The Empire of New Castille v2

[Namayan]

12. A night to remember

Anna began her day by taking a bath with several jugs assisted by servants inside their family’s bamboo bath house. She is lightly clothed in full body white undergarment and richly patterned slippers. Her servants help her dry up. After taking a bath, her breakfast is very much relief from the monotonous fish, rice servings and coffee in Pangasinan. She washes her hands before eating and eats her breakfast with no utensils except her fingers. The breakfast is comprised of ham, rice, mangos, bananas and jam. She spends the rest of her morning shopping in Binondo before going home to eat lunch with her family followed by a glass of wine. After lunch, she takes a siesta until the sun goes down to prepare herself to meet Maria.

Anna is accompanied by Paul, who was also invited by Maria and Jose. They ride a gondola or a passage boat from Anna’s family home thru the river Pasig to the meeting place with Maria. The place is east of Binondo and Intramuros.

Upon their arrival, they are given a formal entry and their names announced… “Marquesa de Las Salinas and Paul de la Gironiere!”

The exterior of the house looks as much as a common tropical rest house but upon entering, Paul is in awe of the interior Baroque architecture. Anna notices the finest furniture and furnishings, porcelain, tapestry and gueridons.

The owner of the house welcomes them. Paul immediately recognizes the man. A former captain of the King’s Regiment and current governor of Pampanga, a 41-year-old Joaquin Bayot. Joaquin introduces himself to Anna and Paul. He also introduces his wife Maxima, his 12-year-old son Matias and his ward and 17-year-old nephew, Basilio Valdes.

After the introduction, they both are led to a room, the British call it as a drawing room; the Spanish and locals call as Sala. The Sala is a gleaming environment with rays of light coming from the candles and projected on mirrors, silver furniture, and gilded finishes.

Maria welcomes Anna and pulls her away from Paul. The men congregated on one side of the Sala and the women the other. Maria explains to her that the house was bought by Governor Bayot from Senior Formento. Maria invites Anna while their husbands discuss business. Maria leads Anna to a group of women, the most prominent in Manila. The dress the women wear range from French Empire silhouette evening gown by Maria and Maxima to Spanish maja dress worn by Anna.

While Maria and Anna were walking to the women seated at sofa, the women were whispering calling both women as opportunists. Both ladies were young compared to them, Maria only 21 and Anna at 27. Jose and Maria should not be in this meeting as Jose does not hold enough wealth nor hold a government position. Anna, who was previously married to Pedro Tagle but died in 1819, is talked about marrying for the money and the title of Tagle and now married a young Frenchman for desire. The women stop their gossip as both Maria and Anna approach them.

Maria introduces Anna to these prominent women. Maria’s first introduction is to Domingo Roxas’ wife, Saturnina. The women’s first inquiry from Anna is not about his husband or her stay in the mountains but that of Andres Novales.

Anna has been asked many times of Andres Novales. She is already annoyed of being asked repeatedly of a man who took his husband to the mountains far away from the comforts of civilization. Even her female servants at her family’s home giggle just by the mere mention of Andres Novales. The wives today present swoon just thinking of Andres Novales, of how young and dashing he is. Before Anna could answer, Maxima joins them and chuckle when the ladies mention Andres Novales.

Maxima who saw several sofas, one sofa is only occupied by Maria and Anna, another sofa is seated by Saturnina. The women surrounded Saturnina either seated on the sofa or standing near Saturnina despite space on Maria and Anna’s sofa and an empty sofa. When Maxima sat on the empty sofa, several of the women transferred to Maxima mostly the younger wives. Maxima, as the second wife of a governor and a wealthy landowner, is influential among the wives of Manila even if she is only 23 years old.

Maxima brags about her painting of Andres Novales as the original painting displayed in the other room not a copy sold in Binondo.

The discussion about Andres Novales took a turn when one of the ladies asked if Anna has seen Andres Novales naked just as portrayed in the painting. Anna blushes. She remembers that before she was about to take a bath in one of the rivers in Pangasinan with a servant she sees Andres Novales alone bathing naked.

Then, she remembers the night when her husband Paul was severely injured. He was bedridden for several days. Thinking his husband was about to die; she became depressed until Andres Novales comforted her. She remembers the gentle kiss of Andres. She stops thinking further nor wishes to remember what happened after kissing Andres, believing it to be a sin.

Anna denies seeing Andres Novales naked but the ladies seeing her blush assumed that she has, pushed to inquire on how it happened.

Anna tries to change the conversation by asking why the emperor’s wife and daughter are not present. Saturnina answers, “The imperial coffers are dire need of replenishment, the war and Manuel’s projects are depleting the treasury.”

“The Varelas themselves are not as wealthy as they used to be.” Said by Maxima while using her Abaniko or folding fan.

Maria asks…” Isn’t the daughter, what is her name?” Saturnina, “Rita.”

Maria continues, “Rita loves parties.”

“Rita’s is usually out at this time gallivanting around Manila with her Virgins, as they call themselves.” Saturnina said.

Maria interrupts Saturnina “They should not be called Virgins but Mujeres Libres.”

“No, no, no…” said by Maxima.

Anna suggests, “Putas?”

“Tumpak!” exclaimed by Saturnina. Saturnina keeps talking, “Can you imagine these ladies going out without a companion? Mal Costumbre!”

Maxima retracts her folding fan and says “When we met her on one of her charities, Rita even encourages women to go out during the afternoon, work with our hands and not be idle. Does not she know it is hot? Hence, why we only go out during sunset. That also we should learn to use our hands instead of letting servants do their jobs. What will the servants do?”

Maria asks, “Maybe she does not have servants?”

“If she was not a princess of the empire…”, Saturnina pauses and is interrupted.

“Princess of beggars, whores and servants!”, Said by Maxima.

All the ladies laugh with Maxima.

****

Jose Azcarraga introduces Paul to several of the richest and most powerful men in the newly formed nation. The inquiries to Paul by the men are either for an ailment or that of Andres Novales. Even to the men in power, Andres Novales is a mystery. For his young age, Andres Novales has accumulated so much land and power in Luzon but refuse to participate in the politics of Manila, at least in everyone’s eyes. Nor has Andres visited Manila since his departure in 1823. They are terrified of him with an independent army at his command.

Bayot mentions of unifying provinces. He wants Bataan and Nueva Ecija back under Pampanga’s control. Both provinces were previously part of the province of Pampanga. Several of those present refuse to support Bayot proposal to the emperor not unless he supports the move to replace the current governors with new appointments.

These powerful men and their financial supporters dislike the appointments since they are of military background, loyal to Juan Fermin. Some of the prominent family wants their own people in the provinces. Azcarraga hopes to get himself appointed if not him, his brother-in-law Miguel. Domingo Roxas, who has been away for two years wants Batangas governorship. These powerful men promise to support Bayot’s expansion of Pampanga and reabsorption of Bataan and Nueva Ecija in return of his support of the new appointments.

Miguel Palmero suggests that they should just amend the constitution and take away the power appointments from the emperor. The 18-year-old made sense and the powerful men discuss if they have the numbers to pass it at the Senate.

The faces of these men come back to Paul and asks him if how will Andres Novales react on such news.

Paul does not want to reveal what Andres Novales has uncovered. He feels obligated not to talk about Andres Novales due to his camaraderie with him and the Army of North.

Several of the men offer to compensate the loss of his wife’s wealth worth 28,000 pounds sterling lost in Mexico after then Colonel Iturbide confiscated Marquess Pedro Tagle and Anna’s wealth. There is a new state hospital being organized and Paul is offered a position including as personal doctor of some of these men and their families.

Paul thinks deeply. His wife has been nagging him to move out of Pangasinan and return to Manila.

“What do you think Dr. Pablo?” asked by Domingo Roxas.

Before Paul could answer, the majordomo can be seen finishing his conversation with Governor Bayot. Bayot then announced that dinner is ready.

 

[Namayan]

13. Kings of Industries

When Juan Fermin de San Martin liberated Camarines from the Spanish, he was given orders beforehand to appoint one of the prominent businessmen as governor of Camarines. He was ordered to appoint Jose Antonio de Ynchausti, who owns a ship chandlery company in Manila, as governor.

Ynchausti has contributed to the war effort thru donations and worked his way among Emperor Manuel’s trusted circle. Ynchausti has been aiming to expand his business. He hopes to dominate Abaca industry and sell his products to the Imperial navy and export his product around the world.

Ynchausti’s power in Camarines gained him and his company lands. He converted a lot of lands into Abaca plantations. He then built water powered textile mills within the province of Camarines. The abaca can be made into clothing, baskets, mats and carpets for the local market.

Ynchausti did not stop in clothing. His company cultivated abaca and transformed them into paper and rope assembled in Manila. His rope is durable and very resistant to sea water corrosion that can be sold to the imperial navy, exported to foreign navies, to fishermen as fish nets or to whalers as whaling line. Although he nor his company did not invent the rope made from Abaca, his company is the first one to commercialize and mass produce it. His paper products are just as durable and very resistant.

***
Joaquin Bayot was left as garrison commander of Pampanga when the liberation army of Juan Fermin de San Martin chased Juan Antonio Martinez to Ilocos. With several of Pampanga’s Principalia joining the Spanish during the early days of revolt, Pampanga has the most confiscated Principalia land by a governor in Luzon outside of Camarines and Albay. This gave Bayot in a position to acquire the most productive sugar producing area of the Philippines.

Before independence, Pampanga was already the largest producer of sugar in the Philippines. It continues today with further production of plantation economy and higher output of the yeoman farmers.

Sugar mills and Sugar plantations proliferated under Joaquin Bayot. During the Spanish colonial period, towns grew centered on a church. Under Bayot, towns grew from sugar plantations. Bayot’s Pampanga plantations had overseer houses and slave quarters. Each of Bayot’s plantations have an owner’s plantation house which he and his family stay while visiting. He easily got financing due to knowledge of Pampanga’s sugar production and investor speculation. The plantations also have Industrial buildings - sugar mills, boiling and purging houses. The plantations also have other buildings like kitchen yard and infirmaries. Each of his plantation also has a church with a Filipino priest trying to convert the slaves and indentured laborers into Roman Catholic.

Joaquin Bayot’s sugar mills began as either animal powered, wind powered or water powered. However, due to the number of investors Bayot got, this gave him the capability to start upgrading and import steam-powered sugar mills.

Bayot not only sold Pampanga’s red sugar cane but muscovado and refined sugar. Pampanga’s sugar production has climbed significantly since late 18th century. Under Bayot’s management, the production increased significantly with a total production in thousands of tons per annum. Bayot’s plantations are not counted in thousands of acres but in hundreds of square kilometers of productive sugar lands near a river and a province near Manila.

Bayot’s sugar is not only sold for local consumption but to the British and Chinese market. China which plants its own sugar crops could not meet its own local demand. Unlike the Philippines which relies on slave labor or indentured labor, China is reliant on smallholders. Planting sugar in China also competed with rice, other subsistence and commercial crops. This made importing sugar from Philippines a viable alternative.

In his plantations, there are divisions of labor. Sugarcane field workers worked long hours planting, maintaining, and harvesting the sugarcane under hot tropical conditions. The field workers had to cut down acres of sugarcane and transport it to sugar mills, where the juices were extracted from the crop. Sugar mill and distillery laborers work under hot and humid conditions to convert the sugarcane into sugar and rum. Other laborers produced foodstuffs to feed the owner, workers and slaves. After sugar and rum were produced, laborers transport the goods to barges and ships in Pampanga River or other rivers in Pampanga for export into Manila and Cavite Ports. Domestic laborers maintained the households and served Bayot and his family. Other agricultural crops also required a diversity of laborers to support the plantation operations.

Bayot did not stop in sugar production. He challenges the Chinese and Chinese mestizo monopoly in processing and selling sugar in Manila. He turned sugar and sold them as vinegar, rum, candy or azucar rosado, a beverage made with caramelized sugar and citrus juice.

Joaquin Bayot’s control of Pampanga’s sugar industry and the most productive lands of the time, made everyone in the Philippines consider him to be the richest man in the Philippines.

******

Juan Monica Mercado from Biñan is one of the patriarchs given titled land in Calamba. He and his family used to be tenants to the hacienda. But the revolution and their support of the Filipinos prioritized them along with several poorer peasants than him were allocated titled land.

Mercado’s origin can be traced to Fujian, China when his ancestor Lam-Co migrated to the Philippines in 17th century from Xiamen to Manila. Although not anymore Chinese, the Mercados are what the Spanish call mestizo de sangley and have adopted to local life and culture.

The plot of land they acquired used to be part of a large hacienda, Hacienda de Calamba owned by Don Clemente de Azansa. However, Don Clemente has not paid the full amount to the colonial government despite given the title. In 1823, the new governor Francisco Rodriguez demanded the remaining balance paid but Don Clemente did not have enough funds. Wanting to please the peasants, the governor reimbursed Don Clemente of what he paid, took back the title and distributed the hacienda among the tenants and peasants. Rodriguez gave the smallholders flexible payment terms with small interest per annum to fully pay the land allocated to them. Upon surveying the land, the hacienda was only cultivated or productive in about 2,000 hectares out of the more than 16,000 hectares. The hacienda used to only grow sugar cane, rice, mongo, wheat, a bit of tobacco, and had horses, carabaos and cattle.

The cultivation of Calamba increased with the smallholders trying to maximize their land.

Mercado continued growing the crops he used to grow like wheat, sugar, monggo, rice but found sugar and tobacco to be most profitable. The British have been buying his sugar cane, some are bought by merchants from the United States when he sells it in Manila. Wheat is also in demand with creoles and foreigners demanding bread in Manila. He added a poultry and piggery as he starts selling chickens, eggs to the local market and pigs for fiestas. Mercado and the other smallholders found it easy to fund the improvements of their land with their governor wealthy enough to give personal loans thru his private bank, Rodriguez Bank, or well-connected enough to introduce them to foreign merchant houses in Manila.

For almost two years that the farm under his name, Mercado is helped in his farm by his children including his 7-year-old son Francisco, during their free time, due to his advancing age.

Laguna became center for smallholders and yeoman farmer development and productivity. Not unlike Pampanga wherein the governor dominated agriculture funding his own land, the governor of Laguna earns thru financing the smallholders and yeoman farmers. Thus, the governor of Laguna’s success is tied with the success of his constituents or those who borrowed money from him and his bank.

*****

Andres Novales is considered to be the largest landowner in Luzon. He owns majority of Cagayan Valley, a large part of Pangasinan and Nueva Ecija and the whole Cordilleras mountains under his name. He is not considered the richest man in the Philippines nor flaunts his wealth like Bayot. However, Andres Novales is viewed by Joaquin Bayot as his only equal peer in wealth. But no one recognizes the wealth of Novales except Bayot. Bayot believes Andres Novales has acquired the gold in the Cordilleras but hid the gold from public. Bayot fears Andres Novales as the only other person who can finance a coup.

Besides the Army of the North, Bayot recognizes Novales’ handiwork in Shipbuilding and Shipping. He thinks that Novales is using merchant marine as a private navy. Both Bayot and Novales were in the Spanish Army before the revolution. However, Andres Novales is half of Bayot’s age and most if not all of the Captain with the Spanish Army in Luzon. Andres Novales is half of their age at 20s and considered ambitious, driven and someone that needs to prove himself constantly.

Even Luzon’s Cotton magnate Miguel Gomez’s cotton industry wealth is shared with Andres Novales due to Andres Novales owning most of the land Cagayan Valley.

However, the shipbuilding and other projects of Andres Novales is not without cost. Pangasinan’s position as the challenger of Pampanga’s sugar dominance is far from its heyday. Unlike Bayot, Novales did not spend most of efforts and money in building the sugar industry nor does Novales rum have significant sales over Bayot Rum.

Ynchausti partnered with Novales to fund a private shipyard in Dalupaon, Camarines, site of former Real Astillero by the Spanish. Novales wanted access to the hardwood and skilled workers in Camarines that used to make and maintain Manila galleons.

Ynchausti likes the idea of Novales armed private shipping. Ynchausti’s businesses will greatly benefit with Novales’ shipping demand. With the recent increase of piracy, Ynchausti does not want to rely on government coastal patrols, an armed shipped to transport his goods from Camarines to Manila or to other markets is much preferred.

Manuel Cidron, governor of Albay, tried to replicate the shipbuilding and merchant fleet but he does not have resources to do so both finance and manpower. He was able to fund one ship using old technology of the Manila Galleon thru funds from the old financiers of Manila-Acapulco trade. However, Manuel Cidron had to share income with the shareholders while the ship had to be built in Dalupaon at Ynchausti and Novales shipyard.

Manuel Cidron’s brother Rossetti Cidron, the governor and Fishing Lord of Zambales, focused much of his wealth on fishing. At first, he bought his fleet from Santo Tomas shipyard using bangkas and typical trimarans used for fishing. Domingo Roxas’ return from England brought a Brixham trawler to be used as a transport ship. The Brixham trawler is fast for a monohull but not as fast as the trimaran fishing boats of Luzon. The advantage of the Brixham trawler is the volume it can carry compared to a trimaran, ideal for fast inter island transport and as a fishing trawler. The Santo Tamos shipyard’s skilled shipwrights were able to replicate the Brixham trawlers producing as much as Rossetti Cidron fishing fleet requires.

 

[Simeon]

Has Pampanga sugar largely replaced their counterparts in Iloilo and Bacolod?

 

[Namayan]

Has Pampanga sugar largely replaced their counterparts in Iloilo and Bacolod?

During this time, those areas in Western Visayas do not have a developd Sugar economy.

Our knowledge of Negros island sugar industry is present day bias. The sugar barons or their ancestors are living in Spain in the 1820s or in Luzon.

Plus peace and order issue has not been resolved. People would be whisked away by Moro raids and farms burned to the ground. In OTL, this issue was not resolved until 1848 when the Spanish sent and an expedition to Balinguigui. Then that is the time the would be Sugar barons invested.

Pampanga was the top sugar producer before Pod even moreso now that things change with Pampanga. Pampanga in otl had the disadvantage of lacking of foreign investor compared to Negros due to Spanish policies in Luzon and the established landlords refusal to change until late 19th century.

 

[Krueger]

During this time, those areas in Western Visayas do not have a developd Sugar economy.

Our knowledge of Negros island sugar industry is present day bias. The sugar barons or their ancestors are living in Spain in the 1820s or in Luzon.

Plus peace and order issue has not been resolved. People would be whisked away by Moro raids and farms burned to the ground. In OTL, this issue was not resolved until 1848 when the Spanish sent and an expedition to Balinguigui. Then that is the time the would be Sugar barons invested.

Pampanga was the top sugar producer before Pod even moreso now that things change with Pampanga. Pampanga in otl had the disadvantage of lacking of foreign investor compared to Negros due to Spanish policies in Luzon and the established landlords refusal to change until late 19th century

However, what would become of Negros in this timeline given that the Spanish were now expelled from the islands. Would the imperial government in Manila send a naval expedition (like what happened originally in 1849) to crush the pirates of Balangigui? Would Negros after this still become a top sugar producer like in OTL or it would only be par to Pampanga at this time?

 

[Namayan]

However, what would become of Negros in this timeline given that the Spanish were now expelled from the islands. Would the imperial government in Manila send a naval expedition (like what happened originally in 1849) to crush the pirates of Balangigui? Would Negros after this still become a top sugar producer like in OTL or it would only be par to Pampanga at this time?

That depends later on.

All of this requires incentive to do so. A lot of changes of note this timeline. In this timeline, the private entities are slave raiding the Moros as well which never happened in OTL under Spain. The Philippine navy is also larger, better managed, and better funded than the Spanish East Indies. A simple funding late 18th century Basco like fleet which is cheap and financial health of the imperial government thru better taxation and management of Rodriguez would translate to this. This means that Moros raiding Luzon or Imperial controlled area is very hard without taking loses or being wiped out. The Moros also have an option to raid south to Borneo, Flores islands, Celebes, etc where there is less resistance or Raid east to Mindanao pagan areas. Moros can also go west to Singapore, Siam or Vietnam but that would mean encountering the British navy and Filipinos raiding that way. So, if the Moros both government and privately funded pirate raids suddenly focused on Borneo or Vietnam instead, there would be no incentive for Filipinos to invade them. Not unlike the Spanish East Indies OTL's corruption led to less naval patrols due to bad financial management, which led to more Moro raids north reaching to Luzon, which then led to funding an expedition.

Negros Island in OTL becoming top sugar producer required the capital from Spain and technical knowhow to Britain while Pampanga less attractive to invest plus later on Pampanga will shrink in land area. In 1820s, Pampanga still had half of Tarlac, half of Nueva Ecija and northern parts of Bulacan. Now, Bayot wants to enlarge Pampanga to its 18th century size which includes Bataan and Nueva Ecija. In Otl, land was very hard to get in Pampanga due to the Catholic monastic orders controlling most of it especially during the 1840s and 1850s and locals are more resistant to the new technology either because they have no idea or no capital. TTL, Bayot acts like the technocrat dictator of Pampanga importing not only the technology like steam technology for sugar mills but manpower as well like slaves. This would make sugar production in Pampanga cheap to produce. Something that any future investor in Negros to think about since they have to challenge something cheaper now compared to OTL. My point is Negros Island producing sugar is market driven and would be most likely be Author's fiat.

Sugar is not the only crop in demand by China or Britain that any future investor that will invest in Negros can grow. Aside from sugar, there is cotton and of course the most in demand cash crop by China - Opium.

Besides I have not posted an issue that Negros Island has been liberated. Currently, liberation of Panay has failed with the death of Juan Fermin de San Martin and his army's lack of discipline and lack of logistics. Although there is still a Filipino expedition army in Cebu led by Jose de San Martin which has a very disciplined and well supplied army. Central Visayas Spanish authorities and their principalia allies due to the blockades being done are in a dire situation with bad leadership(compared to Jose de San Martin), less supplies compared to the Filipinos invading. Just for comparison purposes, Peru and Chile which San Martin invaded in OTL had more resources, manpower and had better leaders for Spain compared to what the Spanish have in Cebu right now. Whether or not that will translate to conquering Cebu then proceeding to Negros is something that needs to be discovered later on. More importantly, the Filipinos or those who have political ambitions in Luzon according to my last update especially in the upper class are more concerned of power struggle within Luzon. They are directing their efforts in their personal ambitions and desire rather than liberating Visayas.

 

[Namayan]

14. The Panay Settlement (1825-1826)

Fort San Pedro in Cebu fell after a siege. Jose de San Martin’s army and navy was well supplied while the Spanish in Fort San Pedro had no reinforcements to count on and limited supplies during the siege. Any loyalist outside of Fort San Pedro had little training or equipment to fight a professional army. The siege was less bloody than expected with Jose de San Martin trying to negotiate with the Spanish to surrender. With the option to go home and fear of dying due to hunger if they prolong the siege, the Spanish had negotiated for a “surrender”. The Spanish in Fort San Pedro negotiated for a mock battle wherein Philippine troops will storm in without a fight, without any death to both sides. Thus, the battle saves Spanish honor from surrendering without a fight. Officially, Spanish defenders in Fort San Pedro defended until they were overwhelmed by San Martin’s attack.

Jose de San Martin is meticulous on the rest of Cebu’s liberation. Despite some of the principalia were loyal to Spain, Jose de San Martin’s propaganda worked with the populace. The other principalias wanted to make peace with Jose de San Martin. Trade with Luzon and opening up trade with Britain became more enticing to the mercantile class. Direct trade with Britain is something Cebu never had under Spain. After the siege of Fort San Pedro, liberation of Cebu became more diplomatic, listening to demands and making concessions. No one is going to fight to the death when the alternative is better. The only group who resisted are the monastic orders who will lose their autonomy. The bishop of the Diocese of Cebu has much to gain to cooperate with Jose de San Martin. The seculars like the bishop will regain its power of oversight over the monastic orders which was previously not implemented due to the power of the monastic orders under Spanish rule in the Spanish East Indies. The monastic orders had little power without the principalia’s support or the Spanish military which already surrendered to San Martin. The fear of being executed by the rebels from Manila slowly dissipated. The complete liberation of Cebu barely fired a shot and was done thru several handshakes.

After the liberation of Cebu, Jose de San Martin was informed of his brother’s death and the collapse of Philippine Army of Panay. The death of his brother is blamed to the Panay rebels. The locals of Panay pointed the blame back to members of the Philippine Army led by Francisco Bayot.

Despite the initial success of Panay resisting Philippine forces, after the landing of Jose de San Martin from Cebu, the British and Irish Legion from Manila, Panay resistance almost but ended. Jose de San Martin’s reputation from the siege of Cebu reached Panay and Iloilo. They also found out the British flags are waving beside San Martin’s army when they landed in Panay. Any Panay defender retreated and left the Fort in Iloilo due to lack of supplies and fear of being trapped by San Martin and the British.

The remaining Peninsulares was not willing to fight a drawn-out war with Jose de San Martin nor the British reinforcements. Most of them were eager to return home to Spain. The arrival of Jose de San Martin and the British reduced the desire to fight on. They believe Jose de San Martin and the British opens the option for an honorable surrender and a way to go home not unlike had they surrendered to Juan Fermin de San Martin or any member of the Sons of the Nation.

There is no value in defending Panay nor the rest of Visayas even for the honor of Spain. The Spanish East Indies earn thru trade which centers in Manila and Cavite. Nor does Panay or the rest of Visayas have the population base and tax base to finance a war against its larger neighbor. The Spanish in Visayas also lacked the Spanish East Indies treasury which was vital to Anda’s resistance in Central Luzon during the Seven years’ war when the British took Manila.

The Spanish East Indies Navy is shadow of its former self. Previously having 4 capital ships and 4 frigates during the Raid of Manila in 1798 reported by HMS Sybille and HMS Fox [1] and several squadrons of galeotas, vintas for piracy that former Governor Basco built, the Spanish navy is reduced to locally made balangay sufficient to resist a Moro raid but not enough to resist the Navy from Manila.

The end of the Galleon trade almost a decade ago meant that Galleons were not regularly maintained. The collapse of the Spanish empire’s finances for the past 2 decades reduced the whole Spanish navy from 78 Ships of the line and 51 frigates in 1795 to 6 Ships of the line and 7 Frigates in 1825[2]. With no Silver trade to maintain the ships and the dwindling finances of the Spanish Empire, maintaining a large fleet and large ships in the Spanish East Indies was less of a priority. Even if the Spanish took some ships with them, any large ship docked in Cavite would require repairs due to years of neglect and rot.

The war in Visayas is mostly financed by the local principalia in Panay with the Spanish manning another Fort San Pedro in Iloilo. But with the arrival of Jose de San Martin and the British reinforcements, the principalia and peninsulares would prefer to negotiate. Jose de San Martin’s conquest of Cebu and cooperation with the local principalia, resumption of trade between Cebu and Luzon, and the entry of British merchants in Cebu gained much support among the Panay principalia. Jose de San Martin was willing to negotiate as long as they point him to his brother’s grave. The principalia of Panay negotiated a settlement for the autonomy of Panay. San Martin agreed to the terms but final approval was still up to Emperor Manuel in Manila.

The Peninsulares defending Iloilo secured safe passage back to Spain. Locals from Panay, mostly the principalia, agree to submit to Manila in 1826. They agree with Jose de San Martin as the interim military governor of the three provinces of Panay Island.

A representative from Panay will become an observer in the Philippine senate in Manila. The elections in Panay are mostly made of educated men, mostly principalia. The system put place by the Spanish is retained with cabeza de barangay being voted among the principalia. The cabeza’s of Panay would meet in Iloilo to vote for their representative in Manila.

Panay blockade is also lifted. The two-year stranglehold by the Philippine navy on trade, damaging Panay’s economy including its coastal transportation is over. Not only was the trade between Panay and Luzon allowed again, but British merchants allowed to trade in Panay compared during the Spanish colonial period wherein foreigners can only trade in Manila.

Jose de San Martin also agreed to arrest the soldiers of the Philippine Army of Panay for looting, rapine and pillaging. Most of those committed the atrocities were deserters of the Philippine army. The rest of the Army of Panay went back to Luzon with Francisco Bayot after the death of Juan Fermin de San Martin.

San Martin agreed to the terms since it would save thousands of lives. Panay submission would also mean the remaining rebels in Negros Island and the island of Mindanao would easily capitulate. The principalia’s fear of being slaughtered by the forces from Manila gradually disappeared. San Martin believes the remaining areas that have not submitted to Manila do not have the population nor the economy of Panay or Luzon. While the few people loyal to Spain, especially the peninsulares are more eager to return to Spain than fight tooth and nail for a frontier village or province with little to no value to Spain.

The submission of Panay did have a domino effect with the remaining parts loyal to the Spanish crown surrendering to rebel forces with little to no resistance. Rebels thrown in prison were released. Philippine forces took over the forts.

With the news of Panay’s autonomy, Cebu and the Cebuano’s wanted the same arrangement for them. Cebu justified the Philippine Constitution demanding their right for representation. Cebu is allowed to send an observer but is not given the same autonomy as Panay.

Philippine Constitution picked up where the Constitution of Cadiz started allowing for 1 representative for every 50,000 inhabitants. In the Philippines Constitution, 1 senator is allowed for each province per 50,000 inhabitants within the province. The Constitution gave the following senators per province: Ilocos Norte have 2 senators, Ilocos Sur have 3, Cagayan with 1, Pangasinan with 2, Pampanga with 2, Bulacan with 2, Province of Tondo [4] has 3, Cavite has 1, Batangas with 2, Laguna with 1, Camarines with 2, Albay with 1. There is flaw on the system with Bataan and Nueva Ecija not having enough population to have a senator or Albay or Laguna which are both near 100,000 only qualifies for 1. The Senate gave the other provinces observers to the Senate proceedings. [3]

Manila accepted the representatives or observers from Visayas even provinces with low population. But the Visayans had to fund their own expedition. It would be up to the province to finance the expedition using their local money rather than being financed by another province or that of Luzon. Evidently, it is one of the factors the Philippine Senate wanted to see if the province is able to support itself. Thus, in their eyes deserving representation. In addition to that, the provinces in Luzon would rather finance their own provincial projects than finance other provinces representation or expenses.

Much like Panay and her multiple provinces, other islands and provinces in Visayas and Mindanao who can afford to send representatives were accepted as observers. Theoretically, had the provinces of Panay not rebel, Panay would have 5 senate seats (3 for Iloilo, 1 each for Antique and Capiz), Cebu with 2, Samar with 1. Had Panay been one province instead of 3 provinces, Panay would get 6 senators. The rest of the Visayas provinces would not even qualify a senate seat. The whole of Northern Mindanao under Spanish rule does not even reach 50,000 population which disqualifies them to even have a senator. [3] Negros Island and Northern Mindanao has been raided for the past 3 years. The only protection are the forts with all the coastal villages vulnerable to Moro slave raids thus reducing the population after 1823. Despite the population qualification, Panay and Cebu are not given Senate seats upon liberation.

The collapse of the remaining loyalists in the Spanish East Indies ended the campaign to liberate the islands from the Spain.

Jose de San Martin’s negotiation with Panay locals resulted in his brother’s grave found. The family of Juan Fermin requested his body to be exhumed and sent to Manila where he will be honored by the emperor.

[1] https://houghton.hk/prizetaking/
[2] The Navies of the world 1835-1840 by John Houghton
[3] A Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the Philippines Islands, U.S. War Department, 1902
[4] Province Tondo - OTL Metro Manila and several parts of OTL Rizal Province

 

[Krueger]

The Spanish in Fort San Pedro negotiated for a mock battle wherein Philippine troops will storm in without a fight, without any death to both sides. Thus, the battle saves Spanish honor from surrendering without a fight.

This reminds me of the OTL mock battle of Manila 1898, where the Spanish would agree to surrender Intramuros (considered the entirety of Manila at the time) to the Americans after some cannons were fired.

 

[Namayan]

This reminds me of the OTL mock battle of Manila 1898, where the Spanish would agree to surrender Intramuros (considered the entirety of Manila at the time) to the Americans after some cannons were fired.

ATL Siege of Cebu in 1825 is somewhat patterned after OTL Siege of Manila 1898 on a smaller scale.

 

[Krueger]

The whole of Northern Mindanao under Spanish rule does not even reach 50,000 population which disqualifies them to even have a senator.

I suggest that the entirety of Northern Mindanao in this ATL shall be organized as the military commandancy of Misamis, with its structure and function similar to that of incorporated U.S territories. Also the entirety of the Cordilleras.

And to make a province out of territories, you would need a lot of settlers. Imitate the reduccion policy of the Spanish, by resettling tribes either voluntarily or force to newly established towns where they could be Christianized, and governed more efficiently. Or, lets say the discovery of gold in the mountains of Davao and Caraga would attract a lot of people to relocate in the area.

 

[Namayan]

I suggest that the entirety of Northern Mindanao in this ATL shall be organized as the military commandancy of Misamis, with its structure and function similar to that of incorporated U.S territories. Also the entirety of the Cordilleras.

And to make a province out of territories, you would need a lot of settlers. Imitate the reduccion policy of the Spanish, by resettling tribes either voluntarily or force to newly established towns where they could be Christianized, and governed more efficiently. Or, lets say the discovery of gold in the mountains of Davao and Caraga would attract a lot of people to relocate in the area.

That is too far down the line. Philippines does not have enough people during this time. You are thinking far ahead, this is 1820s. Philippines actually needs to import people during this time period not depopulate their current land and repopulate unknown lands.

Mindanao as a whole is not really an attractive place to be in. We have the hindsight about Davao but people from this time have no idea about the metals interior of Mindanao. Piracy is a reality during this time. Spain had treaties with Moro sultanates but private piracy and raiding is common. People will not want to go to Mindanao due to this. Spain resolved the issue by taking out the private pirate bases in OTL 1848 which is like 20 years from the current year of the story. You have to realize there is a difference between state sanctioned piracy vs private piracy and raiding. So even if you negotiated peace with the sultanates, the private funded raiding will not stop since they profit from slavery. In Otl present day equivalent, that is like making peace with MNLF does not equate to Abu Sayyaf stops kidnapping.

People from the highly populated Islands like Luzon or Panay will not go to Mindanao for the next 20 years or even later. Panay or the Ilonggos need to fill up Negros Island first. Luzon still has a lot of empty spaces. Places like the whole Cagayan Valley and Nueva Ecija are almost empty. Both having access to rivers, Cagayan River and Pampanga river which makes transportation and selling goods easier than the interior or mountain areas. While Cebu is not yet as populated as Panay or Luzon during this period to start filling up other islands. If Cebu is going to start migrating it is going to Leyte and Bohol first before going to Mindanao.

Caraga actually is controlled by Spain, most particularly Surigao, Butuan and Agusan River. There are 3 provinces in Norther Mindanao during this time setup by the Spanish before independence, Misamis, Caraga and Zamboanga. Misamis got like 26k people, Caraga with 15k and Zamboanga with 8k. There is no known natural resources except in Caraga during this time to attract migrants. So if people will migrate its going to be in Caraga near the mines. Plus Caraga is very far from Moro sultanates and bases. That is if the rest of the Philippines even have excess people at all. But the most immediate candidate for Mindanao assuming there is excess population and secured frontier from violence is Agusan River and Surigao.

 

[Krueger]

Well, then the entirety of Northern Mindanao should be reincorporated into Cebu until it has the potential to become its own province in the near future (just like what happened in some OTL cases where provinces not sufficient enough to become its own either becomes a part of that province or as a sub-province).

 

[Namayan]

15. Panic of 1825

British Foreign Secretary George Canning were surprised when he first met diplomats from a former colony of Spain in early of 1824.

Fortunately for the diplomats from the Spanish East Indies, Britain’s policy during this time had a strong interest of insuring the demise of Spanish colonialism and open the trade with Spanish America. This policy was extended to the Philippines, a former Spanish colony.

Even Brazil was recognized by Portugal, thanks to the effort of Canning. His policy also extended to the Greeks, due to Canning’s supportive stance of the ongoing Greek revolution.

Philippines diplomats and the government in Manila, who believes that without British support none of their goals for Philippine independence would have happened.

Foreign Secretary George Canning, 1822​

Despite meeting diplomats from the Spanish East Indies, Philippine diplomats were not officially received in London until 1826. The commercial treaty with the Philippines was highly favorable of Britain wherein British merchants are allowed to trade in other parts of the Philippines and no tariffs. It was the United States who recognized Philippine independence in 1825. The Monroe doctrine that began in 1823, recognizing and starting bilateral relations with new nations of former Spanish colonies spilled over the Philippines. The Philippines isn’t in the Western Hemisphere but American traders, who have been buying sugar in Manila due to the British West Indian market closed to the United States market following their war of independence, and the American consulate in Manila supported the recognition of the new island nation.

On top of political recognition, military and economic aid, Philippine diplomats were also tasked by Manila to find and import talent from Britain. Philippine diplomats either heard of or personally observed the foundation of the Mechanic’s Institute in Manchester in 1824. Philippine diplomats heard of the foundation of Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in 1824. For decades, the British Parliament has been debating on maltreatment of animals which includes fox hunting, bull baiting and cock fighting. Some Philippine diplomats observe the situation in Britain due to local culture in the Philippines with regards to cock fighting and bull fighting. In 1825, Geological Society of London was founded and Royal Society of Literature was granted royal charter.

The first railway, Stockton and Darlington Railway opens in 1825 with George Stephenson driving the public train pulled by steam engine.

Stockton and Darlington Railway​

Several banks closed after a stock market crash in London in 1825. Unlike the Crisis of 1816, the crash isn’t connected to a single shock like the major crop failure in 1816, known as the Year Without at Summer, but due to multiple reasons. Part of the reason is a loan to a fictional Central American republic of Poyais through Thomas Jenkins & Company.

One of the reasons is the Latin American debt or bonds had fallen by half of price that year. The former Spanish American colonies had failed to financially recover with war and lack of stable government. Unlike the Latin American countries where war with Spain occurred and damaged the countryside, Philippines was lucky to be almost untouched by Spanish strength to impose their will as colonial masters. Contrary to the Spanish American Independence wars wherein the countryside was pillage for supplies or cities bombarded, the only major battle happened in an open field in Pampanga with both the rebels and the then Governor General Martinez not pillaging the countryside for supplies. Martinez relied on the good graces of the local elite, the principalia, while the rebels had logistics trail to and from Manila supplemented by locals that dislike the Spanish. Panay is the only part of the Philippines that is in the same situation as Gran Colombian countryside. Philippines rebelled late in 1823 with Spain’s strength sapped with the Napoleonic wars, several attempts to regain their colonies in the Americas and a French invasion occurring in 1823. Philippines also has China as its next-door neighbor that imports its goods while the Latin American nations relied on crops that they export to Europe or precious metal exported to China which required Manila as the terminal point and ships built from Cavite.

The new government in Manila is also considered to be more organized. The financial institution is more stable with Emperor Manuel and the Senate relying on experts and Francisco Rodriguez to make decisions on financial matters and implement them. The internal opposition against the government also has less teeth in Manila with most of those in power surrounding themselves to please the emperor rather than in fighting. There are no federalists fighting centralists. Any opposition to the emperor is done thru the Senate. Even then, opposition is limited to certain issues.

Some blame it to the form of government. A constitutional monarchy is believed back then in the early 19th century to be the best form of government, patterned after the British. Democracy and republic would result to parliamentary anarchy or dictatorship. This is one of the major reasons why the members of Hijos del Pais, Sons of the Nation, named Luis-Rodriguez Varela as Emperor Manuel rather than forming a republic. Having a monarchy not bound by the election nor loyalty to any political group or economic group was the idea agreed upon. The Sons of the Nation did not want to go back and forth into a dictatorship. The experience of the French with the French Republic, failing at least in the eyes of the Sons of the Nation and then looking for a strong man which ended up as a monarchy, is one of the issues and reasons to make the Philippines a constitutional monarchy. The Philippine founding fathers wanted stability that monarchy offers but also wanted to incorporate liberal ideas of parliament.

Philippine geography or at least the rebel’s consolidation of Luzon has a much smaller land to cover. Luzon also has a lot of internal rivers, an island and historical maritime tradition of trade and travel. Thus, laws and implementation of laws were easier. Not unlike Mexico, Gran Colombia and Peru which had more than a million square kilometers of land area, Luzon Island’s area, smaller than State of Pennsylvania or less than half that of Britain’s area, is around 109,000 square kilometers.

After the signing of the Anglo-Dutch treaty of 1824, Philippine diplomats in London hope that both the United Kingdom and Dutch allowed Philippine traders in British India and South East Asia. The Filipinos who were previously Spanish subjects were already de facto trading in India thru consignments, transportation of Opium from India to Canton. A treaty with the British would just formalize the arrangement between the fledgling nation and the United Kingdom. This led to the first commercial treaty between London and Manila. Another treaty was agreed upon by the Dutch and the Philippines. This allowed trade between Philippines and the Kingdom of Netherlands and her colonies. However, the Kingdom of Netherlands did not get the special treatment of Britain and was limited to trade in Manila and pay tariffs.

Manila’s trade with former Spanish America continued. However, rather than the monopoly of Royal Philippine Company, the trade was done and financed by private entities. The Galleon trade was continued with a privately financed ship going back to Acapulco. However, independence in Mexico and Peru did not bring in much of the silver. There was still too much instability to bring in the precious metals from the Americas. Mexico has its own problems. Mexico’s agricultural, mining and industrial production had fallen. Hijos del Pais, Sons of the Nations calls Mexico and the rest of Spanish Americas as the shield of the Philippines. All of Spanish America took most of Spanish retaliation rather solely focusing on the Philippines.

There is still royalist resistance in Peru. After the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824 and the capitulation of Jose de Canterac, two royalist forces refuse to surrender under Jose Ramon Rodil and Pedro Antontio Olañeta. Olañeta who based himself in Potosi became the focus of Antonio de Sucre’s campaign. The campaign lasted from January to April of 1825 ending with Olañeta mortally wounded at the Battle of Tumusla. Rodil based in himself in Real Felipe Fort of the Port of Callao near Lima. Rodil, hoping for Spanish reinforcements, was besieged from December of 1824 until January 1826 when Rodil surrendered.

The first Manila Galleon did not earn as much as before. With wars and trade disrupted, there is not much silver to go around that China’s economy would require. However, the smaller traders did earn. These small traders had smaller ships thus smaller cargo. However, these small ships were fast and economical to maintain, sustainable when trade above 2,000 burthen tons per ship is not profitable. One of these small vessels is the financed expedition by Andres Novales to Peru. Under the disguise of a small merchant vessel, Andres Novales wanted to hide his discovery of the precious metal mines in Cordillera Mountains in Luzon. Andres has two reason to make the gold mines a secret. As representative to all the tribes of Igorots, he protects their interests by making sure that no one migrates and steals Igorot lands. As an individual who will profit from this enterprise, he has an interest to monopolize it without people from the lowlands rushing in the area to gain a share of this bounty. He plans to mine the gold in Luzon but wants it minted in Spanish Doubloon or as Spanish bullion. Then, will it only be shipped outside Luzon or distribute it locally without Manila noticing the gold is coming from Cordillera Mountains. However, Andres Novales lacks the skilled men to mint Spanish Doubloon. The Igorot miners are not knowledgeable nor experienced in heavy mining or minting Spanish Doubloon or Spanish Bullion. Thus, Andres Novales wants to import miners that are skilled or experienced with heavy mining. He plans to import manpower from Peru and China. The expedition of Andres Novales’ goal is to import skilled goldsmiths and miners from Peru. His expedition offered a lot more than what they were earning under Spain or that of Peru as long as they keep the operation in confidence.

 

[Namayan]

16. Restoration of the Jesuits

The Jesuits have been expelled from the Spanish Empire since 1767. However, the Jesuits were officially restored in 1814 by Pope Pius VII. However, the Jesuits have not yet returned to the Spanish East Indies even before independence. Upon liberation of Manila, Jesuits were officially allowed by Emperor Manuel but not until 1825 did Jesuits from Europe and the United States start to arrive.

Since trade with Spain is not allowed, nor would Manila trust a Spanish Jesuit, a lot of the Jesuits came from other parts of the world, either Britain, United States, Italians states, France or the Kingdom of Netherlands, etc.

The Jesuits are a key to Emperor Manuel’s plan for education. Not only were they welcomed back in the Philippines, but appointed to lead public education.

Philippine diplomats were also in Rome appealing to Pope Leo XII in 1824 not only for recognition but also to help the new nation with its education problems. This led to a Jesuit mission to the Philippines. Pope Leo XII wanted to appoint Anthony Kohlmann to Pontific Gregorian University as university chair of theology after being impressed by Kohlmann’s book - Unitarianism, Philosophically and Theologically examined. After being convinced by Philippine delegates, the Pope assigned Anthony Kohlmann to lead the mission in the Philippines.

By this time, Anthony Kohlmann’s career had been extensive. He was a missionary arriving in the United States in 1806. Kohlmann became the pastor of St Peter’s Church in New York. He also oversaw the completion of St Patrick’s Old Cathedral. He also established New York Literary Institution. By 1817, he was selected as president of Georgetown College in Washington.

Anthony Kohlmann​

Upon his arrival in the Philippines, Anthony Kohlmann became the de facto head of Philippine public Education. Under the leadership of Anthony Kohlmann, Public education was Catholic but distinctly Filipino or in the vision of Emperor Manuel, Hispanic. Any person from any faith and any economic class was welcomed in Philippine public schools.

The Philippine Senate, with the power of the purse, already approved the budget requested by Emperor Manuel for his education plans. Manuel has spoken to the senate several times emphasizing that it is vital to give free primary education. The Senate estimates it needs only 100 teachers initially to jumpstart public education that will supplement the private schools and Catechism schools that Catholic church already provides to the natives. The Jesuits are given supervision of public education in local and national levels. The other monastic orders oppose the idea of the Jesuits supervision but the Jesuits had the backing of the Archdiocese of Manila, the Papacy, the Philippine military and the government. The monastic orders in the Philippines opposes the teaching methods of Jesuits – teaching foreign languages, scientific and technical subjects to the native Indios. The University of Santo Tomas, run by Dominicans, still teach the same course since her foundation in 1611, had to change their course to fit what the new Imperial state wanted and the Jesuit supervisors. The Jesuit supervisors are given the authority to close down schools even run by the Catholic Church if they did not comply with Imperial standards.

After a year, the number of public teachers needed grew to 200 and then to 400. Luzon was prioritized than any other island. Priority is followed by Panay and then Cebu.

Spanish language was officially used in the Spanish East Indies. However, Spanish language was not spoken majority by the populace. Emperor Manuel wanted to rectify this situation. The basic curriculum started with reading and writing Spanish and Latin, arithmetic, geography and history.

Philippine Spanish’s core is based on Real Academia Española’s normalization and standardization of Spanish. The most recent publication is 6th edition published in 1822 of the Diccionario de la lengua Española but there is no version that reached the Philippines. Even the old editions are limited since the Spanish colonial administration and the Catholic Church catered only to the few. Thus, the government had to print their own dictionary based on 5th edition published in 1817.

The Academy’s interaction with local language in the Philippines can be traced when the Spanish lexicon included words like caracoa or barangay in the late 18th century. There are Spanish speakers in the Philippines mostly are the migrants, like Insulares or Mestizo Spanish, or Americanos who have their origins from Spanish Americas. Due to the Creole’s control of the provincial and imperial governance, Spanish in their local areas is encouraged to be spoken and learned. It encourages a unified language and people of the empire to understand one another. Another reason for choosing Spanish is the war of independence made it difficult to negotiate and communicate with villagers without a local translator. Logistics are also hard to come by. Fortunately for the rebels, the locals in Luzon supported the rebel cause and not only gave guides but also translators to their respective local language. Even after the expulsion of Spanish authorities, Creoles or mestizos assigned in provinces had a difficult time interacting with villagers, running for Senator or implementing laws without a translator especially with those with higher population and local language from Ilocos, Bicol or Panay. This encouraged those in power, especially the Spanish speaking elite, to educate their language to their constituents.

Religion also is part of the basic curriculum but the government wanted to control what religious topics will be taught due to fear of revival of curate and monastic order powers. The basic curriculum did not stop there. Philippine public education focused on the Latin Phrase “mens sana in corpore sano” or a healthy mind in a healthy body. Jesuit education or in this case Philippine public education required pupils to do outdoor sports and gymnastics. Since there was limited budget for a gymnasium especially for poorer areas, running, walking or arnis were the most common physical activity.

Virtues taught in public education system that Filipinos should be Religious, obedient and respectful to government authorities and the elderly, diligent and hard-working, temperate and moderate.

In order to entice higher enrollment rates, the Senate allocated a budget to give free food to the pupils and free clothing to pupils who were nude. Some of the local children were nude from ages 12 or below due to lack of financial capacity or availability of clothing within their area.

The Senate also debated if women to be allowed on to be part of the public education. Since the war of Independence began in 1823, fearing the violence of the rebels, the beaterio and learning institutions for women were closed and has not opened since then. This created a vacuum for women’s education even for those who have money. Emperor Manuel’s wife and daughter lobbied to include women in public education. However, the Senate rejected the budget to include women in free primary public education. A lot of the Senators still believe that women belong at home rather than be educated like their male counterparts.

Certain factions of the Catholic Church were against women’s inclusion in public education. The negotiations of the other Catholic orders with the Jesuit educators, who represents both the Philippine Imperial government and the Papacy, led to reopening of the beaterios and women’s colleges under government supervision. The first to reopen is the College of Santa Potenciana, established in 1589, initially meant for the orphans and children of the Spanish military. The curriculum for beaterios and women’s colleges changed a bit to accommodate the Imperial government and the Senate, that women belonged at home with the purpose of finding a suitable husband. Female students will be taught how to read and write Spanish, and arithmetic. They also need to learn sewing, cooking, gardening. Latin will also be taught in order to learn religion. Folk medicine and herbal medicine is also taught. Finally, they will be taught how to dance, sing, draw and play music. These are female curriculum that the Senate, Imperial government, and Catholic Church agreed upon.

The rejection of women’s inclusion in public education disappointed Empress Maria and enraged Princess Rita. Emperor Manuel has been supportive privately to his wife and daughter but never used his influence to push the law. He believes he has a lot of other laws he views more important to use his political capital. The Empress and princess instead started their charity funded school for women but their initial reach is within the area of the Province of Tondo.

The Senate also approved a government funded University. The new university, named Universidad de Tondo, will offer technical courses in agriculture, medicine, surveying and business. The confiscated Dominican site of Real Seminario Conciliar de San Carlos is chosen as the site of the new university. San Carlos Seminary used to be the site of Universidad de San Ignacio, managed by the Jesuits from 1590 until their expulsion in 1768. Medicine taught in Universidad de Tondo is planned to be divided into four, apothecary, surgeon and physician. Females will be not allowed to enroll in this publicly funded university.

Bloodletting male doctor practices in the Philippines​

Females enrolled in women’s private institutions ran by the Catholic church learned differently. They are not allowed to learn male education as a physician. The theory of miasma, bloodletting was not allowed in their education. Balancing the humors and leeches are strictly for male education. However, the female’s role in the household meant that they should be prepared if one of the children is sick. Females are also accepted as society’s role as a midwife.

Females are to be trained as a doctress. Doctress are taught with the use of hygiene, ventilation, hydration, rest, good nutrition and care for the dying. They train first with dolls, then animals and finally humans. Females learned these skills not only thru women’s education institutions but as apprentices of doctress.

Medicine taught to females is very much different. Some say the Medicine taught came from Thomsonian System from Samuel Thomson’s use of natural herbs. However, herbs were used not only by folk medicine, locals but also traditional Chinese medicine. Others, especially due to recent Jesuit influence, point to the publish work of German Jesuit Athanasius Kircher who observed in a microscope that little worms are what caused the plague. The most recent work done by the Austrian physician Marcus Antonius von Plenciz states that animacules in the soil and air were responsible for causing specific diseases and earlier work of Antoine van Leeuwenhoek.

The auscultation device invented by Rene Laennec found its way among doctress and female institutions, helped by the Empress and the Princess. Since the auscultation device is not accepted by male institutions, male doctors in the Philippines and considered to be quack doctor device, such device is allowed to be used by the female institutions. The females are also taught differently, more in line with Hugh Borgognoni practice in 13th century. Male doctors and learnings institutions let pus remain in wounds in accordance to ancient medicine practice of the Roman Galen in the 2nd century. According to their practice, Pus is crucial to healing. Female doctress in the Philippines, who follows Hugh’s practice, drains the Pus and cleans the wounds with boiled wine and dressing the wound after suturing.

Rene Laennec’s auscultation device​

To complete Emperor Manuel’s education plans, rather than create a new maritime school, he continued the current maritime school in Manila. The Escuela Nautica de Manila founded and opened in 1820 in Calle Cabildo in Intramuros, Manila. The Escuela Nautica de Manila continued under new management. The curriculum in 1820 started with Arithmetic and Geometry on the first year, Cosmography, Navigation, Drawing and Chart Construction on the second and third year. The curriculum continued through the 1820s.

 

[Metempsychosis]

Very interesting. Your work in worldbuilding the technology and economy of this alternate Philippines goes very deep, as ever.

As for education, very interesting that the Jesuits are the ones who spearhead the move towards public education. Somewhat unfortunate that women aren't given the same opportunities as men for now, though expected for the time. Still, considering how female medical education isn't oriented towards the pseudosciences of their time, I wonder if female medical practitioners in the Philippines will be far more respected than their male counterparts ITTL, making more of the real innovations in Philippine medicine.

 

[Namayan]

Very interesting. Your work in worldbuilding the technology and economy of this alternate Philippines goes very deep, as ever.

Thank you I hope you enjoyed it!

As for education, very interesting that the Jesuits are the ones who spearhead the move towards public education. Somewhat unfortunate that women aren't given the same opportunities as men for now, though expected for the time. Still, considering how female medical education isn't oriented towards the pseudosciences of their time, I wonder if female medical practitioners in the Philippines will be far more respected than their male counterparts ITTL, making more of the real innovations in Philippine medicine.

My goal was really to show the difference in luck and institutions why Philippines or the Creoles leading became more successful than their fellow Hispanics in other parts of the world. Education, technology and economy comes with it. It is more the institutions that I am trying to explain, traditions as well as organization that they are setting up.

Female medicine in the Philippines is the same like the rest of the world or at least in European sphere of influence. You would be better nursed by a female doctress with minimal education in Jamaica in the 1820s than a male physician in London who studied at a university putting leeches on you and giving medicine that has mercury.

 

[Namayan]

17. Daoguang Depression

It is said that Daoguang Depression began due to great flood of China in 1823.

From February to July 1823, large part of China experienced heavy floods. 348 counties out of the 1,700 counties were flooded. The two most affected counties were Zhili and Jiangsu. The death estimates are around 1,000 deaths per day. The floods affected harvests and prices of goods. Direct government support amounted to 1,860,000 taels and 550,000 dans of rice were used to relieve the province of Zhili. There were also private initiatives to donate to those affected. Jiangsu received 1,820,000 taels and 277,187 dans of rice. Other countries also received aid both from the government and private donations. The total aid by the end of the flood amounted to 8 million taels and 1.5 million dans of rice. There was also engineering measures to mitigate flooding amounting to 3.5 million taels. The government also gave tax and tribute exemptions for those affected amounting to 13 million taels lost in revenue after 1823. The total revenue of China was 45 million taels per annum before the flooding. After the flooding, due to revenue exemptions and damages done by the flooding to the economy, annual revenues of China decreased more than 30%.

The most affected, the ordinary Chinese, did have some relief thanks to the aid received from private initiatives and their government. Some migrated out of China. The newly independent Philippines offered relief to this economic pressure and disaster that is happening in China. The new government in Manila suddenly has an open-door policy to Chinese migrations. The expulsion of the Spanish from Luzon and the increasing demand of labor by the land owners Luzon meant that import more laborers. The already established Chinese community in Manila helped not only with their compatriots who needs a new life and land to settle but also those seeking new opportunities.

Chinese with business acumen became street vendors, employees of Chinese in Binondo or apprentice among skilled professionals. These Chinese mostly came from Fujian province. Chinese from Fujian province had to travel to the Philippines by Chinese junk for 15 days without help from Philippine authorities or companies. Unlike Spain who is authorized to trade in Amoy or Xiamen, Philippines does not have the right to trade in Amoy. Nor does the Philippine government or Philippine companies have representatives in Amoy.

Filipino ships are more frequent in Canton. Most Chinese laborers were contracted and sent to Cagayan were the new Cotton plantations of Miguel Gomez badly needs laborers. Pay is promised to be higher than what ordinary Chinese earn back in their homeland. Destroyed farms due to Chinese flood pushed some of the Chinese to find new opportunities. The Chinese origin of port for these contract laborers is in Canton rather than Amoy. Some of the Chinese migrants went to Nueva Ecija with the remaining in other provinces. Despite the relaxing of Chinese migration policy, Chinese migrants and traders still had to register in Manila and pushed by the local government to do so before they can work or settle within their local province. The ship they use is faster than Chinese junks taking them 8-10 days and if lucky with the trade winds and using a clipper ship, around 3-4 days travelling from Canton to Manila. Upon disembarking in Manila, the Chinese contract laborers have their companies help them in migration papers, finding food, shelter before they are sent to Cagayan or the other provinces.

The Prime minister of the Philippines, Jose Ortega, have extensive dealings with going to and from the port of Canton. Jose Ortega was appointed in 1823 by Emperor Manuel as the Prime Minister of the Philippines. As a close friend of the then Count Luis-Rodriguez Varela, Jose Ortega qualified for the job thru the trust he built with Emperor Manuel compared to his British counterpart which command a majority in Parliament.

The new influx of Chinese created tensions with the local elites in densely populated areas like towns and cities. Creoles like Emperor Manuel dislike the idea of Chinese control of the economy. He had always advocated local businesses and native protection from the Chinese. The independence removed the Spanish caste system but prejudices against the Chinese still remained especially among the Creoles, who are ethnically European.

In less densely populated areas like in rural areas, there are less disdain for the new Chinese migrants. Chinese miners are valued due to their skill compared to local miners especially in mines investing on heavy mining. In new plantations, Chinese laborers and even migrants are more than welcome to fill in the labor shortages.

Emperor Minh Mang​

Minh Mang became the emperor of Vietnam in 1820. He reversed his predecessor’s diplomacy with Europeans. By the death of Jean Marie Despiau in 1824, no western advisor who served Gia Long remained in Minh Mang’s court. The French consul Eugene Chaigneau left Vietnam in 1824 after being denied audience with Minh Mang. Minh Mang’s isolationist policy was not also against the Europeans. Burma’s offer of an alliance against Siam was rejected by Minh Mang.

Minh Mang is also updated of the situation in the coast. Moro pirate raids have been increasing. The ships that raided the coast were fast and made it difficult for the Vietnamese to react. A Vietnamese who escaped one of the Moro raids reported that the ships that attack the coast were several large outrigger vessels. The vessels are not only fast but can navigate the rivers. Upon conclusion of the raid, they are brought to a larger vessel similar to a European ship anchored but hidden near the coast. The Vietnamese witness believes the pirates were not fair skin but tanned, spoke similar to French but is not French.

It is unfortunate timing for Minh Mang assuming they believe the Europeans are raiding them. But most of them do not believe the villager’s tale about the large European vessel partnered with several outrigger ships. Minh Mang does not feel threatened with a large navy that he inherited from Gia Long. The fortifications built during Gia Long’s reign meant that the major rivers will be protected from pirate raids.

Minh Mang reaction was to order the navy to start patrolling the coasts. His galleys do give chase to the outrigger ships but once they give chase to the pirates, all the Vietnamese ships that gave chase do not comeback. Vietnamese Sailors who survive report that upon giving chase to the outrigger ships to their mother ship, their mother ship opened fire. They could not count exactly how many guns the mother ship had but they are sure it had more than 14 guns at starboard and of similar size and build to a European ship.

The cat and mouse change between the Vietnamese navy continued for years until 1827 when more pressing matters diverted Minh Mang’s attention.

Anouvong arrived in the border town of Quy Hop in Vietnam from the Kingdom of Vientiane. Minh Mang took several weeks before Anouvang was welcomed in Hue, Vietnam. Anouvang attempted a rebellion against the Kingdom of Siam. His forces along with the forces of the Kingdom of Champsak were repulsed by Siamese forces and Anouvang’s capital taken. Vientiane was considered a tributary of Vietnam and Vietnam’s old nemesis Siam should not control the area.

Storming of the Stockade in Kemmendine near Yangon​

In Siam, negotiations began with Britain, or an agent of the British East India Company. By the early of 1826, Siam signed an alliance with East India Company representatives against Burmese Empire wherein the East India Company was at war with Burma since 1824. Britain had a couple years relationship built with Siam when John Crawfurd crafted a treaty in 1822 that secures British possession of Penang without Siamese interference in return for acknowledging Siam’s claim over Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, Terangganu and Patani.

Siam raised an army but by the time the alliance was signed, the Burma war ended with the Treaty of Yandabo. Burma gave up Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Arakan, and Tenasserim coast south of Salween River to the East India Company and had to pay one million pounds sterling as indemnity. The indemnity is huge even for European standards but compared to the cost of war which the East India company spent between 5 to 10 times that amount.

The Eastern most territories of the former Spanish East Indies are not initially recovered by the government in Manila. Spanish territories in Marianas were taken over by Mexicans after Mexican expatriates returned home and trade with Mexico and South America resumed.

When the trade ships and whalers from Luzon start arriving, negotiations began on who should manage the islands. Marianas islands were more vital to American nations thru the China Silver trade. The Spanish East Indies, which includes Marianas, was under Mexico or New Spain’s jurisdiction from 1565 until 1821. The negotiations stalled with Manila not agreeing to Mexico’s terms.

The Caroline Islands are left as they were before 1823. Rather than colonization, just like the Spanish before them, the Mexicans and Filipinos preferred trading rather than colonization.

The situation in Marianas is quite different. With no Mexican or Filipino trying to govern the islands, the locals are left to govern themselves. Although there are a lot more Chamorros, the people that organize themselves are Spanish speakers that are either ranchers or priests. U.S. and British whalers asked permission from Guam locals to make Guam a rest stop rather asking permission from Manila or Mexico.

U.S. and British whalers also ask permission to hunt whales near Bohol which Manila approves. The British have been hunting whales in Bohol with Spanish colonial government’s permission since 1820. This continued under the new government. U.S. never had permission nor hunted whales before until Jose de San Martin liberated Bohol from the Spanish.

Some of the oil and meat of whale went to the local market especially in Manila and Cavite wherein the government, European descent Filipinos and other Filipino citizens who wish to imitate and replicate the quality of life in Europe and used as oil lamps, street lights, soap and to illuminate the lighthouses.

With the internal problems of Mexico affecting the precious metal mining, thus trade with Asia and delayed liberation of Upper Peru and her mines, there were less traders coming from America. However, the demand in Luzon for fertilizer increased due to reorganization of land into plantations by the governors especially by the Pampanga governor.

Humphry Davy’s bestselling book in 1813, Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, highlights efficiency of Guano as fertilizer. He was not the first European to write about importance of guano but rather a Prussian explorer named Alexander von Humboldt who first encountered guano in Callao, Peru in 1802. Europe was importing guano for centuries but it was not a popular fertilizer. Due to lack of access of precious metals in the years after 1823, traders had to find a profitable venture. Pampanga was demanding fertilizers. Chincha Islands, the source of Guano, was barely affected by the ongoing war of liberation happening in Peru. Filipino traders negotiated in parallel with the negotiation of Prime Minister Ortega with the Peruvian emissary in Manila to buy Guano to which the Peruvian government agreed. Britain solved their fertilizer issue initially thru grave robbing or importing bones from other countries. Since the Filipinos and the locals are respectful of the dead, nor does Philippines import bones or significant urban population during this time to make human excrement as fertilizer as a product that can be sold, guano became Pampanga’s source of fertilizer. This made Guam a crucial stopover for the Guano trade between Peru and Manila. With the advent of the Manila Guano trade, the Manila-Acapulco trade route gradually diminished and surpassed by the Manila-Lima trade route.

 

[Namayan]

18. El Metalico Lord

After the death of Juan Fermin de San Martin, the highest position of the armed forces became vacant. When news reached Manila, the constitutional power rested on Emperor Manuel to assign a new armed forces chief. The death Juan Fermin resulted into the reorganization of the Philippine armed forces. The Philippine armed forces under Juan Fermin de San Martin was patterned after the Spanish Army and Spanish Navy. But this changed upon Juan Fermin’s death.

With the arrival of British officers and advisors, these advisors took a crucial role in the formation of the new navy. The honor of becoming the First Naval Lord of the Imperial Philippine Navy was given to Thomas Cochrane.

Thomas Cochrane​

Thomas Cochrane had a colorful history. In 1814, he was implicated in the stock market scandal in London. In the succeeding years, Cochrane was employed by several foreign countries. Cochrane left Britain in disgrace but did not end his naval career. In 1818, he was met by representatives of Jose de San Martin and Jose Condarco wherein he was convinced to join the British officers who will go to Chile. After his service in the Chilean Navy, Cochrane took command of the Imperial Brazilian Navy. In 1825, Cochrane accepted the job offer in the Philippines. The job was to lead the Philippine navy against the Spanish navy.

Upon his arrival in Manila, the enemy Spanish fleet was non-existent. Instead, he reorganized the Imperial Philippine Navy. The Imperial Philippine Navy was slightly larger than Chilean Navy and her first Chilean Navy Squadron. The industry and skilled labor in the Philippines have the capability to build ships of the line and have so for centuries. Local hardwood and local shipbuilders made it cheap and easier to build ships large or small. With the arrival of imported machinery from London, Philippines too is capable of manufacturing weapons using the horse boring machines few compared to European manufacturing capabilities but sufficient to produce for Philippine needs.

The Imperial Philippine navy modeled herself on Royal Navy traditions, techniques, tactics. The Imperial Philippine Navy academy gave a formal education. The Imperial Philippine Navy provided a very rigid hierarchical career structure. Everyone started at the bottom regardless of their background. Just like the Royal Navy, once progressed beyond midshipman to Lieutenant, a naval career was often guaranteed. Lord Cochrane also introduced prize money, monetary reward paid to the crew and their officers. The distribution of the prize money is similar to Royal navy. The French called Cochrane Le Loup des Mers or Sea wolf while Spanish speaking nations called Cochrane El Metalico Lord, named by none other than Jose de San Martin when they both helped in the liberation of Chile and Peru. The introduction of prize money in the Imperial Philippine navy cemented his reputation in the Philippines as El Metalico Lord for the continued pursuit of money.

With the influence of the Royal Navy, Philippines setup her own Admiralty and naval staff. However, the Philippine geography is a bit different and the skillset of the Philippine navy did not end with large monohulled ships of the line. The Philippine navy also had smaller ships, outrigger ships like a Karakoa but these were specialized ships. The trimarans like Karakoa were faster than the monohulls and more maneuverable. Trimaran ships were also easier to build than monohulled ships for the local skilled labor. These ships are also more maneuverable for interisland travel in the Philippines wherein Galleons easily hit rocks and sink between Legazpi and Manila. The lower draft of Karakoa and trimarans meant it can land at the coastline or go to the rivers much like a Viking longship. The disadvantage was more manpower intensive than monohulls of the same size. A Karakoa could have one hundred rowers on each side. A Karakoa’s crew could easily fully crew a monohulled ship twice or thrice its size with more firepower. Sometimes even a Manila Galleon many times larger doing a trade run have a crew less than half of a Karakoa. Manpower in the Philippines was in short supply not unless they pay more to crew a trimaran/galley than a monohull or find more slaves.

Lord Cochrane’s capital ships are limited to the four East Indiaman imported by the first diplomatic mission to London. When Cochrane arrived, the capital ships barely drilled and was used primarily as heavily armed large transport ships. There were a lot of excess ships of the lines Britain offered to the Philippines but Emperor Manuel was not willing to buy them. Philippines also had shipyards to build Ships of the line, but building them was expensive. It took around 3 to 5 years to build an equivalent or larger than the East Indiaman compared to the two years when Roxas imported ships from London.

Oath of the Thirty-Three Orientals​

Jose de San Martin was offered the governorship of Cavite, a position previously held by his brother, when he returned to Manila after the campaign in Panay. He rejected the offer. In 1825, the Thirty-Three Orientals led to a war between Argentina and Brazil. After the liberation of Visayas, he wrote a letter to his brother-in-law, Manuel Escalada, to forward to Bernardino Rivadavia, president of United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, to offer his services. Not only was Jose de San Martin’s offer rejected but Rivadavia wrote to him directly. Jose de San Martin expected the rejection due to Rivadavia’s hostility towards him.

The creole and mestizo officers of the former Spanish army in the island either became governors, Senators or other higher positions leaving the officer corps that existed in 1823 gutted. Jose de San Martin became the most senior member of the Philippine army after his brother died. Francisco Bayot, who had the same rank as Jose de San Martin, retired upon arrival in Manila. He was blamed for Juan Fermin’s death but was shielded by his sons from repercussions. Francisco Bayot’s critics waned upon his retirement. Jose de San Martin had one of the two intact armies. The San Martins were also popular in Luzon after Juan Fermin’s liberation and martyrdom in Panay. While Jose de San Martin is either hated by loyalists or loved by Filipinos in Visayas, both respect San Martin’s power.

Jose de San Martin was offered another job, as Generalissimo of the Imperial Philippine army and the new army academy. After receiving Rivadavia’s letter and convinced by his daughter, his nephews and niece to stay in the Philippines, he accepted the offer. The army academy’s tradition is learned thru Jose de San Martin’s campaigns in Chile, Peru and Visayas. The army is kept professional and small. Importance of Logistics is learned in the academy and by army recruits. The value of propaganda is also learned by army recruits and army academy.

The appointments of both Jose de San Martin and Thomas Cochrane at the highest positions in the armed forces reignited their old animosity. Both have a history during the liberation of Chile. Both of their personalities instilled the culture within the respective branch they are leading. Jose de San Martin and the army being calculated and Lord Cochrane and the navy being daring.

Despite being the pay being good enough to satisfy Lord Cochrane, the appointment as First Naval Lord of the Imperial Philippines Navy was dull and lacked adventure. His opportunity to liven up the job came after Emperor Manuel became dissatisfied with the Philippine Foreign Office.

Manuel ordered the Foreign Office to send envoys to Moro Sultanates, to Sultan Jamalul Kiram I of Sulu and Sultan Kawasa Anwar Ud-din of Maguindanao. The slave raiding in Visayas continued despite signing peace treaties with the sultanates. The Foreign Office and Emperor Manuel, much like the Spanish before them, misunderstood the situation in the south.

The peace treaty with the Sultanates did stop state sponsored attacks but did not stop the private slave raiding. The lash of the Visayas, El Terrible, Datu Ipoypo not only continued raiding Visayas but increased the people taken captive each year from 500 a year before 1823 to 1,000 a year when the war of Independence started. He took advantage of the fighting between the patriots and royalists which distracted both sides from focusing on anti-piracy in Visayas. Just like other slave raiders, Datu Ipoypo profited by selling people they took from Visayas in slave markets.

Lord Cochrane asked for a larger naval budget and promised to eliminate piracy. The annual upkeep of antipirate fleet as fast and maneuverable as the Moro pirate fleets was expensive due to being manpower intensive, a resource that Philippines severely lacks. The Spanish antipiracy fleet from 1778 to 1793 cost the Spanish East Indies 300,000 pesos per annum [1] out of the 1 million pesos revenue it earns. Philippine revenues have been increasing since then but education has been the priority after the war of independence. The exchequer found a way to increase the navy’s budget. One of the cuts made came out of the army. Jose de San Martin agreed to withdraw the garrison and give Zamboanga’s budget to the navy.

The navy would expand to add multiple anti-piracy fleets stationed in Dapitan, several areas in Negros Island while frigates and sloops would patrol the high seas between Dapitan and Negros Island. The antipiracy fleet would patrol the coast and river. A naval base would also be built in Cagayan Island at Northern Sulu Sea which would make it an ideal place to interdict between Negros Island to the east and Dumaran Island to the west.

after the withdrawal from Zamboanga​

The withdrawal from Zamboanga became a controversial issue. Zamboanga was abandoned without firing a shot, while the Catholic church dislikes the idea of abandoning a place where they can evangelize pagans and Muslims. It was not the first time Zamboanga was abandoned. It was abandoned in 1599 and then 1662 when the threat of Koxinga made the Spanish consolidate their forces. When Spain returned to Zamboanga in 1718, the fort in Zamboanga, Fort Pilar, protected the Christian settlement who are deported Spanish and Spanish-American vagrants in Manila. By 1823, the limited population in Zamboanga, policy to expel vagrants in Manila changed, limited commercial and strategic value, the efforts of the new nation went to developing and protecting the province of Misamis and Negros Island instead.

The withdrawal from certain parts of Mindanao made Sulu and Maguindanao occupy places, slowly expanding their tributaries and direct control but at the cost of losing the coastline east of Dapitan to the Philippines and the ability to travel the sea towards Visayas or Luzon without encountering the Imperial Philippine Navy or Philippine forts.

Lord Cochrane built outposts with the navy financing the garrison between Cota de Iligan to Triunfo Fort. On top of the budget increase taken from Zamboanga fort, the navy’s budget is increasing despite demobilization due the need to protect sea lanes and coastal transport. Philippines had minimal macadamized roads and no railways but have a lot of rivers and a long coastline that can be used to transport goods, faster travel for individuals.

When Lord Cochrane visited the new naval bases, by chance or luck, the navy caught Datu Ipoypo alive in early of 1827. He paraded Ipoypo in Cebu city and then in Iloilo city. He was invited in fiestas in both cities and attended Moro-Moro theatrical performances in his honor. Finally, he paraded Ipoypo, by this time sickly and malnourished, in Manila in an iron cage. Due to his success, Lord Cochrane became popular in Visayas and Manila. In Visayas, he became more popular than San Martin, the priests and the local principalia due to him doing more for the ordinary Visayan. The pirates caught with Datu Ipoypo are sold to slavery and their ships sold to the market. The corresponding amount went to the prize money. As the admiral that sign the orders of the fleet, Lord Cochrane receives 1/8 of the prize money, a fourth going to the captains, the rest to the crew of the fleet that captured Datu Ipoypo and his fleet.

The layered defense of Lord Cochrane worked from regular patrols of the high seas fleet, the antipiracy fleet and the new outposts in the coast of Panguil Bay and Iligan Bay. The Imperial Philippine navy became like a fishing net with pirates being caught like fish. On top of the Imperial Philippine navy own efforts, privateers suddenly became more common. Privateers like Antonio Vicente, a native of Mandaue, Cebu who moved to Albay during the Moro raids in 1818, transferred his operations to Negros Island and Misamis province to catch pirates in 1826.

Even if somehow pirates pass thru the fishing net that is the Imperial Philippine navy or the privateers, the local militia continued the practice started by the Spanish friars in defending the coast using balangay ships to battle Moro pirates and whatever tools available to them to use as a weapon.

Seeing the results of the Lord Cochrane’s initiatives, the exchequer Francisco Rodriguez recommended to Emperor Manuel to finance the upgrading of coastal outposts into forts inland. Any increase in trade and commerce in Negros, Cebu and Bohol will be taken from those areas to finance the defense in Northern Mindanao.

With his success in Northern Mindanao, protecting Visayas from slavers and piracy, Emperor Manuel confirms him the title Marquess of Misamis to Thomas Cochrane. It is not Thomas Cochrane’s first peerage. He was granted by Brazil’s Emperor Pedro the title Marquess of Maranhao in 1824. Thomas Cochrane’s father is also the current 9th Earl of Dundonald. The title given to Thomas Cochrane was not only to reward success but used as a ploy to convince British talent and manpower to come and serve as advisors or mercenaries in the Philippines.

[1] The Maritime Response, 1793-1818 by Francisco Mallari

Edit 1: Edited a bit of grammar

 

[Namayan]

19. The Imperial Senate of the Philippines

Senate Hall, building at the right with Philippine Flag; Manila Cathedral at the Center; Manila City Hall at the Left​

When Filipinos rebelled in 1823, there was no formal political parties. There was only, Hijos del Pais, the Sons of the Nations or Patriots. The members splintered to two factions, monarchist and republican, after taking of Manila. Before Manuel’s ascension as emperor, there was a debate on what kind of government they should adopt.

After deciding to become a monarchy, the monarchists formed their party, the Imperial party with the core belief of retaining the monarchy and to a certain extent protecting the Imperial Senate. Those who joined are people from both monarchists and republic factions. Personal interests and gaining favor from the emperor mattered more than creating their own party or beliefs.

With the ascension of Luis Rodriguez Varela as Emperor Manuel, the factions between monarchist and republic transformed into a debate between centralization and decentralization among the Imperial Party. When the Constitution of 1824 was ratified, centralization and decentralization debate also waned with both sides satisfied with the constitution of 1824.

After 1824, the debate transformed to Unionist faction and Partition faction. The Unionist favored of unifying two or more provinces into one. The Partition faction is in favor of splitting one province into several smaller provinces.

Chief supporters of the Unionist faction are the Ilocanos and the Ilocano senators who are determined to reverse the splitting of Ilocos in 1818 by the Spanish as a result of the Basi revolt in 1807.

The Partition faction gained traction in several provinces like Camarines and Nueva Ecija. Places like Baler, Nueva Ecija are in favor of being split with Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija due to the distance and priorities being different. In Camarines, there is a debate whether to split Camarines in two despite the current governor against the splitting of Camarines.

The Unionist believe that splitting provinces is caused by an inefficient governor and provincial government. They believe that an efficient government can provide for a large province with geographic difficulties. Unionist believe that partition is an excuse for local governments and governors to become inefficient, lowering the standards of what government should be. Partitionist faction believes otherwise. Partitioning provinces would make sure government service reach their constituency.

The Imperial Senate of the Philippines is composed mostly of Creoles or Spanish descent. Almost all of them allies or family members of the incumbent governors. The governors appointed by Juan Fermin de San Martin usually financed or at least campaign for the senators during election.

There are several proposals being debated by the Senate. They are expansion of the Senate, removal of the emperor’s appointing power among governors, creating a reservation for Cordillera Mountains, abolition of slavery and limiting of Chinese migration.

The Senate expansion and inclusion of 8 senators from Panay, Samar and Cebu is rejected by the Senate due to their recent loyalty to Spain, the point of view of the Senators from Luzon. A 10-year timeline is set for Panay, Samar and Cebu to prove their loyalty and good management for the inclusion as part of the Senate. With loyalty issue being subjective, personal and reason simply because they fought against Luzon, there is a more specific clause for good management. These provinces should be able to finance themselves rather than asking for alms from the other Senatorial provinces or the Imperial government with specific targets in revenue and expenses each Visayan province should be able to cover. After the issue with Visayan Senate expansion is resolved, Senate expansion is done thru one Tayabas Senate seat with the provincial population reaching above 50,000.

The abolition of slavery and limitation Chinese migration became a contentious issue. Emperor Manuel is a supporter of the proposed laws to abolish slavery and limit Chinese migration. However, there is much resistance from the Senate. Even the Senators in Tondo and usual allies of Emperor Manuel are against limiting Chinese migration. After the Sangley rebellion in 1603, Spain had limited Chinese migration to the Spanish East Indies. With independence of Manila in 1823, Chinese migration became open and without limitation. Farms and businesses that required more manpower demanded either slaves or Chinese contract laborers. Emperor Manuel was against Chinese control of the economy since late 18th century when he was still a civilian and wrote about it. By bringing in more Chinese, it defeats the purpose of his beliefs of giving back control of the economy to the natives.

Emperor Manuel is so passionate of the two issues that he spoke at the Senate. When the Senate dilly dally, he forced the Senate during recess to continue their session using his constitutional power as emperor. The Senate was easy to access, located at the heart of Manila, the former Palacio del Gobernador, now the Senate Hall. Emperor Manuel preferred to live at his personal house and gave the Palacio del Gobernador to the Senate.

The laws did not pass in the Senate. The Senate voted against the abolition of slavery 13 against the abolition with 10 in favor of abolition. The limiting of Chinese migration also did not pass with 14 senators voting against Chinese migration limit with 9 in favor Chinese migration limit.

Emperor Manuel was not the only one making political deals or horse trading. The senators, governors, as well as everyone with interest to keep slavery and continued flow of Chinese contract laborers, allied or made deals to win the vote at the Senate.

As one of the very few non-Creole senators, Senator Mariano Tuazon of the Province of Tondo is the main opposition to the proposed law of Emperor Manuel. Senator Tuazon’s grandfather was a Chinese migrant, became rich and helped Simon de Anda fight the British when the British invaded Manila 1762 financing an army. This led to his grandfather and his family being honored as a hidalgo or a Spanish noble.

During the rebellion in 1823, Mariano Tuazon tried to find Governor General Juan Antonio Martinez and give aide to the Spanish royalist cause. But the rebel advance was swift and the taking of Manila made Don Tuazon think about aiding Spain or the rebels instead. He makes a life changing decision and starts helping the rebels. Eventually, Don Mariano Tuazon joined the new government and with the new government recognizing his support during the rebellion. His wealth made sure he won one of the three Senate seats in the Province of Tondo. The new nation gave Senator Tuazon new opportunities to expand the wealth of his family. Due to the Tuazon’s support to the rebellion in 1823, the Tuazons retained their entailed land and gained power to win against disagreements with their tenants.

Senator Tuazon’s father experienced racial discrimination during his father’s time. One of the discriminations he experienced was when his father bid for the Regidor of Manila, oficio vendible or purchasable position, in 1800. His father got the highest bid but the Spanish did not allow this and let a European migrant outbid his father. The Tuazon’s were considered Spanish and nobility but the Spanish and Spanish descent still considered the Tuazon’s as Chinese.

However, Senator Tuazon realized the situation somewhat changed after independence. The other Senators, mostly Creole, are more interested in their personal interest than Senator Tuazon’s Chinese roots. Senator Tuazon used the selfish interest of other Creoles to push his initiatives and his own personal gain.

The distribution of land by the Imperial government and Tuazon’s clash with their tenants, the lack of protection of tenants in the new government, convinced their tenants to move out of Tuazon’s entailed lands and relocate where they can own land or find a job in Manila. This created a labor shortage in the entailed land of the Tuazons and force the Tuazons to import Chinese contract laborers and/or slaves. This situation is similar across the Philippines where land owners are retained and tenants, dissatisfied with their land owners and aware of the land offer by the imperial government. This mixed situation in rural Philippines since 1823 created migrations to and from the provinces, to some extent migration to urban Philippines. The old order is mixed with the new. The established land owners, hacienderos or haciendados, and yeoman farmers exist sometimes even as neighbors.

With the belief of the end of war of independence, people around Manuel have suggested to replace the military governors. A military governor was not needed anymore. Manuel did not want to replace the governors but made promises to push several of his proposals and programs. The first replacements are the military governors of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur and Nueva Ecija are all replaced with the allies of Senators in exchange for votes of the Senators. People like Domingo Roxas has taken governorship of Batangas from a governor assigned by Juan Fermin de San Martin. The very few governors that remained as governors of their provinces in Luzon are influential enough and rich enough that removing them would create repercussions. In return for replacing certain governors, Emperor Manuel exchanged replacing governors for senate votes in favor of the issues close to his heart.

The first governors of an independent Luzon were not replaced in haste. The Imperial government prefer to negotiate rather than create enemies of these governors assigned by Juan Fermin de San Martin. The governors replaced in Luzon are given new assignments in Visayas and Mindanao with a new province to manage. Some accepted the position, some resigned from the military. Not every governor took advantage of the situation to acquire more wealth.

With the most of those who supported the bill to elect now appointed as governors or allies appointed as governors, the bill to change the constitution to remove the power of the emperor to appoint governors does not pass. After the appointments of prominent members of society, several people were left out including Jose Azcarraga and his brother-in-law, members of the Palmero clan.

Recognized Provinces from 1823 to 1826[1]​

Senator Mariano Novales of Pangasinan proposed the creation of a reservation system for the indigenous tribes. Senator Mariano was once a soldier in the Spanish army in command of Fort Santiago in Manila. He had hoped that supporting rebels would give him a substantial reward. But the new Emperor did not even recognize his efforts. This disappointed Mariano Novales but his brother, Governor of Pangasinan, invited him to move up north. Andres Novales financed his brother’s run for Senator in Pangasinan and Mariano’s lifestyle. As a Senator, Mariano Novales time is spent mostly in Manila during Senate sessions but had to move back to Pangasinan during campaigns for election. Senator Novales appealed to the sense of pride among the Senators that the British created an Indian reserve in 1763 and so should they to prove they are as civilized as the British. The appeal is mostly for show, newspapers and most of the votes were negotiated outside the Senate.

Protecting the natives of the islands is consistent to Emperor Manuel’s beliefs and supported the proposed law of Senator Novales. The reservation system will carve about one fifth of Luzon’s land area as part of the reservation system. Many complained that this is too much of land that will not be used nor migrated by Filipinos. Senator Novales argued that giving the Cordilleran tribes a sense of independence and recognition by the empire will gradually make these people and land dependent to the empire.

Several senators believe the gold mines are a myth with no reports even from the Army of the North of the whereabouts of the gold mines. Paul Proust de la Gironiere became a witness for the Senate and confirmed that Andres and the Army of the North have not found anything.

There is minor resistance from Ilocos Sur and Cagayan senators carving a part of their land for the reservation. The land Ilocos Sur is not de facto controlled nor historically settled by Ilocanos and currently resided by the tribe of Itnegs. Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur senators wanted Pangasinan’s support both in the Senate and financial aid from the Novales family in unifying Ilocos again after being partitioned in 1818. Unifying Ilocos have their benefits including a unified population in counting the number of senators, lessen the size of the local bureaucracy. More importantly restore their pride, honor and undo what the Spanish just did a few years ago.

The Cagayan senator backed down after bargaining with Senator Novales. The proposal is only approved once the size of the Cordillera reservation is reduced.

Several tribes of the Cordilleras complained to Andres and the Army of the North of how some of them feel insulted when the Spaniards and now Filipinos call them Igorots. The Igorots call themselves Ifugao. Andres told his brother it would be up to Mariano if he wants to bring it up in the Senate floor. After extensive research by Mariano’s assistants, they found out that Igorot is faithful to the Spanish language naming system rather an insult or derogatory to the natives of the Cordilleras. To name the people in the mountains as people from the mountains is not derogatory to which the root word of Igorot came from. They also informally asked outside the Senate Hall if the senators wish to debate it, to which they told Mariano’s assistants and Mariano that they will not waste time for changing naming terms. Instead, Mariano gave recommendation to the Foreign Office and diplomats going to the Cordillera mountains to call them Ifugao while in the lowlands and official records they are still called Igorots.

Provinces of Luzon after the partition of Nueva Ecija and the reunification of Ilocos​

After the Senate’s approval of Cordillera Reserve, the rearrangement of provinces was proposed by Pampanga and Ilocos senators. Senator Jose Bayot of Pampanga, brother of the current governor, has been vocal of unifying former territories of Pampanga, Nueva Ecija and Bataan. The observers from Nueva Ecija and Bataan wanted to speak their discontent of the proposal but the Senate did not allow them due to their observer status and blocked by the Pampanga senators. Nueva Ecija province is very large beginning near Cabanatuan stretches to the east in Pacific Ocean, stretching North near Aparri. The senator from Cagayan supported the proposal from Pampanga. Cagayan made deals to include northern Nueva Ecija, expanding the border of Cagayan to the Pacific. Pangasinan senators supported the idea as well. Several Nueva Ecija observers appealed to several senators but the wealth and influence of the Bayots were in play. Nueva Ecija observers also had no rich financier to match the Bayots. The richest land owner in Nueva Ecija happens to be also the governor of Pangasinan who also supports the carving of Nueva Ecija. Infuriated with what is happening in the Senate, Nueva Ecija observers from Cabanatuan walked out of the Senate while Nueva Ecija observers from Baler remained. In turn, Baler was made the new capital of Nueva Ecija. The inclusion of Bataan to Pampanga was rejected by majority of Senators with only 10 votes in favor due to its importance to National defense and already increasing size of Pampanga that would gain them an additional senate seat if they absorb part of Nueva Ecija and the whole of Bataan.

[1] Provinces based on Utrecht University Don Alejandro Malaspina Map circa 1832

 

[Namayan]

20. Republicano Radical

The Creoles that were not appointed as governors in Luzon were offered places to manage in Mindanao but refused due to Mindanao considered as remote place or in their eyes far from Civilization. Manila almost has as much population as Mindanao controlled Philippines. They rejected the new offer as government appointees.

Along with disgruntled citizens, they start meeting in Binondo, Manila hosted by Jose Azcarraga. The group started meeting regularly and agree on their political beliefs. However, they did not form a party preferring to remain as a political grouping.

The group’s belief is firstly, make sure all government positions are elected. Being passed by as governor after his support, Jose Azcarraga made sure to include election in all positions of government rather than appointment. Rather than removing the monarchy, the group wanted the monarch to be elected. The Cabanatuan bloc wants their freedom from Pampanga and regain control of the remaining Nueva Ecija province led by Baler bloc. The group is joined by the Partition supporters in Bicol who wants to subdivide Camarines and Albay into several provinces. They believe that the needs of the people are best served in a smaller geographic area.

Republicano Radical or Radical Republicans, as they call themselves, start printing pamphlets which distributed around the country. It becomes popular but are limited to those who are literate. In time, with their built confidence, the organization starts a public meeting. Members started speaking to the public of their beliefs. The first public meeting in Manila was estimated to be 500 people out of the population 38,000 of Manila [1]. The public meetings in Manila started growing to a crowd of 1,000 and then 2,000 people. The organization’s popularity grew rapidly. The people came from different parts of the society - from those dissatisfied with the monarchy, intellectuals, abolitionist and creoles who prefer racial segregation, exclusion. The organization focused growing the membership regardless of their beliefs. This resulted in the core beliefs of the organization mixed with other new member’s beliefs that is not aligned with the original intention of the organization including Filipinos influenced by Jacobins.

Radical Republican public gatherings in Manila​

The beliefs of the organization expanded to lower or eliminate the taxes. They were also for abolishment of slavery and the expulsion of the Chinese workers. Some members and people the organization attracts want to exclude the Chinese much like before under Spain separating them from Filipinos rather than allowing Chinese as neighbors. They also want to create new tariffs against Britain in order to protect the local clothing industry. Loom weavers are threatened by clothing products sold by British merchants at a very cheap price in the local market. The organization also believe in a much larger suffrage and voting should not be limited to landed individuals but those who pay taxes. Church and State should be separated. The alliance with the Catholic church should be eliminated and the state fully secular.

The Constitution of 1824 written by Bernardo Justianiano, Jose Maria Jugo and Mariano Henson included protected speech and the right to peacefully assemble which even Emperor Manuel and the constitutional assembly approved. The Radical Republicans made sure to use their constitutional right as they used law abiding and non-violent activities to avoid government authorities having an excuse to imprison them.

Radical Republican pamphlets about Emperor Manuel starts coming out. They question Emperor Manuel’s, the then Luis Rodriguez-Varela, legality of nobility as Count, El Conde Filipino. It elaborates a time when Luis Rodriguez-Varela was in charge of Pangasinan, from which he was dismissed, arrested and assets seized by then Captain General Rafael de Leon. In his residency trial, Luis Rodriguez-Varela is said to have accepted bribes from Chinese merchants. The Pamphlet about Emperor Manuel has gained supporters among the literate population, most unaware about what really happened more than 20 years ago.

The Pamphlets about Emperor Manuel continues with another batch stating, he is the instigator of the assaults on foreigners during the epidemic of cholera and smallpox in 1820. According to the pamphlet, he blamed the Chinese, French and British for poisoning the waters of the Pasig River.

Political gatherings also start in Vigan, Ilocos wherein they are attended by loom weavers.

Observers from Visayas were given invitation to the gathering but refused to attend or be part of the gatherings and the organization. The Radical Republicans appealed to their desire to join the Senate which the Radical Republicans offered to them upon setting up of a new republic. The Radical Republicans promised to change government requirement of a self-sustaining province. Provinces would have a shared pool of allocation and would equally divide the earnings of richer provinces to poorer provinces. The observers refused the offer with an official reason that they are in a process of a rebuild. Despite the Radical Republican’s lack of politic support in Visayas, they gained support from loom weavers in Iloilo.

In order to gain more support, the organization invited or met known local literary writers and poets. Local languages were key to their mass appeal. They invited writers for Ilocano, Hiligaynon and Bicolano. With the Tagalog language, they invited Jose de la Cruz also known as Huseng Sisiw. Huseng Sisiw refused due to his advance age of 81 and his affiliation with the monarchy. They instead invited his younger protégé Francisco Balagtas.

Huseng Sisiw was hired by the imperial family as a tutor to expand their knowledge of Tagalog in order for the imperial family to communicate to their constituents in the rural areas of province of Tondo who are mostly uneducated and illiterate, only understand and speak Tagalog in 1823. Huseng Sisiw is quite knowledgeable of Spanish, Tagalog, Latin and Greek languages and the imperial family were amazed by Huseng Sisiw’s intelligence and politeness. Along with Huseng Sisiw tutoring Emperor Manuel and Empress Maria Isabel, his protégé Francisco Balagtas tutored both Princess Rita and Prince Mariano. Prince Mariano spent less time with his tutor preferring to spend time with his friends, at parties or at an opium den. The ascension of the Varela family as royalty affected the children Emperor Manuel most due to their responsibility and pressure as heir.

Francisco Balagtas​

With Prince Mariano spending more time with his personal activities, Francisco Balagtas spent more time with Princess Rita alone who wanted learn more of the Tagalog language. Balagtas slowly developed his feelings for the princess despite being her senior of more than 12 years. He not only became Rita’s tutor but also became his suitor. Balagtas wrote poems frequently to Rita. Rita’s husband died right after the revolt in 1823 and Francisco mended Rita’s heart and loneliness. Rita requitted his feelings. Both opened up their ambitions and desire to each other. Rita hopes to take over his father’s duties seeing his brother as irresponsible.

They both keep their courtship a secret. Francisco well aware that Emperor Manuel would not accept him as Rita’s husband nor the Prime Minister, the cabinet and the Senate would accept him. In the creole’s eyes, he is but a dark-skinned Indio. He also has limited influence, power and wealth to help Rita’s position or his brother’s position as future monarch. Rita hopes to find a way to accept Francisco as his husband or at least as a lover without giving up her ambitions. This further delayed any plans for marriage between the two. Francisco is very supportive of Rita’s ambitions keeping the courtship a secret.

Just like some of the intellectuals of the time, Radical Republican and their liberal ideas appeals to Francisco Balagtas. After accepting the job offer from Radical Republicans, Francisco Balagtas starts writing pamphlets in Tagalog for the organization. The written language then is distributed. The distributed pamphlets are read by a literate person, a town crier, since most of the people during this time are illiterate despite understanding and speaking their local language. The situation with Tagalog language is the same across the country for the other languages with a large part of the populace illiterate and no formal education. The only exception are the Spanish speakers who most likely had a formal education, literate.

When another pamphlet comes out about the imperial family, Francisco refuses to translate it. The Pamphlet is about Princess Rita and Prince Mariano fornicating, having an incestuous relationship. The Pamphlet is distributed in Spanish language instead.

As much as the Radical Republicans are popular to the loom weavers and tax paying, landless urban population, Radical Republicans are not popular among the yeoman farmers and families which accounts for the majority of the population. With their new income generating lands, the yeoman farmers preferred stability and food in their table. The yeoman farmers are highly respected as patriarchs of the family with their landless children mostly influenced with their conservative views in politics. The yeoman farmer families also know the difficult times, experienced life before independence wherein they were once tenant farmers and had to work in forced labor. Life is better now nor would they risk their livelihood and lives just to join the new movement.

[1] Manila population as of 1823 according to New Gazetteer by Jedidiah Morse and Richard Morse, published in 1823 at Connecticut, New Haven, United States.

edited 1 : edited grammar a bit