Part II: The Danube War
Shortly after the coronation of Maximilian, a major dispute arose between Russia and the Ottoman Empire over control and influence in the Balkans and the Middle East that would . Russia had already occupied the Danube Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1829, which had an Orthodox majority and reduced the de jure Ottoman control of the region into a mere formality. Eastwards, Russia seized the Caucasian and Circassian land and committed genocide against the Muslim majority. However, the dispute that would finally lead the great powers of Western Europe to declare war on Russia came when Russia demanded the right for Orthodox priests to guard the Christian shrines in Jerusalem, then part of the Ottoman Empire. Although Orthodox priests traditionally had this right, for many years this was done by Catholics. France stood up against Russia, supported by Britain and the Ottomans themselves. Maximilian immediately threw his support for the French and British, surprising many international observers who believed he would support Russia for the suppression of the 1848 Revolutions. Over 300 000 soldiers were mobilized on the Russian border, and in the October of 1853, war broke out between Russia and the Austro-Ottoman coalition.
Galicia was reduced to a bloodbath. Although the Ottomans were rapidly able to take Wallachia, Austria bore the brunt of the Russian advance. The Russians were 700 000 strong, and known for their siege warfare. The first major Russian advance into Galicia saw fighting in the border-town of Husiatyn, in which a brigade of Austrian troops were outflanked and destroyed by advancing Cossacks and Russian line infantry. The first major defeat began when the western wing of the Russian army engaged the Austrian army at the town of Mechau to the north of Krakow. Using light cavalry to screen their positions, the Russians were able to launch assaults on what were assumed to be the weak points of the Austrian Army. In many cases, the advancing troops were killed by Austrian rifles before they could reach a point where they could use their muskets effectively, but the relentless assault of weak points combined with the poor training of most Austrian troops meant that there was little resistance once the assaults had begun. The defeat at Lyschansk was similar, and in addition was bolstered by a lack of initiative which resulted in a flank attack. The Austrians were forced into the Carpathian mountains, where new difficulties were encounterd. The winter of 1853 claimed the lives of 30 000 Austrian soldiers, as frostbite and hypothermia set in. Roads were virtually nonexistent, and so
In addition, many Poles and Ukrainians were present on both sides. Although the Austrian Slavs were split up into a number of different regiments and were not present in large numbers, those who were deployed in the Galician front were often forced to fight family and fellow Slavs, leading to low morale[1]. The cities of Krakow and Lemberg were besieged. The Austrians were forced to retreat into the Carpathians, where thousands of soldiers died of frostbite in the mountains.
Meanwhile, a smaller force (of some 80 000) were detached to take Moldavia. This force was met with hardship as well: the northern Corps was set back at the Battle of Leorda, where the Russians heavily fortified the town prior to attack. The Austrians were unprepared to attack, and while they were eventually successful in taking the town, it took two days and half their initial force was killed in the process. To the south, the central Corps was halted entirely at the Battle of Targu Ocna in November 26, as the Grenzers (Romanian border infantry who were renowned for their skirmishing and close combat) failed to take advantage of high ground and instead were deployed as line infantry, leading to their defeat and snowing in for the winter. The southern Corps and the surviving northern Corps managed to meet with Ottoman troops to besiege Jassy, the capital of Moldavia, which was itself a logistical and organizational disaster. Although over 120 000 troops were involved in the siege (40 000 Austrian and 80 000 Ottoman), like their counterparts in the northern Carpathians, nearly a third of these died due to frostbite, disease and lack of supplies.
Despite numerous setbacks in the previous year, the spring of 1854 proved to be decisive. The spring thaw meant that reinforcements could arrive at major battlefields, facilitating the Austrian troops there. Although the lack of men in the Galician front meant that little gains could be made, the arrival of fresh troops at Jassy meant that meaningful assaults on the enemy lines were possible. In April 19 the Austrians finally assaulted the fortifications of Jassy, and after a four day battle of hand-to-hand combat the city finally fell. In May, the British and French finally declared war on Russia, and fresh troops on the Wallachian coast were secured. Sweeping advances into northern Moldavia began, which forced Russian troops to withdraw from Galicia. By August, most of Moldavia was taken, and the Russians were forced to sue for peace. At the Treaty of Paris, it was agreed to set up the Danube Principalities as a separate Kingdom of Rumania. Prince Frederick of Württemberg, a neutral ruler, was eventually chosen to become the King of Rumania. The dispute that began the war was resolved by affirming the current Catholic priests to guard the shrines. In addition, reparations had to be paid by Russia to Austria to pay for the damages inflicted by Russian troops in Galicia.
After the Danube War ended, Maximilian began an official government commission to determine the cause of the numerous military failures during the war. The commission reached its conclusions in 1855, and stated that the nepotism of military officers, who were chosen for social rank rather than competence, the lack of proper training for the Army (what training that was there were parade-ground drills rather than combat), and poor logistics were cited. Maximilian ordered military reforms at once. Over the years, generals who were deemed to exhibit poor conduct during the war were fired regardless of rank, and new generals who were to study military strategy and tactics were replaced. The Augustin rifles were replaced with repeating, breechloading rifles manufactured by Friedrich von Martini similar to what were used by Austrian light infantry during the Napoleonic Wars. Most of all, in the event that another war between Russia would break out, a system of roads, depots and fortifications were built in the Carpathians in Galicia to prevent another calamity from occurring. Such preparations were not unwarranted.
[1]However, note that the low morale faced by the Slavs in the Austrian side were often exaggerated by right wing German historians who tried to discredit the Slavs, and Polish and Ukrainian nationalists who were eager to emphasise the idea of Habsburg and Romanov Emperors forcing brothers to fight, especially as the majority of the fighting in the Galician front were done by Hungarians and Germans.