish themselves in Cameroon, Namibia and in the African Great Lakes region. These were however mostly private enterprises, hoping to get government support, the only "proper" German colony being German Eritrea. In the conference, Germany agreed to step away from Cameroon and abandon other German incursions in West Africa. In turn, France allowed for the purchase of Djibuti, which would be hard to defend from the British, but was a useful addition to German colonies in the region. To appease Britain and avoid conflict, the German Empire also abandoned Namibia and the Great Lakes region in return for a free hand in Ethiopia. Germany also arbitrated the division of the Congo between Britain and France, blocking the Belgian king's attempt for it to be recognized as his personal estate. Germany annexed Ethiopia in 1894 under the pretext of restoring order during an uprising against Solomonic rule. While the Ethiopian government initially welcomed German assistance, in the end they became a protectorate, although the emperor himself was nominally allowed to rule the region. Ethiopia would go on to become the most developed parts of Africa, due to heavy German investment. The colony itself would also see many European settlers as agricultural practices allowed for more farmland to be claimed. Interestingly enough, a great number of Jews would emigrate to the Tigray region, at the calling of some Jewish intellectuals, who propagated a Jewish homeland in Africa and union with the local Jewish population. The program was supported by the German government as a means to bring settlers and investment to the region.
For Britain, these decades were quite stressful, so to speak. The rise of France in Africa prompted aggressive expansion by London, while also having to fight the Boers and putting down an uprising in Egypt. The Hannover Conference was hailed as a success in gaining the opportunity to build a railway from the Cape to Cairo, although this meant that the Germans were allowed to set themselves up in Ethiopia and the rest of the Horn of Africa. Another important focus for British policy at the end of the century was the support for the Ottomans. British military staff were training Ottoman forces, British weapons were sold, ships were commissioned and the Constantinople-Baghdad railway was started to be constructed. Fear of French naval expansion and Russian meddling in the East were the most pressing matters, with London trying everything to drive a wedge between the two powers, mostly by trying to warm up to the Germans, the Ethiopia agreement being also part of this. The success is of this is questionable at best, as Germany enjoyed warm relations with Russia and slowly easing into cooperation with France. Luckily for London, the French were also suspicious of Russian intents in the East, especially the Levant, as well as their ties to Germany, so no grand anti-British alliance formed between them.
However, as France felt they might be cornered on the continent, Emperor Napoleon called for a regular conference to maintain the status quo. Welcomed by both Germany and Russia, the Continental Council would be the greatest French diploatic achievement of the era. The council would be called yearly, involving the three Great Powers (often called League of the Three Emperors, or Dreikaiserbund in Germany) and most European states with the notable exception of Britain and the Ottomans, it would be a mere formality at first, but it laid the foundation of European cooperation to be realized in the 20th century.
For Russia, the end of the century was about consolidating their new sphere of influence in the Balkans, continuing with the Czar's reforms, industrialization, and expansion in East Asia. The construction of the Transsiberian Railway started in 1891, aiming to connect European Russia with Vladivostok. The potential military and industrial benefits of the finished railway were troubling for not just Britain, but a new rising power in the East, Japan. Czar Alexander II would not see the turn of the century however, as the Great Reformer died in early January 1894 in the Winter Palace. His son, Alexander III succeeded him on the throne, only to die in early November, succumbing to cancer, to be succeeded by Nicholas II. Thus, 1894 would be known as the "Year of the Three Czars" in the Russian Empire. Nicholas was greatly influenced by his old grandfather, and while considered a bit more conservative, he was eager to continue the reforms.
As the 20th century was drawing near, three crises shook up the calm waters in Europe.
The first was the Cretan Crisis in 1897, where an uprising occurred against Ottoman rule in Crete, the rebels desiring union with Greece. The Ottomans marched in to crush the revolt, only to be confronted by Greece who pledged support for the rebels. Russia immediately sent a dispatch to the Ottomans, warning them that any aggression against Greece will mean war. In turn, the British demanded that the Greeks stand down. Not yet willing to go to war, Russia eventually offered a compromise, giving Crete autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. War was averted, but the incident would have great ramifications in the decades to come.
The second one was the Fashoda Incident, pitting France and Britain against each other in Sudan. In an attempt to exclude Britain from the region, a French expedition was sent up the Nile to Fashoda, only to be encountered by a much larger British force. While the incident itself was bloodless and actually civilized, it caused a great uproar in both countries, sparking a diplomatic crisis and further driving a wedge between the two empires.
The third one was the Cuban Crisis, initially between the United States and Spain in 1898. Spain was undergoing much trouble for a while, with the Carlist Wars and continued uprisings in Cuba and the Philippines. The United States, seeking to expand into the Caribbean supported Cuban independence, with many newspapers agitating against Spain, calling for American intervention. Business interests in the US however were not in favor, and there was only limited support until the mysterious explosion of the USS Maine outside Havana harbor. The incident was met with great uproar in the States and the Democratic Party pushed the president to declare war. President McKinley was hesitant, but succumbed to pressure and sent an ultimatum to Spain to withdraw military forces from the island. They were however met with unexpected opposition from France. Ever since the settlement in Italy, France has been trying to expand their influence in the Mediterranean, and considered Spain to be a key to this. Napoleon thus agreed to support the Spanish government, and sent a note to the US to stand down, meanwhile sending a squadron to Cuba with a detachment of the Foreign Legion. The US was now in a difficult situation. Fighting an ailing Spain was one thing, but fighting a Great Power was completely different. However, if they withdrew, the humiliation would be so great that the president might be forced to resign. Luckily however, France was also preoccupied with the crisis over Fashoda and was not willing to confront both the US and Britain. While many in both Britain and the US agitated for war, McKinley saw this as a peaceful way out of a situation he never wanted to be in in the first place. A compromise was thus reached that was acceptable for both sides. Spain would grant widespread autonomy to the island, and both sides would recall their forces. War was averted, but Spain was now firmly in French hands. Most of the Cuban revolutionaries would agree to sit down and negotiate as French forces arrived on the island, employing the ancient tactic of carrot and stick to force them to accept. Spain would thus manage to keep Cuba to some extent, but would lose the Philippines not long after, as the Republic of the Philippines was declared.
