The Empire Means Peace

Razgriz 2K9

Banned
Yup, the French still invade Mexico, though whether or not they succeed...well you'll have to wait and see when I go into Latin America after I'm finished with Europe.
 

Razgriz 2K9

Banned
Chapter XVIII: La Gloriosa and the Third Carlist War
1866-1875
Spain and Southern France

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General Juan Prim y Prats, Marquis of los Castillejos and one of the masterminds behind La Gloriosa


The Final Acts that led up to the Glorious Revolution began with a series of pronunciamentos by Juan Prim, Marquis of los Castillejos, in 1866 against the governments of Leopoldo O’Donnell and Ramón María Narváez. This, coupled with a revolt by various army sergeants in Madrid, sent signals to Spanish liberals and republicans that there was serious unrest within Spain, and that with the right leadership, could be properly harnessed. Liberal and Republican exiles met and agreed to an alliance in Ostend, Belgium in 1866, and later in Brussels in 1867, with one goal set in mind: The removal of the current Spanish government, as well as the overthrow of Isabella II, seen as the source of Spain’s difficulties.

Isabella’s continual ambivalence between liberals and conservatives had angered moderate, progressive and members of the Union Liberal Party alike, and opposition to her rule had begun to cross party lines. It was not until the death of O’Donnell in 1867 that the Union Liberal Party, the party he himself built, began to completely fall apart, with many of its supporters joining the opposition. Meanwhile, Isabella slowly became more and more autocratic as she fell into the favor of the Jesuits. Narváez, who succeeded O’Donnell after his being recalled in 1866, began passing laws that was to support the Jesuit faction, and was seen by the opposition as an attempt by the Duke of Valencia to return Spain to that of the Ancien Regime. Narváez would not live long to see his attempt be unfounded, passing away on 23 April 1868. His successor was the Marquis of Havana and former Captain General of Cuba, José Gutiérrez de la Concha.

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Juan Bautista Topete y Carballo, the Spanish Navy Admiral who initiated the mutiny that led to La Gloriosa


The appointment wasn’t to last long however, as on 18 September 1868, Juan Bautista Topete, a Spanish Navy Admiral, mutinied against the government at the port of Cadiz. The site of the mutiny, the first major event of La Gloriosa to occur, was symbolic, as nearly a half-century ago, Rafael del Riego rebelled against Isabella’s father Ferdinand VII, the Felon King. Over the course of the week, Prime Minister la Concha deserted the queen, as did Narváez and the Minister of State, Luis González Bravo. It was the denouncements of the government by Prim, who returned from exile in Great Britain, and by General Francisco Serrano, the Duke of La Torre, that led to the revolution, at the time known as the September Revolution, to gain support. Juan Prim found support on the peoples along the Mediterrannean coastline, while Serrano gained supporters on the overland route from Cadiz to the Andalusian city of Seville, where he would gather an army to prepare a march to the capital city of Madrid.

It would be near the bridge of Alcolea, in Northern Andalusia that Serrano’s forces met with the Isabellite loyalists led by Michael Pavia, the Marquis of Novaliches, in the only military action of the revolution. The battle was brutal, with many dead and the Marquis disfigured. The Loyalist army was forced into retreat and Serrano would march his army into Madrid. The news of the defeat at Alcolea forced the Queen and the royal family, at the time vacationing in San Sebastien in Navarre in Northern Spain, to flee northwards to Paris in the company of Napoleon III.

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Francisco Serrano Dominguez Cuenca y Pérez de Vargas, Duke of la Torre


A Provisional Government was declared later in 1868, and culminated in early 1869 with the new Spanish Constitution of 1869, a move long awaited since the end of the moderato dictatorship. Borrowing from the United States Constitution (a Bill of Rights guaranteeing basic liberties such as freedom of speech and of religion), the Belgian Constitution (defining the role of the King in the new government) and the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, the 1869 Constitution granted many liberties that the Spanish Constitution of 1843 failed to achieve.

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Charles de Borbón, Duke of Madrid and Carlist Pretender to the Spanish throne as Carlos VII.


But the goal to find a new King that would follow in these new laws proved to be troublesome for Serrano, now the Regent for Spain. There were many to choose from. One of the first choices was Alfonso de Borbón, Prince of Asturias, and son of Isabella II, but many feared that he was too close to his mother and would adopt many of her failings. Another candidate was the Carlist pretender, Carlos de Borbón, the Duke of Madrid styled “Carlos VII”. Carlos was the grandson of the first Carlist pretender, and brother to Isabella’s predecessor, “Carlos V.” However, Carlos preferred a return to the old absolutist regime that Ferdinand VII and his predecessors had, and was, as far as the Republicans and Liberals were concerned, was unsuitable to the new Spanish throne.

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Ferdinand von Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, King Consort and originally joint ruler of Portugal (as Ferdinando II) with Maria II de Braganza.


There were outside candidates as well, and they were seen as more suitable prospects. One such candidate, proposed by the Pan-Iberianist movement was Ferdinand von Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Ferdinand was the grandson of Francis, the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield, and from 1836, became the King consort to Maria de Braganza, the Queen of Portugal. After her death in 1853, he became Portugal’s regent until the formal accession of his son, Pedro V de Braganza-Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1855. The Pan-Iberianist hopes were dashed when Ferdinand declined the offer to become Spain’s king.

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Leopold von Hohenzollern-Sigmarignen, Prince of Hohenzollern


The next candidate considered was Leopold von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, the Prince of Hohenzollern and distant relative of the Prussian King William I. Despite the defeat at the hands of France, the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen branch successfully had a relative become Domnitor of the United Principalities of Romania. However, Leopold was quickly declined by both the Prussian government and later the Spanish government, largely because such a move would incite a strong reaction from France, who had assisted the Austrians in defeating the Prussians some 3 years prior, and would not be able to take on a combined French and Austrian army again in its current form.

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Otto von Wittelsbach (left) was also the crown prince of Bavaria. His uncle, Luitpold (right) was also an important factor in Bavarian politics as well during the reign of Ludwig II.

Another group chosen was from the House of Wittelsbach, the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of Bavaria, and until 1863, the Kingdom of Greece. There were two potential candidates, Otto, the brother of King Ludwig II, and Ludwig’s uncle Luitpold. Bavaria was one of the states that took advantage of Prussia’s fall from grace and tried to fill in the German power vacuum as quickly as possible before Austria or rival powers such as Hanover and Westphalia would take hold. However, the late Otto of Greece’s absolutist policy and the Crown Prince Otto’s mental instability was to cast doubt on the Wittelsbach’s candidacy.

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One Hapsburg candidate chosen was Karl Ludwig, an Archduke of Austria one of Emperor Franz Josef's brothers.


There were also the Hapsburgs; whose place in the sun was maintained as a result of their victory in the Austro-Prussian War. The Hapsburg’s dropped their claim to the Spanish throne following the Treaty of Utrecht that concluded the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713. But they might look to place their hopes on a Hapsburg restoration. Franz Joseph did take the possibility into consideration, having a Hapsburg once again rule Spain, but the only disadvantage would be that it would catch the ire of the French, their erstwhile ally.

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Amadeo di Savoia, the Duke of Aosta (left) and his cousin, Tomasso, the Duke of Genoa (right)


Another group of candidates was Amadeo di Savoia, the Duke of Aosta and Tomasso di Savoia, the Duke of Genoa. Both were members of the ruling house of the Kingdom of North Italy, which has seen much success in the 1850’s, despite the setback from the Austro-Italian War of 1866. The North Italian Prime Minister at the time considered the prospects to be fruitful, another potential ally to use against France to achieve the irridenta on certain French territories.

The Republicans despite their content for choosing a King, chose the aged Prince of Vergara, Baldomero Espartero. They figured, because of Espartero’s age (he was 76 at the time) and lack of male heir, it would make the transition to a Spanish Republic legitimate. But Espartero refused to come out of retirement and his home in Logroño.

The debate over who would become King of Spain lasted many months, and some were very heated. It was on 6 July 1870 that the 380 deputies would vote on the claimant, the results were clear; the next King of Spain was to be Amadeo, the Duke of Aosta. However,the growing instability and tensions over the new king, plus the choosing of a foreigner over the Carlist claimant (a move that insulted the Carlist Party) represented a strong opportunity to claim the Spanish throne by force, believing that Carlos had the support of those who voted for him. (He was represented by most of the delegates of the Basque Country, Navarre & Catalonia, and a few from Valencia, Vasconia and Aragon.)

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The Cross of Burgundy was adopted as the Carlists emblem


The removal of long standing Carlist general, Ramón Cabrera in 1869, and the inclusion of newer officers and lieutenants, some of them not of noble birth, did not deter the Carlist’s stand for traditionalism, lost during the rule of Isabella II. Along for the battle were “volunteers” from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies [1], led by the third son of the late King Ferdinand II, Prince Alfonso, the Count of Caserta, going under the name of Alfonso de Borbón. However, the Carlist force was small, with altogether roughly 8,000 men throughout Catalonia, Valencia and the Basque Country. Carlist officers, as well as those from the Two Sicilies and volunteers from France (some with ties to the Legitimist branch of the Monarchists) contributed to the training of a new Carlist Army. By the time of the start of the War on 6 November, when Amadeo arrived in Spain, the Carlists were able to field the largest army they have ever been able to field since the First Carlist War, with 60,000 men each for the Basque Front and the Eastern (Catalonian-Valencian Front) as well as an additional 15,000 men in the Eastern part of Castilla-La Mancha province. [2]

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Alfonso di Borbone-Due Sicilie, Count of Caserta and Second Surviving Son of Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies


The conflicts began on 6 November when a new crop of volunteers, eager to join the Carlist cause, rose up in Navarre and Biscay, while guerilla movements sprung up in Catalonia, Valencia, Guipuzkoa, and Aragon-Vasconia, as well as in Castile. A Carlist insurgency in the Filipino City of Oroquieta ended in failure, but due to the instability of the Spanish liberal government, especially with Amadeo arriving in Spain via the Soutehern port of Cadiz, prevented the Spanish Army from effectively quelling the rebellion.

Yet no one could have perceived what was to come next. As Amadeo’s entourage made a stop at Seville, following the same route Serrano made to Madrid just two years prior, his group was attacked by Republican and Anarchists, and promptly shot the King-to-be. Amadeo, the Duke of Aosta died from gunshot wounds two days later, to the exasperation of the Spanish government. [3]

The Glorious Revolution and subsequent Carlist War was one seen by many in the international community, and one of the active players looking through these events was Napoleon III. Although he was no longer at the cusp of his youth when he came to power in 1852, Napoleon was still an effective and well-influential leader in France, whose prestige was made great for his successes in foreign policy affairs despite some blunders in the domestic front. He was considering sending an army to restore Bourbon rule in Spain. The reasoning behind this was twofold. Despite the Utrecht Treaty that barred personal union between Spain and France & removed the Spanish Bourbons from contention with the French throne; Isabella’s presence here, Napoleon believed, would strengthen the monarchist opposition, either through support of the Legitimists or Orleanists. The other reason behind this was because by helping restore Bourbon rule in Spain, he might gain another ally and help strengthen his standing in Europe.

The other active player was the father of the late Duke of Aosta, Victor Emmanuel II. Victor saw the death of his son as an outrage to the North Italian government, and many called for war against the Spaniards. The assassination of Amadeus also provided a seemingly credible cassus belli for France to intervene. Despite the still cold relations between Paris and Turin following the Austro-Prussian War, Napoleon was able to forge a coalition between each other.

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Battle of Eraul


The conflict continued into 1871 with stunning Carlist victories at Eraul (5 May) and Mañeru (2 August) in Navarre, followed by the capture of Estella (3 August). The siege of San Sebastien and Bilbao also took part in this time period, the latter was bombarded for two months straight as the Carlists forces in Navarre, led by Nicolas Ollo and Francisco Savalls repeatedly defeated government forces in battles at Montejurra (5 August), Belabieta (7 August) and Villabona (8 August). Bilbao surrendered on 15 August 1871, the first and only major city to fall to Carlist hands throughout the war. [4]

The Catalan front also saw great successes, despite little gain. Guerrilla tactics led to the deaths of many Spanish government forces, including the death of Jose Cabrinety at Alpens (9 July). But Spirits were raised with a Carlist rout at Bocairente (24 December).

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Carlist infantry firing into Government positions


1872 saw the introduction of French and North Italian troops into play, moving to intervene in favor of the Spanish government. Despite the guerrilla style of combat that the Carlists had brought to bear, the French had more up to date equipment, including the use of Bolt-Action rifles such as the breech-loading Chassepot rifle (introduced in 1867 following lessons learned in the war with Prussia). This, when easily compared to the somewhat out of date weapons the Carlists and Spanish government forces were using (many were still using the French P1851 Minie muzzle-loaded rifle) meant that the French would be able to hold out against the Carlists, as was shown at Caspe on 14 March 1872, and at Olot on 4 June. [5] Rivalries between Carlist commanders Francsec Savalls and Alfonso Carlos, the Duke of San Jaime (and Carlos VII’s younger brother) in Catalonia led to Alfonso leaving Catalonia for Naples on 3 September, while dissention due to Ramon Cabrera’s defection to the government’s side underminded the Carlist situation in the Basque Country. The capture of the Count of Caserta by North Italian soldiers when Bilbao fell to Government soldiers sparked outrage and nearly led to war between North Italy and the Two Sicilies, which was only quelled by mediation from King Joachim of Central Italy, with the Count of Caserta being allowed to return to Naples.

The war perceived as lost; Carlos VII left Spain from Valencia on 25 November 1872, managing to evade capture and flee to join his brother at Naples. The government was able to breathe a sigh of relief, as the conflict was now over. However, the problem of who was going to rule Spain was still to be decided. French diplomats met with members of the Spanish Cortes, many within the chamber tired of unpopular governments, revolts, and coup attempts. The Cortes would agree to allow Alfonso, the old Prince of Asturias, to return to Spain as King, and the regency allowed to continue under Serrano. Isabella II, the old Queen of Spain, was to remain in exile, and would spend the rest of her days in Paris until her death in 1904. The Constitution of 1869 would remain in full force, rather than be repealed and replaced. [6]

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Alfonso XII de Borbón, the new King of Spain


The 15-year old Prince of Asturias would become King Alfonso XII (The last king named Alfonso was Alfonso XI of Castile & Leon, and there were only 4 Kings from Aragon named Alfonso) on 25 June 1873, with the regency continuing until November that same year. It seemed that with Alfonso as King, and with some semblance of order between Conservatives and Liberals, Spain would see stability for the first time since 1808.

Two years later, Spain, France, Sardinia and the Two Sicilies signed the Agreement of Villafranca, proclaimed on 1 July 1875. The agreement stated a 15 million peso indemnity from Spain to North Italy as costs for the death of their beloved prince. The agreement also stated that neither Carlos VII, his brother Prince Alfonso, nor their heirs would ever again return to Spain. It was a steep price to pay for the Carlists, who was severely weakened as a result of this war. But the Agreement failed to remedy the now bad blood set between Turin and Naples. This, coupled with North Italy’s mistrust with Central Italy, has now started to threaten the unity of the Italian Confederation.

[1]: Unlike many of the Western and Central European Nations, the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies supported the Carlist Movement ITTL, albeit not openly so as to earn the ire of the rest of the European community. This isn’t too far from the truth, as in OTL, Alfonso de Borbone, the Heir to the (by that time defunct) Sicilian throne, served as one of Carlos VII’s generals. The volunteers were Sicilian soldiers assigned to protect him, and to serve Carlist interests, which coincide with his own.

[2]: IOTL, there was a failed attempt that led to Carlos VII temporarily retreating into France. ITTL, recognizing how small the force was and without leaders who jumped the gun too soon, they were able to focus more on building a sizeable army, a total of 135, 000 TTL versus the 100,000 the Carlists actually fielded IOTL.

[3]: IOTL, Juan Prim was assassinated and Amadeus would still go on to become King. ITTL, it’s more of the inverse, with Amadeus dead and Juan Prim alive.

[4]: The Siege of Bilbao, which had occurred two years later IOTL, ended with a victory for the government.

[5]: The Battle of Olot was a Carlist victory IOTL, and served to help prolong the conflict another year.

[6]: IOTL, the restoration of Bourbon rule was marked with the Spanish Constitution of 1876, a modified version of the 1845 Moderate Constitution using ideas and basic freedoms drawn from the 1869 Constitution.
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Author's Note: Due to some family emergencies, there were quite a number of delays, but this is finally out. Two more chapters to go before we finally conclude Europe and the first part of this timeline.
 

Razgriz 2K9

Banned
Chapter XIX: Je Maintiendrai
1852-1870
The Low Countries

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Flags of the Kingdom of Belgium and the Kingdom of the Netherlands


It had already been over twenty years since the Belgian Revolution saw the independence of Belgium from the Dutch. While they originally were the same people with the same customs and culture, the differences in terms of language (The Netherlands spoke primarily Dutch while Belgium spoke either French or Dutch) and religion (Belgium was predominantly Roman Catholic while the Netherlands were predominantly of the Dutch Reformed Church, a Protestant group) finally drove the two Netherlands apart for good. Yet despite the division of the United Netherlands, there was much progress to be found in these two Kingdoms. Here we will explore both the Kingdom of Belgium, under the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, under the House of Orange-Nassau as they flesh out the future of their nations and their role in the global community.

The Kingdom of Belgium:


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Leopold I von Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and his son and successor, Leopold II, the first two Kings of Belgium


The Kingdom of Belgium was created in 1831 as an act of independence from the Netherlands, a result of the Belgian revolution and the subsequent crisis that plagued the Low Countries throughout the 1830’s. Led by Leopold I, who became Belgium’s first King, the nation successfully brought itself into the British sphere of influence, which culminated in the marriage of his nephew, Prince Albert von Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Victoria I von Hannover, the Queen Regnant of Great Britain in 1840. He was also responsible for helping in influencing her during the early years of Victoria’s reign.

Belgium even when it was still a part of the United Netherlands was an ideal model for the industrial revolution in the 19th century. Cheap coal was the major factor behind the immigration of entrepreneurs. With the advent of railroading, the Belgian Government funded a simple cross-shaped system to connect Belgium’s major cities.

Belgian politics were largely divided between the Liberal Party and the various conservative factions, the predecessor to the Belgian Catholic Party (and later the modern Christian Democratic Party) [1]. One such issue that came about during the 1850’s and 1860’s was the address of the Flemish minority, achieved through Christian Party Prime Minister Pierre de Decker, who became Prime Minister on 30 March 1855. In his speech to the Belgian Parliament, he spoke to them in the Dutch Language. Throughout his term, he attempted, with some success, to push through educational reform by combining the moderate elements of both Christian and Liberal Parties. Decker later stepped down in favor of the return of Charles Rogier, much of it due to the work of WalthèreFrère-Orban's La mainmorte et la charité (The dead hand and charity), and whose rule continued even to the death of Leopold I and the accession of Leopold II von Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1865.

Kingdom of the Netherlands:


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William III van Oranje-Nassau, King of the Netherlands


The Netherlands was the successor state to the Old Dutch Republic, which fell in 1795, as well as the successive Batavian Republic (1795-1806) and the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland (1806-1810). Yet for much of its history since independence (the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras notwithstanding), the Netherlands were ruled by the House of Oranje-Nassau, a royal dynasty of French and German origins (through their ancestral holdings of the Principality of Orange in Southern France and the County of Nassau-Dietz, the predecessor to the Duchy of Nassau). But it would not be until 1815 that the Netherlands was officially made a Monarchy under its first Monarch, William I.

It would be under William III, who came to the throne in 1849, that the Netherlands would see a deal of reforms and governments equally shared by liberals and conservatives. The period of the mid and late 19th century was seen as a period of cultural revival, though realist and impressionist painting, symbolized by men such as Vincent Willem van Gogh, as well as in physics, thermodynamics and Mendellian genetics in biology.

Crisis did occur in the Netherlands, and that was the issue of religion. Since the formation of the Dutch monarchy, the official state church was the Dutch Reformed Church, of which the government took full control of in 1816. By the middle of the 19th century, over half the Dutch Population belonged to the Reformed Church, with another 35% belonging to the Roman Catholic Church and 10% belonging to other Protestant denominations.

A large and powerful sector of Protestants, some even within the Dutch Reformed Church, was secular liberals who sought to minimize religion’s influence in matters of state. They were opposed by conservative Protestants, who also faced opposition by the government when they tried to create separate communities. As a result, many Dutchmen fled to the New World. Some to the United States and Canada in North America, while in South America, some fled to Chile, Brazil or the various Dutch colonies still remaining in the Caribbean and Dutch Guiana.

In 1857, all religious instruction ended in public schools, but various churches would set up private schools and universities, this was followed in 1859 by the repeal of an old Napoleonic law prohibiting gatherings of more than 20 people.

Another issue was the state of affairs with the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Since the Congress of Vienna, the Netherlands and Luxembourg was united under a personal union. In 1856, William III instituted a reactionary constitution famously known as the “Coup” of 1856. It called for a restriction of freedom of the press, an increase of the poll tax, the reorganization of elections in the Luxembourgish Chamber of Deputies to include two classes of Deputies and a Council of State, modeled on the French equivalent of the same name. The Constitution did not last long in the end. By 1867, William III sold the Grand Duchy to the French Empire, as promised under the provisions of the Treaty of Frankfurt. [2] The move was seen as unpopular by many of the Dutch subjects, as well as to the members of the German Confederation, however, there was little protest from either France, its wartime ally Austria or from the British.

[1]: TTL’s Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams Party/Christian Democratic & Flemish Party, the Liberal Party will not change its name, and will be TTL’s equivalent of the VLD or Open Vid (full name Open Vlammse Liberalen en Democraten/Open Flemish Liberals & Democrats)

[2]: See Chapter XII


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Author's Note: The second half of the new update (Chapter XX) will arrive later today or tomorrow.
 

Razgriz 2K9

Banned
Chapter XX: The Palmerston Era
1857-1870
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland


The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the final step of the transition from personal to total rule of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland (the latter having been under personal union with various English, Scottish and British Kings since its elevation to Kingdom in 1541.) Even before the reign of Queen Victoria, Great Britain appeared to be at the center of the world, a world superpower, largely uncontested by anyone in the world, and the world’s premier trading and colonial power, with holdings in the Canada, the Caribbean, India, Australia and the like.

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Queen Victoria von Hanover of the United Kingdom

But it was also a strong parliamentary monarchy, the monarchs having little to do with the government, leaving political power at the hands of the elected Prime Ministers. This was exceptionally the case with the 1857 General Election, which saw the Conservative Party’s Earl of Derby, Edward Smith-Stanley, defeat Henry John Temple, the Viscount Palmerston of the British Whig Party. However one notable feature of this was the collapse of the Independent Irish Party, which sought to repeal the Ecclesiastical Titles Act, which banned Roman Catholic Bishops from assuming or re-assuming pre-reformation bishopric titles in Great Britain, as well as banned the wearing of clerical outfits. They also sought fair rent, free sale to help with Irish tenant farms and the fixity of tenure. But despite these idealistic goals, weak leaders and lack of support ended the party, with many of its members joining the Liberal Party.

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Conservative Party Leader Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby (left) and Liberal Party Leader Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston

Under Derby, Parliament passed the Jews Relief Act, allowing Jews to become Members of Parliament, thus helping to remove one of the many “Disabilities” the Jews had suffered throughout history. But Derby’s government was short lived, lasting a year before it collapsed, and returning Palmerston to power in 1859’s General Election.

Palmerston supported the Confederates in the American Civil War, but refused to intervene in the conflict, despite French requests for support. Yet despite British neutrality, they recognized Confederate Independence following their victory in early 1863. He also sought to protect Danish sovereignty through diplomacy, and even prevented the Austrian Navy from becoming a factor in the Second Schleswig War in 1864, however deep divisions of Palmerston’s cabinet nearly led to his censure, narrowly defeated by the House of Commons. Palmerston’s leadership helped the Liberals retain their majority in the 1865 General Election.

After the 1865 election, he had spent the early parts of his term dealing with the Fenians, a faction dedicated to armed revolution in support of an independent, Republican Ireland. Palmerston believed (albeit falsely) that the U.S. supported the Fenian movement as revenge for their recognition of the Confederacy, and ordered Lord John Wodehouse, the Irish Viceroy to suspend trial-by-jury and monitor American travelers to the Emerald Isle. He also advised more armaments be shipped to Canada and troops sent to Ireland, of which only the former was achieved after the passage of the Dominion Act of Canada in 1868. [1]

During the last years of his rule, he had sought with little success a defensive alliance with France against American interests in the West, while at the same time, courting Prussia against Russia. Both ended in failure after the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 ended with Prussia weakened and courting Russia, and also seeing France’s influence increase in the West. In Domestic affairs, he saw through, with the support of the Birmingham Education League, the passage of the Education Act of 1869 which helped to standardize the education of children between the ages of 5 to 12 in Great Britain, a Second Education act in 1884 would make the standards official throughout the Empire. This would be Palmerston’s last major act before retiring from politics later that same year. He would die a year later, two days before his 86th Birthday. [2]

Palmerston would be remembered as one of the greatest of British politicians, and it would be a role his successors (Liberal Party leader William Ewart Gladstone [3] and Conservative Party Leader Benjamin Disraeli, the latter succeeding the Earl of Derby) would try to base their careers on. Palmerston’s policies in domestic affairs would be continued during the Premiership of Gladstone, which continued into 1874, and again from 1880-1886, but his legacy in foreign affairs would help to shape Britains role in Global Politics for the remainder of the century.

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Palmerston's successor, William Ewart Gladstone (left) and Derby's successor, Benjamin Disraeli (right)

[1]: 1867 in OTL
[2]: ITTL, Palmerston did catch a chill but retired early rather than spent an hour and a half dawdling, which led him to have a worsening health condition. On a side note, while a state funeral was held, the Cabinet respected his wishes and he would be buried at Romsey Abbey rather than Westminster Abbey.
[3]: He was chosen as leader over the Earl Russell, John Russell.

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Author's Note: And with that we're done with Europe. For those still following, what would you like to see differently in this timeline? Would you want me to focus more on a particular region during a set period of time or would you rather it continue this way?
 
Continue this way, definetly!

I think this TL has a good combo of overview, description of politics and awesomeness!

Keep it up my good sir, and I await the next update eagerly!
 

Razgriz 2K9

Banned
Heya folks, Razgriz 2K9 here. Now, I bet your wondering why I haven't been able to update this timeline here. Well you see, my laptop is crapping out due to it being prone to overheating...so I might not be able to make updates as quickly as I used too...

Despite this I will try to get some going on hopefully, and I'll start with this one.

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PART II: DE LIBERALES Y CONSERVADORES

Chapter XXI: En Dios Confiamos
1854-1870
Central America

It had only been fifteen years since the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America, and since its dissolution, the six member states of the former Federal Republic (five after 1848, when Los Altos was divided between Mexico and Guatemala) had tried their best to create their own personal states, while others tried to recreate the union. One such attempt, by embattled Costa Rican President (and in his tenure, the final President of Central America, as well as former head of state for Honduras and El Salvador) attempted to forge a large army in the attempt to recreate the Union, but he would eventually be turned on by the populace, and unceremoniously executed on 15 September. A more recent attempt came in 1852, when El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua attempted, and nearly succeeded in creating the Federation of Central America, but it collapsed within a month.

Despite the failures of reunification, many of the member states did wish to bring themselves together, only prevented by chronic instability by many nations. A common theme of instability throughout much of Spanish America was the ongoing conflict between Liberals and Conservatives, often causing bloodshed and putting military strongmen in power. Had it not been for the United States and Great Britain, many of the Central American States would have most likely falling to opportunistic powers such as Spain. Yet the U.S. and the U.K. themselves were opportunistic powers themselves, and the feelings of Manifest Destiny, especially such extreme cases like Continentalism (where the U.S. was destined to bring all of North America under its direct rule) and Filibusterism were things that threatened the livelihood of the Central American Republics.

Here we will look at and analyze the five states of Central America and see how they developed, either to maintain independence or to seek something greater:

Republic of Guatemala:

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The flags of Guatemala (left from 1851-1858 and right from 1858 onwards)

For Guatemala, the 1850’s and much of the 1860’s were dominated by the rule of Rafael Carrerra, the man responsible for the fall of the old United Provinces of Central America. During his presidency, Carrerra restored relations with the Papacy, and prevented the liberals’ destruction of the culture of the Native Americans living in the region. He passed various economic policies that helped to please conservative landowners. In 1854, Carrerra declared himself Supreme and perpetual leader of the nation, a position he would hold for the remainder of his life.

The remainder of Carrerra’s leadership was spent warring with the Guatemalan liberals at home and at war with Honduras and El Salvador in 1863. Despite early Salvadoran-Honduran success, the tide was turned at the Battle of Coatepeque, within the Guatemalan Department of Quetzaltenango in July 1863. Guatemalan victory in the battle led to the occupation of San Salvador and later dominating Honduras in battle the following year [1]. Carrerra’s death in 1865 led to the accession of his handpicked successor, Vicente Cerna Sandoval as President, and would remain in that position until 1873.

Republic of El Salvador:

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Flag of El Salvador

El Salvador also saw Conservative dominance during the 1850’s and 1860’s. However, unlike Carrerra, who dominated Guatemalan politics for the duration, it was dominated by many from the Salvadorian Conservative Party. Two of their prominent members who served as President was Francisco Dueñas and José María San Martín. In April, an earthquake devastated San Salvador, forcing then president San Martín to temporarily relocate his capital to Nueva San Salvador, while a cholera outbreak in 1857 as a result of the Nicaraguan Civil War and the subsequent Campaign of 1857 (known across Central America as the National War) led to the ouster of the conservative President of the time, Rafael Campo.

The Following Year, Geraldo Barrios became President of El Salvador, the first Liberal to be president since 1851. Barrios introduced coffee production in Central America, and would become the dominant part of the economy for decades to come. He also reorganized public finances, created a professional army, and sought divisions between church and state when it came to public education. It was the latter that would cause the greatest trouble, as Conservatives sought to attack him for his anti-clerical policies; the attacks alone caused an adversarial shift between El Salvador and Guatemala, despite Barrios’ attempts for friendly relations. This would lead to war with Guatemala, which was soon lost when San Salvador fell on 26 October 1863, followed by Barrios’ capture and execution in August the following year. Francisco Dueñas would be restored to rule, and would remain until he was ousted in 1871.

Republic of Honduras:

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Flag of Honduras, adopted in 1866

Honduras, compared to Guatemala and El Salvador, was ruled by a liberal government after the failure of the government of Conservative leader Juan Lindo. The first major leader of Honduras was José Trinidad Cabañas, who focused on public education (he used tax revenue to establish 50 public schools in Honduras), agriculture (he, like Barrios later did in El Salvador, promoted the coffee industry) and mining. Unfortunately, his reign was cut short by war with Guatemala (1853-1856) of which Cabañas’ defeat at the Battle of Masaguara (6 October 1855) saw him deposed and replaced by Conservative leader José Santos Guardiola.

The National War brought a period of peace to Honduras in order to combat William Walker, a peace that continued until Walker’s attempt at taking over Honduras led to his execution by Honduran soldiers in 1860. During this period, Guardiola was able to successfully negotiate and acquired the Isla de la Bahía (Bay Islands). But upon Walkers death in 1860, Guardiola would be assassinated by his honor guard, leading to a power vacuum that would be settled between Liberal leader Victoriano Castellanos and Conservative leader José María Medina, a battle that Medina would win after Honduras’ defeat by Guatemala’s hands in 1864.

Nicaraguan Civil War and the National War:

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Flag of Nicaragua after the Campaign of 1857

Nicaragua suffered just as greatly from the instability that came from the fall of the Central American union and subsequently, the conflict between liberals and conservatives. This conflict brought about civil war in 1854 in Nicaragua, where the conservative Legitimist Party under Fruto Chamorro warred with the liberal Democratic Party under Francisco Castellon. Coming near total defeat, Castellon offered a contract to William Walker, an adventurer who previously sought to create an independent state, the Republic of Sonora, from Mexico. With a force of roughly 300 men, Walker arrived in Nicaragua, where he led the Nicaraguan Democratic Army to a crushing victory over their Legitimist counterparts in the Battle of Rivas (29 June 1855), before finally capturing the Legitimist Capital of Granada the following month. [2] Castellon, having died due to a cholera outbreak, would be replaced by Patricio Rivas, handpicked by Walker himself, and enjoyed recognition by the U.S. Government under Franklin Pierce in 1856.

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William Walker

Walker used this opportunity to try and create a new united and powerful Central America, and scared his neighbors with his plans of further military conquests. Eventually, Juan Rafael Mora, President of Costa Rica, declared war on Walker’s regime. Attempts to invade Costa Rica were met with failure at the Battle of Santa Rosa on 22 April 1856.

Costa Rica gained an unlikely benefactor in the form of railroad tycoon Cornelius Vanderbilt, who supplied the Costa Rican Army with arms and men as well as helping to deny such supplies to Walker. This would prove helpful in the Second Battle of Rivas (11 April 1856), where Costa Rica defeated the Nicaraguan army. However, the crude treatment of the dead bodies led to an outbreak of cholera, which spread all across Central America, and decimating the population. Walker then launched a coup of his own, installing himself as President and seeking to Americanize the country. This move alienated the Nicaraguans, and they united against his rule, culminating in a final victory over Walker in September 1856 in San Jacinto, followed by the capture of his capital of Granada. Walker was able to successfully escape however, surrendering himself to Commodore William Mervine of the U.S. Navy, and return to New York by the end of the year.

The William Walker crisis helped to begin the process of restoring order to Nicaragua. It discredited the Liberal Party to the point where it was almost removed from existence. This began a period of Conservative rule that would last until the 1890’s.

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Flag of Costa Rica

Costa Rica however, being ruled by the Liberal Party since its inception, would see a series of coups occur against rivals within their own party, thus continuing a period of instability that like many of its neighbors would plague the country for a long period of its history.

[1]: The Guatemalan-Salvadorian War ended in 1865 OTL.
[2]: Walker lost the battle to the Legitimists, but it was a pyrrhic defeat, which would lead to Walker’s victory in La Virgen in the fall.
 

Razgriz 2K9

Banned
Chapter XXII: Liberty and Order
1852-1863
Republic of New Granada/Grenadine Confederation/Republic of Colombia

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Flag of the Republic of New Granada, and the Grenadine Confederation

The Republic of New Granada was one of the three successor states of the old Gran Colombia (the other two being Ecuador and Venezuela), and since its independence from Spain (achieved in 1819) has seen a reasonably, but not fully, stable regime.

This came to an end with the events leading up to and after the Constitutional Reform of 1853, and the subsequent coup that put an end to the Presidency of José Maria Obando by José Maria Melo. Despite his attempts to retain power after the coup in 1854, he was ousted by a coalition, led by José de Obaldía, but the Presidency would remain vacant during that period. The New Granadan President at the time, Mariano Ospina Rodríguez, established a new constitution calling on answers for a greater degree of decentralization. Renamed the Granadine Confederation, the 35 Provinces were reformed into 8 federal, sovereign states, with Santa Fe de Bogotá remaining the capital of the state. Each state had its own legislature and could elect its own President. More power and representation was given to the states, rather than the federal government. The position of Vice President was abolished and replaced by a dignitary named by Colombia’s congress.

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Mariano Ospina Rodriguez, President of the Grenadine Confederation

However, despite the Constitutions legalizing Federalism as the form of government, Rodríguez began to move towards centralization of the country. This came to a head in 1859, when two new laws were passed. One allowed Rodríguez to remove the State Presidents and appoint another of his choosing, the other allowed the President to create Administrative Departments in any state so as to control how the resources would be used.

These laws were seen as the final straw for the Liberal Party of Colombia. The person most against these policies was a former President of New Granada, Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera, who requested the support of other liberals to revolt against the Rodríguez government. On 8 May 1860, Mosquera was able to garner enough support to declare his Sovereign State Cauca a separate nation from the Confederation. This event threatened to bring the country into a state of civil war.

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Tomas Cipriano de Mosquera y Arboela, President of the Sovereign State of Cauca

Mosquera would see support from many sovereign states within Colombia, and was preparing to march on Bogota, begun on 28 August 1860. But the plan would end just before it started. The following day, an agreement was formed where, in exchange for the disbandment of the rebel army, and the retirement of Mosquera to Cauca, he would be granted the position of President of the Grenadine Confederacy. In what some would see as a betrayal of the Conservative Party, Ospina ratified the agreement, and effectively resigned the Presidency on 4 September, transferring power to Mosquera. [1] However, Ospina would retain some semblance of power in the new government, in hopes that he can work with Mosquera in curbing the more radical elements of the liberal parties, and thus preserve a degree of conservative power.

Mosquera and Ospina indeed saw several conflicts between them despite the semblance of peace. The conflict over the status of the Catholic Church in the affairs of the Republic was one of heated argument. Mosquera and the liberals wanted not only complete separation, of church and state, but also hoped to control the Church in Colombia. Ospina sought to centralize the state in hopes of curbing the threat of the states and their autonomous natures and prevent Colombia from breaking apart into multiple states. A major incident did occur in 1862, where Panama threatened to secede from the Union, a move that would be reciprocated in the Magdalena Province. It served as a wakeup call to Mosquera, and quickly saw himself work with Ospina in finding a lasting solution to this matter.

Working with the states, as well as negotiating with the rebel states, the various parties started to come together in order to begin writing a new Constitution. This Constitution of 1863 [2], saw the renaming of the Grenadine Confederation to the Republic of Colombia, returning to the name it originally had in the 1830’s. The federal structure was retained, and the nine states were kept as such. The position of Vice president was reinstated, to be elected along with the President, in a similar matter to that of the United States. The Colombian military would be banned from the affairs of politics, in hopes of preventing military strongmen from destabilizing the country. Freedom of speech, the press, education, religion, (although Catholicism would retain a (albeit small) degree of special rights towards the government) and the right to bear arms was practiced. An alternating period of rule between Liberals and Conservatives would be practiced under the veil of free and fair elections, and presidents are only allowed to have a non-renewable five year term as President.

While further reforms would be made to the constitution over the course of the 19th and into the 20th centuries, the Colombian Constitution of 1863 would serve as a beacon of stability in the conflict between liberals and conservatives in the foreseeable future.

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Flag of the Republic of Colombia

[1]: IOTL, Ospina refused to ratify, and it led to the Colombian Civil War, which still ended with Mosquera and the liberals winning out at the end…

[2]: Different from OTL’s 1863 constitution. TTL version I’ve used influences from both the U.S. Constitution, as well as the 1858 (Grenadine Confederation), 1863 (United States of Colombia), the 1886 and the 1991 Constitutions.
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Author's Notes: Figured I'd try to change up Colombia's fortunes. Now, I don't know, nor would I think that Ospina ratifying the document that would surrender himself the Presidency in exchange for peace would be possible, nor would he work with his rival in Mosquera, but I feel that Colombia deserves much to be stable.

Next up, we go to Ecuador, where things...are going to go downhill.
 
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