The Desert Sands- an alternate history from the 7th century AD

[TheSlovakPatriot]

Listo f geographic names and their OTL equivalents:

• Adarbaigan =Iranian Azerbaijan
• Albania= Azerbaijan
  
• Assyria= northern Iraq (including Irasqi Kurdistan)
• Betica= Andalusia
• Beth Qatriye= Qatar and UAE
  
• Ifriqia=Tunisia and ad Tripolitania
• Mazun= northern Oman
• Miaphysite = Oriental Orthodox
  
• Moritania= northern Morrocco, western and central Algeria
• Nabatea= Jordana and adjacent areas
• Orthodox=Eastern Orthodox
  
• Sogdia=Tajikistan and adjacent areas of Uzbekistan.
• Rhomania=Byzantien empire
• Vlachia= Romania

 

[Cuchulainn]

I have absolutely no idea what Ebionite is, i know Miaphysite is Christian but what the difference between it & other forms are… ?

 

[Arkenfolm]

Is this a no-Islam timeline?

A few comments. Why would it be "Moritania" when the proper Latin is "Mauretania", although I guess a later Mauretanian Romance language could derive it as Moritania. Likewise, "Ifriqia" is from Arabic, so unless the Arabs are there (without Islam they'd assimilate into the local population), it would simply be "Africa" or possibly "Vandalia" or a variant of it (or "Wandalia" since Punic lacked the /v/ sound or even "Andalia" going by the example of "Andalusia" which also comes from the name of the Vandals--and Punic will either be the majority language or be a MASSIVE influence on the African Romance there).

Your Assyria is also anachronistic, since Persian Assyria (Asoristan) was larger and included most of Central Iraq, and the other term "Syria" was basically the entire Fertile Crescent (as it was until 1918).

For your poll, the Arabs would be a mixture of Christians (probably Syriac or other Oriental Orthodox), Jews, and maybe Ebionites. It would all depend on tribal affiliation.

But otherwise, let's see what you have for your timeline.

 

[TheSlovakPatriot]

Part one: The aftermath of destruction
The last Rhomaic-Persian war of 602-628 weakened both of the engaged empires, weakened their strength and eaten their manpower.The Rhomaic Emperor Heraclius wished only one thing after the end of the war: peace, as long as it could last, so that his realm could regain its strength However, a new threat to the empire arises, from the south-east: The Arabs.Many Rhomaic historians compare the events of the 7th century to the time of the Collpase of the West. The Arabs, not unified, organized in numerous tribes attack the Rhomaic provinces of Oriens (Syria) , Egypt and Persian Mesopotamia.
In 634, there have been reports of the Quraysh tribe attacking the lower Euphrates valley in Mesopotamia. In 639, the Ghatafan tribe conquerred and deposed one on of the Rhomaic client states, the Ghassanid kingdom. The reports of fleeing Ghassanid tribesmen reached the Emperor, who had to deal with this new threat.

A ship reached the Golden Horn and a man, presenting himslef as Ephraim of Raphia hastily arrives at the imperial court . "Your Imperial majesty, I arrive from Caesarea, from the bid of the governor of Palestina Prima.The Judham, Bahra and Salih clans have already poured into Palestina Salutaris, and our countryside is being threatened by the constant incursions of the Ghatafan confederation. Unfortunatelly , our forces are too few to show them a decisive victory, so therefore we ask Your Imperial Majesty and His Majesty´s court, what hope we do have in arrival of supporting troops?"
The Emperor, Heraclius had to few troops which he could send to Palestine. He orderred that one fourth of the garrison in Egypt be moved into Palestina,but before the command reached Alexandria, Palestina was already plundered and decimated. The major cities, such as Ceasarea, Gaza, Ascalon and Jerusalem remained firmly under Rhomaic control, but the countryside was controlled by Arab chiefs.

Further incursions were also reported into Syria. In 634, at the Battle of Bostra resulted in a large Arab victory, and further skirmishes continue throughout Syria. In 634, the Arabs have besieged the city of Damascus. After the Monophysite bishop aided the invading Arabs, who were also the same religion (the Hanifa tribe). Later the city of Emessa was also conquerred. The decisive campaign led by the Emperor, resulted in Rhomaic reclaiming of control in Palestine, but no major engagement happenned.The Ghatafan clan quichly retreated east of the Jordan river and, with their allies the Bahra and Judham clans joined forces in the region of Pentapolis. The imperial forces were advancing in this direčction , and met at Yarmouk. Why the Imperial amry, despite being numerously superior failed, is still debated by many historians. Nevertheless, the most direct consequence was the loss of southern Levant to the advancing Arabs. Rhomaic control remained in a few cities on the coast, but not Jerusalem.
With most of the army defeated in Yarmouk, the Rhomaic empire orderred that the provinces of Mesopotamia, Osrrhoene, Euphratensis, Syria Salutaris and Syria Libanensis be abandonned. The garrissons of the remaining cities east of the coastal mountains were to retreat to the coast, as well as all Rhomaic officers.

In Persia, things were going bad. In 636, the Sassanids were defeated in the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah. The Persians, who before annexed the Lakhmid kingdom, now had to face a combined Lakhmid-Tamim force. The defeat, and a quick Arab campaign in Mesopotamia, mainly the conquest of Ctesiphon and Ninwe resulted in collapse of persian rule in Mesopotamia. Persias borders were now defined by the Zagros mountains.

Unfortunately the Berroe city (Aleppo) was also target of the invading Arabs. the Rhomaics defended it with much of their forces, but were quickly defeated. The result was an Arab march towards Antioch.
In 641, after the death of Herclius, there was a short peiod of joint rule of two Emperors, Constantine III. and Heraklonas. After four months, Constantine III. died, leaving Heraklonas asthe sole Emperor. soon enough, he was replaced by Constans II.(Constantien the Bearded)
----
Ebionites https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebionites (a Chirstian sect in Judaea and Hejaz having Islamic elements)
Yes Moritania by this time the local Latin language is shifting into a Berber-Romance language in Morrocco (similar to Latin in Gaul shifting to Old French)
By Assyria i meant basically all of Iraq north of Seleucia-Ctesiphon/Baghdad
I wanted the region around Tunisia to be called as derivate from the Roman name "Africa". Most of the area should be romance speaking by this period, with the Aures mountains sepaking Berber and Syrte region speaking Punic.

 

[John7755 يوحنا]

In all honesty I seriously doubt the Arabs convert in mass to any of these religions. I find it far more enjoyable to keep the pagan tradition and have it firmly solidified. Likely, it is the case that the Arabs remain pagan with hints of Christianity and Judaism, likely with new deities like Yahweh and Yesu (God of Thunder Yahweh and Yesu, Jesus).

 

[Cuchulainn]

I was reading something recently about the most important pagan Arab deity being a triumvirate of goddess's similar to the Celtic Morrigan… the maiden, the mother & the crone.

 

[Practical Lobster]

Without Islam, the Arabs would be a mix of Nestorians, Jews, and pagans for the forseeable future. In time there might be some major conversions, but Christianity would make rather slow inroads I think, compared to the newborn Islamic faith. Those Arabs who did convert would probably be Nestorians.

Have the Sassanians lost important garrison cities such as Nisibis? Either way with the loss of Mesopotamia I don't see their dynasty as long for this world. One of their generals or nobles will probably attempt a coup, what with the prestige of the dynasty so shattered. What region of Iran that new dynasty is from will have long term ramifications.

I do think it's rather strange that dispite this being a no-Islam timeline, the Arabs are doing roughly similar things in their conquest of the two great powers of the region. I wouldn't expect that, necessarily.

And a note on names: Sassanians tended to call the region you're calling Assyria Asoristan, the land of the Asorig. The Berber word for Africa would assuredly not be the same as the Arab word for it.

Edit: All of the poll options that are currently winning are in different ways the "right answer" - there'd be no single hegemonic religion, I expect. The rise of Islam was in many ways a sui generis event, simultaneously a religious and political revolution of sorts. Without equivalent circumstances, I doubt the Arab tribes would unify to the same degree. You'd see a lot more infighting on the basis of traditional rivalries rather than sectarian conflicts.

 

[TheSlovakPatriot]

Well Mesopotamia and the levant were most hit by the great Rhomaic-Persian war, meaning that the general hit for these regions would have been the highest. Also these regions had religious differences towards the core regions of these empires. Therefore, I guess that Mesopotamia and Syria would have been the first target. Similar to any nomads on the Pontic steppe(Ukraine) would settle in Pannonia.
I admit.. Iraq was namded Asoristan and area around Niniveh Garmakan/Beth Garmai.

 

[Practical Lobster]

Nineveh hadn't been a major urban center for centuries. The largest city in Garmagan would probably be Tagrit (modern day Takrit) - in general the population of the area, the forerunners to the Kurds, were rather nomadic and provided auxiliaries to the Sassanian army.

Given the disunity of the Arabs in this scenario - loose tribal alliances compared to a unified series of military expeditions under a single central leadership - I predict that Arab conquests will be much more transitory here.

Edit: and I'd like to ask whether or not Arbayestan, and cities like Nasibin and Mosil have fallen to Arab raids or if they're still independent/under Sassanian rule.

 

[TheSlovakPatriot]

Part two: The shadow under the pyramids
Things in Egypt were not going the correct way. The local populace were alienated by what at first seemde to be a religious dispute. The thing as, that the official state religion of the Rhomaic Empire was Orthodoxy, while the majority of the Copts were of a Miaphysite (or according to Orthodox, Monophysite) creed. The dispute was about wherther Jesus Christ had tow natures or one nature. What at first seemed as a religious dispute, was actually an ethnic one: Copts, that means, the majority of native Egyptians were devout to the Coptic Orthodx Church following the miaphysite doctrine, while Alexandrian Greeks and the Greek minority (governors, officers, and the elites) were Orthodox.
The Greek presence was mainly in Alexandria, but also in the other major town such as Phiom/Crocodilopolis, Oxyrhincus, Memphis,Neucratis and Diospolis. The rural areas had a Coptic majority.
Giving these factors, and the overall weakening of the empire, it seemed that it would have been a matter of time as of when Egypt would fall for the empire.
The governor of Egypt wanted to ease domestic tensions by appointing several Copts to important officies in the administrative and bureaucratic aparatus.

In 639, the Banu Hilal and Banu Hassan tribes, along with the Bani Suef tribe attack Egypt. The man in charge of Egypt was a certain Cyrus of Alexandria, a Greek. At first, the Arabs advanced quuickly and manage to take control of the eastern part of the Delta, with the chief city of Pelusium. The battle outside Heliopolis ended in a Rhomaic disaster. Soon, after hearing that the Arab commander Abu Zayd converted to Miaphyisite Christianity and adopted the name Yaqub. The news spread quichly, and the arabs have managed to take control of most of the country.

Cyrus sent a messenger to the Imperial Throne. Most of his faithful have retreated to Alexandria. The Arabs were marching towards the city, in order to besiege it. Without supporting armies, he could not withstand the attacking force.
"Your Imperial Majesty. We have ill news from Aegyptus" The Emperor, Constantine the Bearded frowned. The messenger spoke. " Governor Cyrus retreated to the great city of Alexandria, and all his forces came with him. The Copts are now on the side of the arabs, as one of their commanders adopted their religion. My governor asks, whether he should wait for supporting troops, or whether he should sail to the heart of the empire in order to save the emainig troops."

So Egypt is almost lost. He has been thinking of sending the troops guarding Cyrenaica (the Ifriqian forces were engaged in pacifying Berber raids), but another report came that the Banu Sulaym tribe has crossed the Nile and making intrusions towards Libya inferior (around Paraetonium). What he decided for was one of the most risky decisions that could have been made. He gathered all forces he could hastily , in constantinople, and dressed many farmesrs into uniforms, and set sail for Alexandria. He made sure the besieging army takes notice of the arriving host, and then invited the Arab tribe leaders for negotiations. He knew that Egypt would have been lost anyway, now the question was, whether Rhomaic influence can remain in the area or not. The conditions were simple: Yaqub was apointed as Exarch and Strategos of Egypt, with a defined yearly tribute (in grain and gold), and a number of Rhomaic "advisors". Yaqub accepted the deal, and Alexandria openned its gates to Yaqub , who enterred the city along with the Emperor.

Cyrus of Alexcandria was appointed to a lesser office in Cyprus. Yaqub appointed a Coptic nobleman, Sanutius, with basic governing duties, as these were not known to the tribal chief. In the following year, Cyrenaica was overwhelmed by the invading Banu Sulaym tribe.

As regarding the Levand , the Kalb tribe hasestablished a kingdom in Syria, while the Ghatafanid dynasty became rulers in Judea.

The Arabs settle in the Sinai peninsula, around Beni Suef town and Cairo, and on the eastern Nile banks. They settle also in former Roman Arabia, desert parts of Syria, and the Euphrates valley beneath Callinicium (while Tigris valley reains firmly Assyrian.)

 

[Arkenfolm]

That is an interesting idea--comparable to the Germanic rulers in Roman lands like Gaul. I think that that's a pretty plausible result for when the Arab migrations inevitably happen--Arab rulers gradually adopting the local culture.

Nineveh hadn't been a major urban center for centuries. The largest city in Garmagan would probably be Tagrit (modern day Takrit) - in general the population of the area, the forerunners to the Kurds, were rather nomadic and provided auxiliaries to the Sassanian army.

Given the disunity of the Arabs in this scenario - loose tribal alliances compared to a unified series of military expeditions under a single central leadership - I predict that Arab conquests will be much more transitory here.

Edit: and I'd like to ask whether or not Arbayestan, and cities like Nasibin and Mosil have fallen to Arab raids or if they're still independent/under Sassanian rule.

I thought the majority of the population was Aramaic-speaking (divided between several churches), I thought, with the proto-Kurds/other Iranic peoples being a minority? Also, an Arab state ruling that part of Mesopotamia could always center around Mosul as the Arabs in that region historically did, and Mosul is basically right across the river from Mosul. I'm not sure what it was called then--I know modern Assyrians call Mosul Nineveh, so it might've been called that back then? It's also a holy city to the various Assyrian churches because of associations with Jonah, so, any Arab rulers that convert into the church will find the city to be of more importance than Persia or Rome ever found it.

 

[Practical Lobster]

You're right - Garmakan was also home to the major Nestorian see at Karka. At least along the rivers (where all the economic important activity was) the population was primarily Assyrian/Asorig. However, the name of the province itself I've read is an allusion to an Iranian tribe from the area.

Arbayestan in particular had a large Iranian population, although it was named for the number of Arabs settled around Hatra, and its majority population was undoubtedly Assyrian. The reason I was asking about it is as a well fortified province with a martially inclined nomadic Iranian population, I expect it to be a tougher nut to crack than Mesopotamia. The back-and-forth wars with the Byzantines saw all the border cities very well taken care of in terms of defenses.

If they're calling Mosil Nineveh, that's not really correct, since we know the site of ancient Nineveh, and it's not the same. :X I agree though, that a given Nestorian dynasty would probably favor it over Tisifon with all of its imperial Sassanian connotations.

This latest post definitely makes sense - the Arabs choosing to adopt and accept Roman practices and assimilate rather than conquer.

 

[TheSlovakPatriot]

The major cities in Mesopotamia are in this timeline : Uruk ( lower Mesopotamia) , Babylon ( declining) , Hira, Seleucia-Ctesiphon, Takrit, Arbela and Ninwe (Assyrian name of Mosul). Also noteworthy are Assur and Hatra.
Mesopotamia up to Ninwe is conquerred by Arabs. The city of Nisibis is de iure still in Sassanid hands, but de facto independent. The historic Assyria -around Ninwe, Hatra, Assur, Takrit, Arbela, Karka experiences little Arab control and is ruled mostly by local Assyrian governors but formally dependent on Arab kings in Ctesiphon. Kurds inhabit the mountains of OTL Erbil, Shahrezor, Sulmaniyeh regions.

 

[TheSlovakPatriot]

Part three: The last of the Sassanids
Shahanshah Yazdegird III. knew that losing Asoristan was politically impassable. The area used to hold the capital, Ctesiphon. He raised a force of 100 000 men and marched through the Zagros mountains in order to conquer back Ctesiphon. The Battle of Nehavend resulted in a complete disaster for the Persians, since the Mesopotamian Arabs have organized a trap for the Persian forces.
The Shahanshah fled eastwards, but he was murdered in Merv.

Persia was now divided into several states: the Mihran dynasty assumed control over most of eastern and southern persia as well as the central parts. The Karen dynasty took control of the northeast, while an independent Tabaristan led by the Dabuyids emerged in the far north. Adarbaidagan also becomes independent.

In the meantime Arab tribes from El-Hasa overrun the Maisan province (historic Elam , OTL Khuzestan).
By this time, around 645 the Arab kingdom of Mesopotamia is loosing its strength, as the Arabs have to fight other introding Arabs arriving from the desert.Most of the Arabs east of the Euphrates assimilate into the local populace . This is aided by the fact that the Arabs converted to the Church of the East (knowing that so they could get the locals on their side). With Aramaic being the liturgical language (sometimes known as Syriac). This happened mainly during the office of Patriarch Maremmeh I. , when the local Arab king had himself baptised as Youhanan in 647.
Soon the Youhanid kingdom in Mesopotamia becomes more an Assyrian/Aramaic state rather than an Arab one, where the relationship between the king and patriarch is an unequal one, with the Patriarch having more influence than the king. The realm is actually held together mainly by the Patriarch, as the governors in their provinces work more or less independently on the throne.

On the other hand, the Arab principality in Maishan collapses early, since the Arabs do not have the support of the locals, and after the son of the founder dies, a large succession war occurs. An Assyrian, a certain Sargis of Jundishapur organizes a force of his own and waits until the Arab chiefs weaken themselves in this internal conflict. Then, by 670s, he becomes king of Maishan and Khuzestan.

Armenia uses its opportunity to regain independence, in 635 David Saharuni the marzpan of Armenia proclaims independence and is recognised by the Rhomaic empire. Nisibis accepts the suzerainty of the Arab prince in Osroene. ( of tbe Levant, we will deal in the next part).

 

[TheSlovakPatriot]

Here is a map of languages and religions in the time around 650 AD
(yellow is Ebionite, orange Orthodox,green Zoroastrain, brown Miaphysite, purple Nestorian

 

[TheSlovakPatriot]

Part four: A Greek ruling "Latins" in the Punic land

Ethnic groups in Exarchate of Africa: Red: Efricians (Latinate), brown-grey= Berbers, green: Punic

Gregory the patrician was an ethnic Greek , appointed as Exarch of Africa in 646.Gregory was a fierce pro-Chalcedonian, and was against the proposed religious compromise,m which was about to be brought over by the Emperor (who advocated a Monothelite stance). He decided, in 646, also to rebel agianst the Emperor, seing the Rhomaic incapability to hold Syria , Judea and Egypt. He declared himself Rex Africanum and minted his own coins. The Emperor made no reaction at first. Soon, he also gained sympathy of various local Berber chiefdoms and principalites, who recognized his suzerainity.
In the first years of his rule, there were no external threats. One of his plans was to attack westwards, take Septum and and the rhomaic province of Spania. However, these plans were halted, because just before launching a campaign, in 652 Yaqub of Egypt crushed the Banu Sulaym and conquerred their lands in Cyrenaica, and forced them, along with Banu Hilal and Banu Jami (who were exiled from Egypt after planning a coup), forcing them to move westwards, into Tripolitiania. The tribes have adopted Donatism as their religion, a Christian heresy still having a considerable support in Africa.
The Arabs quickly took control of Tripolitania without much fighting and advanced towards Sufetula, which was the second city of the realm.The Arabs were defeated (661) and retreated towards Tripolitania. However, Gregory was killed in the battle and was replaced by Gennadius. Gennadius pursued the same course as Gregory, so the Rhomaics organized a coup d´état and overthrew Gennadius . The new governor of Africa was Eleutherios, who assumed the throne in 665. By this time, the Arabs were advancing quickly, and conquerred the province of Byzacena. Meanwhile , his rule over Numidia collapsed, as Numidia became more-or less independent. Eleutherios now controlled only Zeugitana, a small area between Hippo Regius and Carthage.The rump area was reincorporated into the Rhomaic empire.

In the south, the Arabs founded the kingdom of Ifriqia,encompassing Byzacena and Tripolitania. They set up their capital in Hadrumetum and chose a Donatist Patriarch for the region.By this time the Donatists were already a small minority, (15%?) but as this became the religion of the ruling class, many peoiple converted back to Donatism to gain property or important offices. The Arab leader Abbas, has given his son a Punic name Hanno. The Arabs soon switch to the Punic language, which in turn is heavily Arabized.

 

[TheSlovakPatriot]

Map of religion in Arabia:

 

[Cuāuhtemōc]

Interesting TL.

 

[Arkenfolm]

Still interesting so far.

I think Punic and African Romance were pretty evenly spread along the coasts, with the interior a mixture of Berber, Punic, and African Romance. Most Berbers would've been assimilated outside of those in places like the Aures Mountains and the deep desert. So I think adopting Donatism will definitely do a lot to shift the language toward Punic in the long term, since African Romance was mostly associated with imperial control and the mainstream church.

But was Donatism even still alive in the 7th century? I thought it was an issue that mostly ended with the Vandal invasion, so it would either be Arians (possibly) or a brand new heresy (most probable, since the church in North Africa was a hotbed of heresy--and people fighting them like St. Augustine).

 

[TheSlovakPatriot]

Still interesting so far.

I think Punic and African Romance were pretty evenly spread along the coasts, with the interior a mixture of Berber, Punic, and African Romance. Most Berbers would've been assimilated outside of those in places like the Aures Mountains and the deep desert. So I think adopting Donatism will definitely do a lot to shift the language toward Punic in the long term, since African Romance was mostly associated with imperial control and the mainstream church.

But was Donatism even still alive in the 7th century? I thought it was an issue that mostly ended with the Vandal invasion, so it would either be Arians (possibly) or a brand new heresy (most probable, since the church in North Africa was a hotbed of heresy--and people fighting them like St. Augustine).

Besides Augustine, the only proof of Punic-speaking communities at such a late period is a series of trilingual funerary texts found in the Christian catacombs of Sirte, Libya: the gravestones are carved in Ancient Greek, Latin and Punic. It may have even survived the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, as the geographer al-Bakri describes a people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin or Coptic in Sirte, where spoken Punic survived well past written use.
Latin was, however, largely an urban and coastal speech; Carthaginian Punic continued to be spoken in inland and rural areas as late as the mid-5th century. It is probable that Berber languages were spoken in some areas as well. (Wikipedia)

donatism was loosing its influence by the time of the Vandal kingdom , so maybe a few isolated pockets could have survived...