Part 4: The Boot of Europe
Italian affairs took an interesting turn in the early 18th century, starting in 1714 with the Ottoman-Venetian War[1]. Hoping to regain the former territory of Morea, the Ottomans declared war on the Venetians who were in a week position in Greece. Relying on local Greek support the venetians had lightly garrisoned the region, however many orthodox Greeks felt oppressed by Italian rule, and some even remained reminiscent of the Ottoman millet system. The few Venetians troops would have been quickly defeated had it not been for the intervention of the Hapsburgs. Prince Eugene, having just returned from the War of Spanish Succession, marched an army from the north into the Ottoman lands securing a series of victories. Meanwhile, with Portuguese naval support negotiated by the Austrians, the Venetians defeated the Ottoman navy and managed to land reinforcements, relieving the siege of Corinth. On Crete, fresh Portuguese and Venetian soldiers launched attacks from the Venetian fortresses of Spinalonga, Gramvousa and Souda[2], reclaiming much of the island, and placing it once again under Venetian control.
Not having expected Austrian intervention, the Ottomans focused their efforts on the Austrians, with a few large battles, notably the battle of Belgrade. However by 1715, the Sultan sought to end the conflict before any more land was lost to the Austrians. In the Peace of Corinth the Venetians held onto Morea, quickly fortifying and increasing the garrison there, and regaining Crete. The Austrians made some gains in the north, restoring the former lands of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Portuguese for their part were compensated monetarily by the Venetians, and received a small indemnity from the Ottomans. While Venice had re-established its position in the eastern Mediterranean, it also revealed their dependence on the Austrians. A brief period of resurgence would follow the war, but ultimately the Venice was on the slippery slope of decline, exacerbated by the stirring of sentiment among their Greek population.
Italy was also witness to the rising power of the House of Savoy. Having become kings of Sicily following the Philip Wars, they continued to rise in power under Victor Amadeus II. With the blessing of his ally Felipe, or Philippe, Bourbon, he secured for his eldest son, Victor Amadeus, a marriage with Elisabeth Farnese, heiress of Parma. The Holy Roman Emperor however was incensed, claiming that Parma was an imperial fief. For the time being the last of the Farnese line continued to rule, with a general pro-Bourbon stance. A child was born in 1717, Antonio Emmanuel, which served to intensify the conflict. The Pope finally suggested mediation and in the Treaty of Bologna, the Emperor Charles VI agreed to the Savoy succession of Parma, in exchange for Savoy to drop all possible claims on Tuscany, as well as the recently re-adopted title of King of Jerusalem. In the agreement the Kingdom of Sicily accepted the pragmatic sanction of 1713, naming Maria Therese and her future husband as heirs to the Hapsburg Empire.
Victor Amadeus also sought greater influence outside of Italy. Having established a Sicilian navy, he set about using it. The Royal Sicilian Company or the Società Reale Siciliana, which ironically was financed largely by Genoan bankers, at first plied the Levant trade from the central position of Sicily. However in 1719 Philip Bourbon granted Victor Amadeus trading rights to the newly established city of Bourbonbourg on the Colbert river[3]. The company was the biggest seller of slaves to Louisiana from 1720-1722. The doors had been opened to the outside world, and while the Mediterranean remained their main haunt, their sights had been set further afield. When the king once again began persecuting the Vasdesi[4], and needed somewhere to send them, he found the solution outside of Europe...
Meanwhile, in Tuscany, a succession crisis was keeping grand Duke Cosimo III busy. With only one infertile son as heir, he sought alternatives to follow him. Matters were complicated by the fact that both the Hapsburgs and the Bourbons claimed parts of the duchy as fiefs. But the Duke was determined that the Duchy should remain independent (from the Hapsburgs or Bourbons at least) and thus suggested a number of solutions: giving the duchy to his daughter Anna Maria Louisa despite salic law, or willing the duchy to the House of Este[5]. He even considered bequeathing the duchy to the Church, being a pious man, subject to dreams calling him to “advance the glory of St Peter”. It was even the reason for a number of accords between Cosimo and the Pope Clement XI easing the debt of the duchy. When the Treaty of Bologna pitted Hapsburg and Bourbon interests in Italy, the Pope used the opportunity to gain recognition of Cosimo’s will, leaving the Tuscany in papal hands after the extinction of the Medici male line. However, following the death of his only son Gian Gastone from overindulgence, both the Emperor and Cosimo had a change of mind. Charles insisted that a feudal overlord the duchy should revert to him, whereas Cosimo was entertaining the idea of restoring the Florentine Republic[5].
In 1720 the Tuscan question came to a head. While the Bourbons were occupied in the short Anglo-Bourbon War, the Emperor pushed ahead his claims on the duchy and marched a small occupying army into northern Tuscany by way of Modena. This in itself enraged the locals, but when the imperial army arrived, it found itself enduring attacks from small militia bands. Cosimo had rallied together the pitiful Tuscan army, but alongside him could be found a papal army and a large mercenary army paid for by mysterious benefactors. The imperial troops stayed long enough for a short skirmish before retreating back to Milan. Pope Paul thoroughly expected Charles to back down and sent a conciliatory offer of peace, however Charles refused. While many in Italy feared the Hapsburgs, in fact Charles was in a precarious position. The series of ruinous war fought since the beginning of the century had left the Empire heavily in debt. What’s more, his efforts to change the Bohemian and Hungarian constitutions to allow his daughter’s succession rankled many. The raising of taxes for the latest Italian War sparked rebellion in Bohemia and Hungary as well as Alsace.
The rebellion boosted confidence in Italy and the Pope was able to form the League of Florence with a mixture of promises of land, money or threats; an alliance of the Papal States, Tuscany, Modena, Naples (representing the Bourbon interests) and Sicily. This aggressive attitude was new among the small, disparate states, however financial aid from the Pope and the Bourbons allowed for the creation of armies, largely from Italian mercenaries. Meanwhile the republic of Venice fell into the Hapsburg camp, being forced to bear the brunt of attacks while Charles subdued the rebellions. A Sicilian army, under the command of the Prince of Piedmont, took Milan in early 1721 and then moved to occupy Brescia along with a contingent from Modena. A larger Papal-Neapolitan force marched on Venice, however they met an imperial army on the way and were forced back into Ferrara where battle was met. While a tactical defeat for the Austrians, whose greatest general, Prince Eugene of Savoy, was killed, it was a pyrrhic victory for papal forces that had to withdraw. A stalemate followed with the Austrians unable to send a war-winning army, and the Italian’s exhausted. Feelers were made for peace and Charles accepted.
The Treaty of Verona severely limited Hapsburg influence in Italy, effectively ending centuries of domination, reduced to the Duchy of Milan, which was only retained due to a general fear of further Sicilian expansion. Barred from territorial gains, Sicily negotiated a series of trade concession, particularly from the Venetians who were subsequently overtaken in the Mediterranean trading. As well as this, Victor Amadeus received a large sum of money from the losers. The House of Este received the duchy of Mantua, despite promises made of receiving Tuscany. Tuscany was transferred to papal authority except for Siena which was transferred to the Kingdom of Naples[6], returning to Bourbon control. Cosimo died during the negotiations and with him the Medici line.
While the war seemed rather minor on the face of it, subtle changes had occurred across the peninsula. For the first time in centuries, a foreign power had been defeated and the first shackle of Italy’s constraint removed. The Hapsburgs had managed to force the majority of the Italian states against it, and the first hints of nationalism started to show with the formation of joint armies. In Tuscany, where the wish of independence remained strong, the first whispers were heard of secularisation. And finally, the subtlest of all, the war had allowed the re-emerging bankers of Genoa to gain a greater control of the treasuries of almost every state. And we all know that money makes the world go round...
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[1] - The same war occured OTL, but without Austrain help from the start the Venetians lost Morea
[2] - These were the last remaining Venetian outposts on Crete. They also were lost along with Morea OTL
[3] - OTL's New Orléans, since the Duc D'Orléans whom the city was named after orginally has fallen somewhat into disregard, on the Mississippi river which at the time was known as Colbert river, and has never changed name.
[4] - Waldesians as we would know them, they are Protestants from the hills of savoy and piedmont. Known TTL by their Italian name due to them getting more limelight in the future, in Italy.
[5] - All these were possiblities considered by Cosimo OTL, but he changed his mind so often he never got any one else to agree to any.
[6] - The republic of Siena being a former Spanish fief, it's only right that it should go to the Bourbons of Naples now.
Sorry for the delay, but what with school and exams, I'm afraid updates might be sluggish until the holidays. Still, I shall push on...
