The Anglo-Saxon Social Model - The Expanded Universe
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Hanover, officially the United Kingdom of Hanover, is a country in northern Europe. It is bordered by the Commonwealth of Independent States to the east, the Nordic Union to the north, Hesse, the Rhineland and the European Benelux countries to the west and south, the North Sea to the northwest and the Baltic Sea to the northeast.
The area currently covered by Hanover was formerly a hodge-podge of nations divided between various German princes and the Danish realm. Over time, the territory came to be dominated by two entities, the Electorate of Hanover and the Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein, the latter of which was ruled by the Danish monarchs and the former by the House of Hanover, who were also the monarchs of Great Britain from 1714. Following the German national awakening during the Napoleonic Wars, popular movements grew in both regions for unification of some form with the Prussian-dominated Germanic Confederation. The Danish duchies of Schleswig-Holstein were annexed to Prussia in the Second Schleswig War (1864) and the same happened to Hanover following the Austro-Prussian War (1866).
The territories would remain part of Prussia throughout the existence of the German Empire (1871-1945) until its dissolution. Hanover would be brought under the British occupation zone, which was initially divided into the State of Hanover and the State of Schleswig before being amalgamated into the present United Kingdom of Hanover in May 1949. At the same time, the head of the House of Hanover was returned to the throne as a constitutional monarch. In the immediate postwar period, Hanover managed to avoid the worst effects of the Roosevelt Plan, helped by the fact that the region had not been one of pre-war Germany’s primary industrial sectors. The country was thus able to transition to a parliamentary democracy relatively smoothly amidst an environment of relative economic calm.
Under the Social Democratic premierships of Kurt Schumacher and Hinrich Kopf, the country developed a welfare state and a mixed-market economy which has been retained, with some modifications, ever since. Hanover is famous for its ministerial stability, with the country having only five chancellors between 1960 and 2020. Current Chancellor Sigmar Gabriel has been in office since 2013. The country has historically had a close relationship with the Commonwealth and is often (if inaccurately, because of its constitutional set-up) regarded as an Associated Republic because of the closeness of their relationship. Hanover had considered joining the Commonwealth, but opted to decline following a referendum in 2002 in which 76% of people voted to reject membership and another in 2018, which saw 55% of voters reject membership.
Hanover is considered a medium-sized power and the 11th largest economy in Europe by GDP (not including the multi-continental countries of Portugal, Benelux and the Commonwealth). Despite this low superficial ranking, Hanover is a continental leader in a number of industries, most notably finance (from the financial centre Hamburg), aerospace (it is home to Airbus, the largest non-American or Commonwealth aerospace company in the world) and renewable energy (100% of its electric power requirements have been met by renewables since 2004). Known for its long and rich cultural history, Hanover is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage sites and has a thriving tourism industry. Hanover is also a member of the United Nations, NATO, the World Bank Group and the International Clearing Union.
The area currently covered by Hanover was formerly a hodge-podge of nations divided between various German princes and the Danish realm. Over time, the territory came to be dominated by two entities, the Electorate of Hanover and the Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein, the latter of which was ruled by the Danish monarchs and the former by the House of Hanover, who were also the monarchs of Great Britain from 1714. Following the German national awakening during the Napoleonic Wars, popular movements grew in both regions for unification of some form with the Prussian-dominated Germanic Confederation. The Danish duchies of Schleswig-Holstein were annexed to Prussia in the Second Schleswig War (1864) and the same happened to Hanover following the Austro-Prussian War (1866).
The territories would remain part of Prussia throughout the existence of the German Empire (1871-1945) until its dissolution. Hanover would be brought under the British occupation zone, which was initially divided into the State of Hanover and the State of Schleswig before being amalgamated into the present United Kingdom of Hanover in May 1949. At the same time, the head of the House of Hanover was returned to the throne as a constitutional monarch. In the immediate postwar period, Hanover managed to avoid the worst effects of the Roosevelt Plan, helped by the fact that the region had not been one of pre-war Germany’s primary industrial sectors. The country was thus able to transition to a parliamentary democracy relatively smoothly amidst an environment of relative economic calm.
Under the Social Democratic premierships of Kurt Schumacher and Hinrich Kopf, the country developed a welfare state and a mixed-market economy which has been retained, with some modifications, ever since. Hanover is famous for its ministerial stability, with the country having only five chancellors between 1960 and 2020. Current Chancellor Sigmar Gabriel has been in office since 2013. The country has historically had a close relationship with the Commonwealth and is often (if inaccurately, because of its constitutional set-up) regarded as an Associated Republic because of the closeness of their relationship. Hanover had considered joining the Commonwealth, but opted to decline following a referendum in 2002 in which 76% of people voted to reject membership and another in 2018, which saw 55% of voters reject membership.
Hanover is considered a medium-sized power and the 11th largest economy in Europe by GDP (not including the multi-continental countries of Portugal, Benelux and the Commonwealth). Despite this low superficial ranking, Hanover is a continental leader in a number of industries, most notably finance (from the financial centre Hamburg), aerospace (it is home to Airbus, the largest non-American or Commonwealth aerospace company in the world) and renewable energy (100% of its electric power requirements have been met by renewables since 2004). Known for its long and rich cultural history, Hanover is home to eight UNESCO World Heritage sites and has a thriving tourism industry. Hanover is also a member of the United Nations, NATO, the World Bank Group and the International Clearing Union.
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Hesse, officially the Grand Duchy of Hesse, is a landlocked country situated in central Europe, bordered to the northeast by Hanover, the west and northwest by the Rhineland, the east by the Commonwealth of Independent States, the southwest by Baden-Wurttemberg and the southeast by Bavaria. With just over 6 million inhabitants, Hesse is the least populous Germanic country. It has an ethnically homogenous population but is more linguistically diverse, with Hessian and German spoken interchangeably by most inhabitants. The capital city is Darmstadt, while the historic city of Frankfurt is the largest population centre. Hesse is also the only remaining independent country to be a Grand Duchy.
The area of Hesse has been inhabited by Germanic tribes since at least Classical Antiquity and was only briefly brought within the territory of the Roman Empire. By the 7th century, it had been brought into the Frankish Empire. It was later absorbed into Thuringia before gaining independence as a Landgraviate within the Holy Roman Empire in 1264. In the subsequent centuries, the territory that is now Hesse was controlled, on the one hand, by the Grand Duchy of Hesse and, on the other, by Prussia. The Grand Duchy was absorbed into the Prussia-dominated German Empire in 1871 and was a member of the empire until its disestablishment in 1945.
Hesse came under the American occupation sphere and was delineated as “Greater Hessen” before being reestablished as the Grand Duchy in October 1947. By this time, it corresponded only loosely to the pre-war Grand Duchy, also comprising the territories of the Duchy of Nassau, the Free City of Frankfurt and the Electorate of Hesse-Cassel. Historically, this region had been home to significant industries (especially the chemical and pharmaceutical industries) and finance, particularly in Frankfurt, but the vast majority of these were removed and/or sold off by the Allied occupiers pursuant to the Roosevelt Plan.
Following the end of the occupation in 1947, there was a general undertaking to provide for democratic elections but these hopes would be unfulfilled. The only democratic chancellor, Ludwig Bergsträsser, was ousted in 1948, replaced by Philipp von Hesse (future Grand Duke Philipp I). Subsequent reforms of the electoral system has reduced the franchise to an estimated 2.5% of the population and most political power in the country is held jointly by the upper house Herrenhaus (composed of large landowners) and the Grand Duke.
In 2020, an estimated 25% of the Hessian population work in the agricultural economy. Other industries in the country include tourism, education and finance, with the latter two being centred in Frankfurt. In recent years, several secondary industries have returned to the country, although the majority are foreign owned. The country operates a relatively generous welfare state but is also known for its inequality, with the vast majority of its social, political and economic power being monopolised by a relatively small clique of landowning families.
The area of Hesse has been inhabited by Germanic tribes since at least Classical Antiquity and was only briefly brought within the territory of the Roman Empire. By the 7th century, it had been brought into the Frankish Empire. It was later absorbed into Thuringia before gaining independence as a Landgraviate within the Holy Roman Empire in 1264. In the subsequent centuries, the territory that is now Hesse was controlled, on the one hand, by the Grand Duchy of Hesse and, on the other, by Prussia. The Grand Duchy was absorbed into the Prussia-dominated German Empire in 1871 and was a member of the empire until its disestablishment in 1945.
Hesse came under the American occupation sphere and was delineated as “Greater Hessen” before being reestablished as the Grand Duchy in October 1947. By this time, it corresponded only loosely to the pre-war Grand Duchy, also comprising the territories of the Duchy of Nassau, the Free City of Frankfurt and the Electorate of Hesse-Cassel. Historically, this region had been home to significant industries (especially the chemical and pharmaceutical industries) and finance, particularly in Frankfurt, but the vast majority of these were removed and/or sold off by the Allied occupiers pursuant to the Roosevelt Plan.
Following the end of the occupation in 1947, there was a general undertaking to provide for democratic elections but these hopes would be unfulfilled. The only democratic chancellor, Ludwig Bergsträsser, was ousted in 1948, replaced by Philipp von Hesse (future Grand Duke Philipp I). Subsequent reforms of the electoral system has reduced the franchise to an estimated 2.5% of the population and most political power in the country is held jointly by the upper house Herrenhaus (composed of large landowners) and the Grand Duke.
In 2020, an estimated 25% of the Hessian population work in the agricultural economy. Other industries in the country include tourism, education and finance, with the latter two being centred in Frankfurt. In recent years, several secondary industries have returned to the country, although the majority are foreign owned. The country operates a relatively generous welfare state but is also known for its inequality, with the vast majority of its social, political and economic power being monopolised by a relatively small clique of landowning families.
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Indochina, officially the United Kingdoms of Indochina, is a country in southeast Asia. It is bordered to the east by the South China Sea, to the north by China, to the northwest by Burma, to the west by Thailand and to the south by Cochinchina. With an estimated 78.5 million people, the country is the 9th most populous in Asia and its capital and largest city is Hanoi. A federal constitutional monarchy, the country consists of four kingdoms each with federal powers.
Archeological excavations indicate that Indochina was inhabited as early as the Paleolithic age. The ancient Vietnamese nation, which was centered on the Red River valley, was annexed by the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century BC, paving the way for Chinese rule that lasted for over a millennium. Independent monarchies emerged in the 1st century AD and a succession of royal or imperial dynasties governed the region until it was colonised by the French over the course of the 19th century, giving Indochina its modern territorial form.
Following occupation by Kuomintang China during the World War, the country was returned to French control in 1945 but nascent independence movements threatened the returning colonial administration. In an attempt to placate nationalist sentiment, the country was divided into Cochinchina, Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos and the four became members of the French Union in 1946. However, while Cochinchina underwent rapid economic and social modernisation the other countries remained mostly rural and agricultural societies with their own demands for independence. Fragile power-sharing agreements broke down and Vietnam unilaterally declared independence in 1963, followed quickly by Cambodia and Laos.
Nationalist forces in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos conducted a vicious but ultimately successful fight against the French Union forces sent to pacify them. All three countries were granted their independence by the Paris Peace Accords in 1969. However, all three countries almost immediately faced major challenges to state-formation, as the newly-created nationalist governments faced insurgencies from far-left and far-right groups. These three civil wars were intimately connected early on and operations regularly crossed national borders. The Soviet-backed group the United Front for the Liberation of Indochina (“FULI”) operated in all theatres, seeking to reunify the region. Conflict intensified over the next few years until they were ended by a secret agreement between China and the Soviet Union in 1974, whereby the Soviets agreed to end their support for FULI in return for resolving various border disputes between its satellites and China. Later that year, China launched an invasion of the region, precipitating the Sino-Indochinese War, which was ended with Chinese victory and the imposition of the present political compromise.
Constitutionally, Indochina is a union of the four kingdoms of Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia and Laos. All of these countries have their own royal families (that of Tonkin being a junior branch of that of Annam’s) and local governments with substantial powers over their own regions. However, the Indochinese Nationalist Party is the sole legal political party and monopolises power at all levels. The Chief Executive is the head of state of the federation as a whole and since 2011 this position has been held by Nguyễn Phú Trọng, from Tonkin.
The country has had a close relationship with China since the conclusion of the Sino-Indochinese War and since that time has enjoyed a high GDP growth rate. It nevertheless continues to face challenges in the form of poverty, corruption, inadequate social welfare provision and a poor human rights record. It is a member of a number of international organisations including the United Nations, the International Clearing Union and the World Bank Group.
Archeological excavations indicate that Indochina was inhabited as early as the Paleolithic age. The ancient Vietnamese nation, which was centered on the Red River valley, was annexed by the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century BC, paving the way for Chinese rule that lasted for over a millennium. Independent monarchies emerged in the 1st century AD and a succession of royal or imperial dynasties governed the region until it was colonised by the French over the course of the 19th century, giving Indochina its modern territorial form.
Following occupation by Kuomintang China during the World War, the country was returned to French control in 1945 but nascent independence movements threatened the returning colonial administration. In an attempt to placate nationalist sentiment, the country was divided into Cochinchina, Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos and the four became members of the French Union in 1946. However, while Cochinchina underwent rapid economic and social modernisation the other countries remained mostly rural and agricultural societies with their own demands for independence. Fragile power-sharing agreements broke down and Vietnam unilaterally declared independence in 1963, followed quickly by Cambodia and Laos.
Nationalist forces in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos conducted a vicious but ultimately successful fight against the French Union forces sent to pacify them. All three countries were granted their independence by the Paris Peace Accords in 1969. However, all three countries almost immediately faced major challenges to state-formation, as the newly-created nationalist governments faced insurgencies from far-left and far-right groups. These three civil wars were intimately connected early on and operations regularly crossed national borders. The Soviet-backed group the United Front for the Liberation of Indochina (“FULI”) operated in all theatres, seeking to reunify the region. Conflict intensified over the next few years until they were ended by a secret agreement between China and the Soviet Union in 1974, whereby the Soviets agreed to end their support for FULI in return for resolving various border disputes between its satellites and China. Later that year, China launched an invasion of the region, precipitating the Sino-Indochinese War, which was ended with Chinese victory and the imposition of the present political compromise.
Constitutionally, Indochina is a union of the four kingdoms of Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia and Laos. All of these countries have their own royal families (that of Tonkin being a junior branch of that of Annam’s) and local governments with substantial powers over their own regions. However, the Indochinese Nationalist Party is the sole legal political party and monopolises power at all levels. The Chief Executive is the head of state of the federation as a whole and since 2011 this position has been held by Nguyễn Phú Trọng, from Tonkin.
The country has had a close relationship with China since the conclusion of the Sino-Indochinese War and since that time has enjoyed a high GDP growth rate. It nevertheless continues to face challenges in the form of poverty, corruption, inadequate social welfare provision and a poor human rights record. It is a member of a number of international organisations including the United Nations, the International Clearing Union and the World Bank Group.
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Just to say that I will put up a few more country inboxes and rankings up over the next week or so and then I'll be going on a bit of a hiatus. This TL won't be completely gone and I hope to return with something bigger in the new year. In the meantime, I might occasionally return with an update if something in particular tickles my fancy and I won't be locking the thread so please feel free to ask any and all questions and I promise an answer. Thanks to all of you who have been with me since I began the original narrative thread, which strikes me as an astonishing level of commitment...
Italy, officially the Kingdom of Italy, is a country in southern Europe consisting of most of a peninsula delimited by the Alps and surrounded by several islands. A federal constitutional monarchy with Rome as its capital, the country covers a total area of 279,809km2 and shares land borders with France, Switzerland and Austria to the north and with the enclaved microstates of Vatican City and San Marino. Italy also has a territorial exclave in Switzerland (Campione) and a maritime exclave in Tunisian waters (Lampedusa). With just under 60 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous country in Europe.
Due to its central geographic location in southern Europe and the Mediterranean, Italy has historically been home to several important peoples and cultures. Beginning in the classical era, Phoenicians, Cathaginians and Greeks established colonies on insular and southern Italy, while Etruscans and Celts inhabited the central and northern portions of the peninsula (respectively). A tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom in the 8th century BC, which eventually became a Republic and subsequently conquered and assimilated the rest of the peninsula as well as parts of Europe, Africa and Asia to become the Roman Empire. At its height, in the 2nd century AD, the Roman Empire achieved a level of economic prosperity that would not be achieved again in Europe until the 19th century.
Under the interlinked pressures of economics, demographic and institutional decline, along with the effects of recurrent barbarian invasions, the Roman Empire in the West collapsed in the 5th century and, for the next one-and-a-half thousand years, the Italian peninsula was divided between competing regimes. In the north and central regions, the peninsula was dominated by numerous rival city-states and maritime republics which served as major trading hubs with Asia and the Middle East. The central band of the peninsula was under the control of the theocratic Papal States and southern Italy remained largely feudal and underdeveloped, partially as a result of a succession of Roman, Arab, Norman, French and Spanish invasions of the region. However, the prosperity of much of the peninsula declined in the 18th century with the opening of new trade routes which bypassed the Mediterranean.
Rising Italian nationalism during and following the Napoleonic Wars ushered in a period of political upheaval in the 19th century. Italy was almost entirely unified in 1861 under the rule of the House of Savoy, ending centuries of political division. Following unification, the economy rapidly industrialised and the country acquired a colonial empire but the fruits of development were uneven, with most of the growth being confined to the north while the south remained impoverished, fueling a large and influential diaspora. Italy entered the Great War on the side of the Allies in 1918, playing a key role in the defeat of Austria-Hungary on the Balkan Front. However, the country was perceived as receiving a poor share of the spoils at the subsequent Treaty of Paris and this, combined with Italy suffering under the effects of the post-war recession, ushered in a period of political turmoil. Governments alternated between liberal technocratic regimes, military rule under Armando Diaz and dictatorship under Gabriele D'Annunzio.
Elections in May 1934 saw a coalition of socialist parties take power, which was interpreted by many as a rebuke to the monarchical regime. King Victor Emmanuel III abdicated the following day but the new socialist regime was almost immediately overthrown by a military-backed fascist coup which brought Rudolfo Graziani to power. Making irredentist claims to various territories in the Mediterranean, Italy entered the World War on the Axis side but this ended in defeat and the country under American and Commonwealth occupation.
A new constitution, returning the House of Savoy to power in a federal constitutional parliamentary monarchy, was instituted following a referendum and new elections in June 1946. Political power came to be constitutionally competed for between the centre-right Christian Democracy Party and the left wing Italian Communist Party (the latter of whom formally repudiated the Soviet Union in 1949 and made partial rapprochements with the monarchy and the Catholic Church in the 1950s). Under a mixed economy combining free market economics alongside social policies to establish fair competition, the Italian economy rapidly expanded over the course of the 1950s and 1960s.
Although the immediate postwar decades were dominated by Christian Democracy, a general leftward turn in Italian politics saw Enrico Berlinguer become President of the Council of Ministers at the head of a moderate Communist government. However, the assassination of Aldo Moro in 1988 by far-left terrorists signalled a rightward turn. The Communists would not return to power until 1998 under Romano Prodi after a significant moderate faction had taken power within the party. Since 2005, politics in Italy has been dominated by a succession of technocratic centre-right governments under Corrado Passera.
Today, Italy is a great power with a strong economy. It has the 10th largest GDP in the world, while also having the highest GDP per capita (ban52,559) of any country in the top 10 and the only country in the top 10 to have a population of under 100 million people. It is a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors with a number of companies, such as Fiat (automobiles), Fincantieri (shipbuilding), Telefonico (telecommunications and IT) and Monte di Paschi (banking), being world leaders in their field. A highly developed country with a very high standard of living, Italy offers social security and a universal healthcare system, environmental protections and free tertiary education. Italy is also a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G20, the International Clearing Union and the World Bank. Known for its long and rich cultural history, Italy is also the top tourist destination in the world, with over 89 million tourist arrivals in 2019 and 55 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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Italy, officially the Kingdom of Italy, is a country in southern Europe consisting of most of a peninsula delimited by the Alps and surrounded by several islands. A federal constitutional monarchy with Rome as its capital, the country covers a total area of 279,809km2 and shares land borders with France, Switzerland and Austria to the north and with the enclaved microstates of Vatican City and San Marino. Italy also has a territorial exclave in Switzerland (Campione) and a maritime exclave in Tunisian waters (Lampedusa). With just under 60 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous country in Europe.
Due to its central geographic location in southern Europe and the Mediterranean, Italy has historically been home to several important peoples and cultures. Beginning in the classical era, Phoenicians, Cathaginians and Greeks established colonies on insular and southern Italy, while Etruscans and Celts inhabited the central and northern portions of the peninsula (respectively). A tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom in the 8th century BC, which eventually became a Republic and subsequently conquered and assimilated the rest of the peninsula as well as parts of Europe, Africa and Asia to become the Roman Empire. At its height, in the 2nd century AD, the Roman Empire achieved a level of economic prosperity that would not be achieved again in Europe until the 19th century.
Under the interlinked pressures of economics, demographic and institutional decline, along with the effects of recurrent barbarian invasions, the Roman Empire in the West collapsed in the 5th century and, for the next one-and-a-half thousand years, the Italian peninsula was divided between competing regimes. In the north and central regions, the peninsula was dominated by numerous rival city-states and maritime republics which served as major trading hubs with Asia and the Middle East. The central band of the peninsula was under the control of the theocratic Papal States and southern Italy remained largely feudal and underdeveloped, partially as a result of a succession of Roman, Arab, Norman, French and Spanish invasions of the region. However, the prosperity of much of the peninsula declined in the 18th century with the opening of new trade routes which bypassed the Mediterranean.
Rising Italian nationalism during and following the Napoleonic Wars ushered in a period of political upheaval in the 19th century. Italy was almost entirely unified in 1861 under the rule of the House of Savoy, ending centuries of political division. Following unification, the economy rapidly industrialised and the country acquired a colonial empire but the fruits of development were uneven, with most of the growth being confined to the north while the south remained impoverished, fueling a large and influential diaspora. Italy entered the Great War on the side of the Allies in 1918, playing a key role in the defeat of Austria-Hungary on the Balkan Front. However, the country was perceived as receiving a poor share of the spoils at the subsequent Treaty of Paris and this, combined with Italy suffering under the effects of the post-war recession, ushered in a period of political turmoil. Governments alternated between liberal technocratic regimes, military rule under Armando Diaz and dictatorship under Gabriele D'Annunzio.
Elections in May 1934 saw a coalition of socialist parties take power, which was interpreted by many as a rebuke to the monarchical regime. King Victor Emmanuel III abdicated the following day but the new socialist regime was almost immediately overthrown by a military-backed fascist coup which brought Rudolfo Graziani to power. Making irredentist claims to various territories in the Mediterranean, Italy entered the World War on the Axis side but this ended in defeat and the country under American and Commonwealth occupation.
A new constitution, returning the House of Savoy to power in a federal constitutional parliamentary monarchy, was instituted following a referendum and new elections in June 1946. Political power came to be constitutionally competed for between the centre-right Christian Democracy Party and the left wing Italian Communist Party (the latter of whom formally repudiated the Soviet Union in 1949 and made partial rapprochements with the monarchy and the Catholic Church in the 1950s). Under a mixed economy combining free market economics alongside social policies to establish fair competition, the Italian economy rapidly expanded over the course of the 1950s and 1960s.
Although the immediate postwar decades were dominated by Christian Democracy, a general leftward turn in Italian politics saw Enrico Berlinguer become President of the Council of Ministers at the head of a moderate Communist government. However, the assassination of Aldo Moro in 1988 by far-left terrorists signalled a rightward turn. The Communists would not return to power until 1998 under Romano Prodi after a significant moderate faction had taken power within the party. Since 2005, politics in Italy has been dominated by a succession of technocratic centre-right governments under Corrado Passera.
Today, Italy is a great power with a strong economy. It has the 10th largest GDP in the world, while also having the highest GDP per capita (ban52,559) of any country in the top 10 and the only country in the top 10 to have a population of under 100 million people. It is a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors with a number of companies, such as Fiat (automobiles), Fincantieri (shipbuilding), Telefonico (telecommunications and IT) and Monte di Paschi (banking), being world leaders in their field. A highly developed country with a very high standard of living, Italy offers social security and a universal healthcare system, environmental protections and free tertiary education. Italy is also a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G20, the International Clearing Union and the World Bank. Known for its long and rich cultural history, Italy is also the top tourist destination in the world, with over 89 million tourist arrivals in 2019 and 55 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The Latin Economic Union, in English commonly abbreviated to LEU, is a regional trade organisation and free trade area consisting of 9 European states. The organisation operates a single market and a single visa area but not a customs union. In addition, there are three observer members, who are members of the single market and share an ICU bancor account and visa-free travel area with Portugal but not the other member states.
The LEU was established on 3 May 1960 to serve as a trade bloc for medium-sized European states who were concerned about the competing economic dominance of the Commonwealth, the United States, the Soviet Union and the French Union. The initial structures were set out in the Treaty of Barcelona, which was signed between the founding members Spain, Catalonia and Italy. The group expanded in 1973 to include the microstates of Andorra, Liechtenstein and San Marino. 1986 saw the accession of Portugal, Bavaria and Austria, which necessitated a new treaty (the Treaty of Trieste) to create new arrangements both for the new members and the ‘associated republics’ of Portugal, which became observer members.
A revised treaty, the Treaty of Vaduz, signed in 2001, provided a fresh framework for the expansion and liberalisation of trade. Because the LEU is not a customs union, member states do not share a pooled ICU bancor account and have full rights to enter into bilateral third-country trade arrangements. The body does, however, have a coordinated trade policy and its member states have jointly concluded free trade agreements with a number of countries including the Nordic Union and India.
The LEU was established on 3 May 1960 to serve as a trade bloc for medium-sized European states who were concerned about the competing economic dominance of the Commonwealth, the United States, the Soviet Union and the French Union. The initial structures were set out in the Treaty of Barcelona, which was signed between the founding members Spain, Catalonia and Italy. The group expanded in 1973 to include the microstates of Andorra, Liechtenstein and San Marino. 1986 saw the accession of Portugal, Bavaria and Austria, which necessitated a new treaty (the Treaty of Trieste) to create new arrangements both for the new members and the ‘associated republics’ of Portugal, which became observer members.
A revised treaty, the Treaty of Vaduz, signed in 2001, provided a fresh framework for the expansion and liberalisation of trade. Because the LEU is not a customs union, member states do not share a pooled ICU bancor account and have full rights to enter into bilateral third-country trade arrangements. The body does, however, have a coordinated trade policy and its member states have jointly concluded free trade agreements with a number of countries including the Nordic Union and India.
Mongolia, officially the Great Mongolian State and also known as the Bogd Khanate, is a landlocked country in East Asia. It is bordered by the Soviet Union to the north, China and Turkestan to the south and Manchuria to the east. With an area of 3,270,800 km2, Mongolia is the 7th largest country in the world but is also, with a population of 9,821,748 and a population density of 3.003/km2, one of the most sparsely populated. It is also the world’s largest landlocked country. The country contains very little arable land, as much of its area is covered by grassy steppe, with mountains in the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Niĭslel Khüree, the capital and largest city, is home to about 30% of the country’s population.
Approximately 30-50% of the country’s population is nomadic or semi-nomadic (numbers differ because of seasonal variation and differences in calculation) and horse culture is still integral to Mongolian culture. The majority of its population are Buddhists and the country is constitutionally a theocratic state under the sovereignty of the most senior figure in Mongolian Buddhism. However, the country also has significant Islamic and atheist minorities. The majority of the country’s population are of the Mongol ethnicity, although Kazakhs, Buryats, Tuvans and other minorities live in the country.
The area that is now Mongolia has been ruled by a succession of nomadic empires since the Xiongnu in the 3rd century BC. In 1206, Ghenghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire and turned it into the largest contiguous land empire in history through a series of armed conflicts. His grandson, Kublai Khan, conquered China, establishing the Yuan Dynasty. However, Mongol power went on the decline in later centuries, with the Mongols eventually submitting to the suzerainty of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in the 17th century. Buddhism expanded greatly during this period with around one-third of the adult male Mongolian population in 1900 being ordained monks.
During the collapse of the Qing in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, although this would not be recognised by the Republic of China until 1946. During this period it survived as an effective protectorate of the Soviet Union and has been a firm member of the Soviet bloc ever since. After an aborted attempt to collectivise herders in the 1930s, the state began to develop industries based on the processing of animal husbandry products and other sectors such as mining, timber processing and the production of some consumer goods. Soviet and Commonwealth of Independent States financial and technical assistance enabled Mongolia to modernise and to diversity economically.
Today, economic activity in Mongolia continues to be based on a mixture of herding and agriculture (32%) and mining, particularly the extensive deposits of copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten and gold (43.6%). Besides that, dominant industries include transportation, real estate and tourism (mainly from the Soviet Union). The grey and black economies are estimated to be at least one third the size of official GDP. Its GDP is listed by the ICU as 137.7 billion bancors, making it the ninth smallest economy in Asia.
Mongolia is unusual amongst communist states in retaining a monarchical form of government. The head of state is the 10th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, who has been the Khan since his reincarnation was confirmed in 2016. The holders of this title have been the Khans (apart from times between the death of the previous khan and the confirmation of the next) since the country’s independence. While the Khan has a great deal of spiritual and soft power, under the terms of the 1946 constitution practical political power is centralised under the country’s State Great Khural, which in turn is dominated by the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party, the sole legal political party.
Approximately 30-50% of the country’s population is nomadic or semi-nomadic (numbers differ because of seasonal variation and differences in calculation) and horse culture is still integral to Mongolian culture. The majority of its population are Buddhists and the country is constitutionally a theocratic state under the sovereignty of the most senior figure in Mongolian Buddhism. However, the country also has significant Islamic and atheist minorities. The majority of the country’s population are of the Mongol ethnicity, although Kazakhs, Buryats, Tuvans and other minorities live in the country.
The area that is now Mongolia has been ruled by a succession of nomadic empires since the Xiongnu in the 3rd century BC. In 1206, Ghenghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire and turned it into the largest contiguous land empire in history through a series of armed conflicts. His grandson, Kublai Khan, conquered China, establishing the Yuan Dynasty. However, Mongol power went on the decline in later centuries, with the Mongols eventually submitting to the suzerainty of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in the 17th century. Buddhism expanded greatly during this period with around one-third of the adult male Mongolian population in 1900 being ordained monks.
During the collapse of the Qing in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, although this would not be recognised by the Republic of China until 1946. During this period it survived as an effective protectorate of the Soviet Union and has been a firm member of the Soviet bloc ever since. After an aborted attempt to collectivise herders in the 1930s, the state began to develop industries based on the processing of animal husbandry products and other sectors such as mining, timber processing and the production of some consumer goods. Soviet and Commonwealth of Independent States financial and technical assistance enabled Mongolia to modernise and to diversity economically.
Today, economic activity in Mongolia continues to be based on a mixture of herding and agriculture (32%) and mining, particularly the extensive deposits of copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten and gold (43.6%). Besides that, dominant industries include transportation, real estate and tourism (mainly from the Soviet Union). The grey and black economies are estimated to be at least one third the size of official GDP. Its GDP is listed by the ICU as 137.7 billion bancors, making it the ninth smallest economy in Asia.
Mongolia is unusual amongst communist states in retaining a monarchical form of government. The head of state is the 10th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, who has been the Khan since his reincarnation was confirmed in 2016. The holders of this title have been the Khans (apart from times between the death of the previous khan and the confirmation of the next) since the country’s independence. While the Khan has a great deal of spiritual and soft power, under the terms of the 1946 constitution practical political power is centralised under the country’s State Great Khural, which in turn is dominated by the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party, the sole legal political party.
The Rhineland, officially the Rhenish Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in western Europe. The capital city is Koblenz, while the largest city and principal economic centre is Cologne. It is bordered to the south by France and Baden-Wurttemberg, to the west by the European Benelux countries, to the north by Hanover and to the east by Hesse. The country has an area of 53,938 km2 and an estimated population of just over 14 million people.
The Rhineland is a site of great archeological interest because of its position on the northernmost frontier of the Roman Empire. Following the end of Roman rule in the West, both sides of the Rhine were brought under the control of the Franks and, after 800, were integrated into the Holy Roman Empire. Over the decades and centuries, the territory of the Rhineland split into numerous small principalities, free cities and bishoprics. These were often the site of the contestation between French and Imperial authority but, both despite and because of this, they were economically vibrant and at the forefront of German cultural and ecclestiastical life. The Rhineland, particularly the Ruhr region, was one of the first areas of the world to industrialise in the nineteenth century. During the Napoleonic Wars, the left bank of the Rhine was brought into the French Empire. Under French rule, numerous liberal political reforms were instituted, many of which were allowed to remain after the territory was granted to Prussia after 1815. The Rhineland remained a province of Prussia within the German Empire after 1871.
Following the defeat of Germany in the World War, the territory was divided between a British Occupation Zone in the north and a French Occupation Zone in the south. In both zones, the occupying Allies adopted a policy, known as the Roosevelt Plan, of permanently crippling German industrial potential. Particularly in the British zone, German companies were forcibly dissolved and their equipment sold to British companies for low prices and subsequently removed. Large tracts of land which were home to natural resources were sold off to British and French mining interests. The French and British zones were then amalgamated into the present Rhineland in May 1949.
The new presidential republic was, from the outset, dominated by the big tent party the Rhenish National Union (“RN”). Konrad Adenauer won the initial presidential election in May 1949 but, straining under the economic limitations imposed by the British and the French, he resigned abruptly in 1953, subsequently moving to live in Hanover. However, the RN remained in power, winning elections in 1954, 1959, 1964 and 1969 before Rainer Barzel banned all other political parties in 1971. Barzel would remain in power until 2002, when multi-party elections were held. These were won by Franz Munterfering of the Party of National Unity. Martin Schulz won the presidency in 2013, winning a further election in 2018, both times in contested circumstances that resulted in riots.
The modern Rhineland is the poorest country in Europe, a far cry from its industrial heyday a century earlier. It is classed as a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 36.8%. The country has a well-documented ‘brain-drain’ as young people migrate to more developed neighbouring countries such as the Benelux, Hanover, Bavaria and Austria. This is the cause of significant social crises, although remittances have proved a useful source of foreign currency. The Rhineland’s main economic activities include agriculture, mining, tourism and wine cultivation. It is also home to a few manufacturing industries, mostly textiles for Hanoverian or French companies.
The Rhineland is a site of great archeological interest because of its position on the northernmost frontier of the Roman Empire. Following the end of Roman rule in the West, both sides of the Rhine were brought under the control of the Franks and, after 800, were integrated into the Holy Roman Empire. Over the decades and centuries, the territory of the Rhineland split into numerous small principalities, free cities and bishoprics. These were often the site of the contestation between French and Imperial authority but, both despite and because of this, they were economically vibrant and at the forefront of German cultural and ecclestiastical life. The Rhineland, particularly the Ruhr region, was one of the first areas of the world to industrialise in the nineteenth century. During the Napoleonic Wars, the left bank of the Rhine was brought into the French Empire. Under French rule, numerous liberal political reforms were instituted, many of which were allowed to remain after the territory was granted to Prussia after 1815. The Rhineland remained a province of Prussia within the German Empire after 1871.
Following the defeat of Germany in the World War, the territory was divided between a British Occupation Zone in the north and a French Occupation Zone in the south. In both zones, the occupying Allies adopted a policy, known as the Roosevelt Plan, of permanently crippling German industrial potential. Particularly in the British zone, German companies were forcibly dissolved and their equipment sold to British companies for low prices and subsequently removed. Large tracts of land which were home to natural resources were sold off to British and French mining interests. The French and British zones were then amalgamated into the present Rhineland in May 1949.
The new presidential republic was, from the outset, dominated by the big tent party the Rhenish National Union (“RN”). Konrad Adenauer won the initial presidential election in May 1949 but, straining under the economic limitations imposed by the British and the French, he resigned abruptly in 1953, subsequently moving to live in Hanover. However, the RN remained in power, winning elections in 1954, 1959, 1964 and 1969 before Rainer Barzel banned all other political parties in 1971. Barzel would remain in power until 2002, when multi-party elections were held. These were won by Franz Munterfering of the Party of National Unity. Martin Schulz won the presidency in 2013, winning a further election in 2018, both times in contested circumstances that resulted in riots.
The modern Rhineland is the poorest country in Europe, a far cry from its industrial heyday a century earlier. It is classed as a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 36.8%. The country has a well-documented ‘brain-drain’ as young people migrate to more developed neighbouring countries such as the Benelux, Hanover, Bavaria and Austria. This is the cause of significant social crises, although remittances have proved a useful source of foreign currency. The Rhineland’s main economic activities include agriculture, mining, tourism and wine cultivation. It is also home to a few manufacturing industries, mostly textiles for Hanoverian or French companies.
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Tibet, officially the Kingdom of Tibet, is a country in Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the west, Xinjiang to the northwest, China to the north and east and India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam and Nagaland and Burma to the south. With an area of 1,948,400 km2, it is the 16th largest country in the world by surface area but, with a population of just over 5.2 million people, it is also the most sparsely populated in the world, with a population density of 2.7 people per km2. This is mostly down to its harsh and rugged terrain and position on the Tibetan plateau, the highest region on Earth. The country is nicknamed “the roof of the world” or “the land of snows.”
Tibet lies between the core areas of the ancient civilizations of China and India but is shielded from both by extensive mountain ranges, including the towering Himalayas. Modern humans appear to have permanently inhabited the region from around 21,000 years ago and the first large-scale civilization emerged with the Zhangzhung Kingdom in the west of the region in the 5th century BC. The Yarlung Dynasty eventually established control of the region and expanded their state, creating the Tibetan Empire that flourished from the 7th to the 9th centuries. The empire would subsequently go through extended cycles of decline and renaissance until being conquered by the Mongols in the 13th century and incorporated into the Yuan Empire. Tibet was independent again while the Ming Dynasty was in power in Beijing but was brought under Chinese rule once more by the Qing in the 18th century.
By the early 20th century, however, Qing power was on the decline and Tibet found itself on the border of British India to the south. In July 1905, concern about potential Russian encroachment led to the British despatching an expeditionary force. However, misunderstandings between Tibetan forces, the British government in Calcutta and the British commander on the ground led to the outbreak of hostilities. In subsequent clashes, the British captured Lhasa the following year. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Lhasa in 1907 and the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1908, which confirmed the territory’s status as a British protectorate.
Under British rule, Tibet was not formally integrated within the British Raj but the Dali Lama was nonetheless granted a nine-gun salute in the fashion of the princely states. Due to its position along the frontier of the empire with both China and Russia, Tibet saw a great deal of British capital investment in railways and infrastructure. Many British people arrived as soldiers, civil servants and construction workers and dominated commercial and civil life in the protectorate. George Orwell, who lived in Tibet for five years from 1922 to 1927, wrote the book Himalayan Days about his experiences as an imperial officer in the country.
With concerns over Chinese revanchism under the Kuomintang government, there was a military build-up in the territory over the course of the 1930s. During the World War, the Tibetan front was the sight of some of the bloodiest and most inconclusive fighting. Between 1942 and 1945, the Jinsha River saw twelve battles between Chinese forces on the one hand and a combined Commonwealth, Indian and Tibetan army on the other. Around 1.5 million casualties were suffered by both sides without any real tactical advances on either side until the Twelfth Battle of Jinsha saw a decisive Commonwealth victory, with over 250,000 Chinese POWs captured.
The experience of Tibetan soldiers during the War and the privations suffered by ordinary Tibetans on the home front led to a national awakening in the immediate postwar period that led to increased calls for independence. In 1959, the 14th Dali Lama announced a nonviolent campaign to end British rule in the region, inspired by the earlier campaigns in India led by Monhandas Gandhi. This led directly to the independence of the country in 1962.
Since independence, Tibet’s political system has combined elements of parliamentary democracy and Buddhist theocracy. Much day-to-day government business is managed by the Kashag assembly and the Kalon Tripa is the formal head of the government. However, the Dali Lama retains supreme authority to pass and repeal laws at will, appoint and sack government ministers and call elections. The government is considered by some observers to be anti-democratic and authoritarian, with significant constraints on human rights and civil liberties in the name of the official Buddhist religion.
In the 21st century, the Tibetan economy remains dominated by agriculture but since the 1980s this has been accompanied by expansion of industry and tourism. Modern Tibetan industry has developed with mining, construction, handicrafts and medicine as important sectors. British-era infrastructure underwent substantial modernisation in the first years of the 21st century, which helped to grow the economy, particularly the tourism sector. For the past decade, Tibet has averaged around 10,000,000 tourist visits a year.
Tibet does not place highly in international rankings of major economic or military powers. However, it maintains diplomatic relations with a number of important countries and exerts significant soft power around the world through the position of the Dalai Lama and the Pachen Lama as the two most senior figures in the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. It has close economic and military ties with Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal, an arrangement often referred to as the “Himalayan Brotherhood.” It is also a member of the United Nations, the World Bank Group and the International Clearing Union.
Tibet lies between the core areas of the ancient civilizations of China and India but is shielded from both by extensive mountain ranges, including the towering Himalayas. Modern humans appear to have permanently inhabited the region from around 21,000 years ago and the first large-scale civilization emerged with the Zhangzhung Kingdom in the west of the region in the 5th century BC. The Yarlung Dynasty eventually established control of the region and expanded their state, creating the Tibetan Empire that flourished from the 7th to the 9th centuries. The empire would subsequently go through extended cycles of decline and renaissance until being conquered by the Mongols in the 13th century and incorporated into the Yuan Empire. Tibet was independent again while the Ming Dynasty was in power in Beijing but was brought under Chinese rule once more by the Qing in the 18th century.
By the early 20th century, however, Qing power was on the decline and Tibet found itself on the border of British India to the south. In July 1905, concern about potential Russian encroachment led to the British despatching an expeditionary force. However, misunderstandings between Tibetan forces, the British government in Calcutta and the British commander on the ground led to the outbreak of hostilities. In subsequent clashes, the British captured Lhasa the following year. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Lhasa in 1907 and the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1908, which confirmed the territory’s status as a British protectorate.
Under British rule, Tibet was not formally integrated within the British Raj but the Dali Lama was nonetheless granted a nine-gun salute in the fashion of the princely states. Due to its position along the frontier of the empire with both China and Russia, Tibet saw a great deal of British capital investment in railways and infrastructure. Many British people arrived as soldiers, civil servants and construction workers and dominated commercial and civil life in the protectorate. George Orwell, who lived in Tibet for five years from 1922 to 1927, wrote the book Himalayan Days about his experiences as an imperial officer in the country.
With concerns over Chinese revanchism under the Kuomintang government, there was a military build-up in the territory over the course of the 1930s. During the World War, the Tibetan front was the sight of some of the bloodiest and most inconclusive fighting. Between 1942 and 1945, the Jinsha River saw twelve battles between Chinese forces on the one hand and a combined Commonwealth, Indian and Tibetan army on the other. Around 1.5 million casualties were suffered by both sides without any real tactical advances on either side until the Twelfth Battle of Jinsha saw a decisive Commonwealth victory, with over 250,000 Chinese POWs captured.
The experience of Tibetan soldiers during the War and the privations suffered by ordinary Tibetans on the home front led to a national awakening in the immediate postwar period that led to increased calls for independence. In 1959, the 14th Dali Lama announced a nonviolent campaign to end British rule in the region, inspired by the earlier campaigns in India led by Monhandas Gandhi. This led directly to the independence of the country in 1962.
Since independence, Tibet’s political system has combined elements of parliamentary democracy and Buddhist theocracy. Much day-to-day government business is managed by the Kashag assembly and the Kalon Tripa is the formal head of the government. However, the Dali Lama retains supreme authority to pass and repeal laws at will, appoint and sack government ministers and call elections. The government is considered by some observers to be anti-democratic and authoritarian, with significant constraints on human rights and civil liberties in the name of the official Buddhist religion.
In the 21st century, the Tibetan economy remains dominated by agriculture but since the 1980s this has been accompanied by expansion of industry and tourism. Modern Tibetan industry has developed with mining, construction, handicrafts and medicine as important sectors. British-era infrastructure underwent substantial modernisation in the first years of the 21st century, which helped to grow the economy, particularly the tourism sector. For the past decade, Tibet has averaged around 10,000,000 tourist visits a year.
Tibet does not place highly in international rankings of major economic or military powers. However, it maintains diplomatic relations with a number of important countries and exerts significant soft power around the world through the position of the Dalai Lama and the Pachen Lama as the two most senior figures in the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. It has close economic and military ties with Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal, an arrangement often referred to as the “Himalayan Brotherhood.” It is also a member of the United Nations, the World Bank Group and the International Clearing Union.
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The United Emirates of the Persian Gulf, more commonly known by a variety of names including the Trucial States, the Emirates or East Arabia is a country in the Middle East. It is bordered by Arabia to the north and south and by the Persian Gulf to the north. It is composed of eleven constitutional monarchies, being Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Bahrain, Dubai, Fujairah, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Ras Al Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm Al Quwain, with the independent city of Muscat serving as the national capital. The boundaries of each emirate are complicated, with numerous exclaves, and are not contiguous. Together, they occupy an area of 323,979 km2 and have a population of around 6.5 million people. It has a GDP of 365 billion bancors, making it a medium sized economy.
Human occupation of the present Trucial States has been traced back to over 124,000 BC. The region was under Persian rule until the 7th century, when it was conquered by Arab forces following the Battle of Dibba and has been a stronghold of Arab culture ever since. The first important independent polity to emerge was the Julfar Emirate, which emerged as a major regional and maritime hub in the Early Modern period. The maritime dominance of the Persian Gulf by Emirati traders led to conflicts with European powers, most notably the Portuguese and British Empires. From the 17th century the region came to be known as the Pirate Coast by British sailors, owing to the persistent attacks on British shipping from raiders based in the area.
British suzerainty over the region began in 1820, when a maritime truce was negotiated between the British Empire and a number of the emirates. This gave rise to the expression “Trucial State” as a description of the region, one which remains common in the Commonwealth and around the world to this day. The terms of the treaty were expanded to include all of the present emirates as protectorates of the United Kingdom by 1892. This protectorate would remain in force until 1981, when it would be abrogated by agreement by both sides, with the Trucial States joining the UN as a full sovereign state the following day.
The Trucial States is a highly federalised system, with the federal government in Muscat having little power other than over international trade, defence and foreign policy. The head of state is the Raʾīs, which translates as the President. He is elected to a five-year term from among the eleven hereditary rulers of the emirates. It has been held by Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa of Bahrain since 2016. Apart from this, the governments of the individual emirates and the state as a whole is modelled on the Westminster system, with parliaments elected by first past the post and prime ministers leading the government. Unlike the Westminster system, however, the monarchs retain a great deal of formal and informal influence over government personnel and policy.
The Trucial States is a mixed economy with major sectors including manufacturing, petroleum refining and financial services. Tourism is the most important sector of the economy, accounting for an estimated 50% of total economic output. Oil extraction and refining was formerly a major player but has declined since the signing of the Shanghai Protocol in 1987. The Trucial States is also a member of the United Nations, ICU and World Bank Group.
Human occupation of the present Trucial States has been traced back to over 124,000 BC. The region was under Persian rule until the 7th century, when it was conquered by Arab forces following the Battle of Dibba and has been a stronghold of Arab culture ever since. The first important independent polity to emerge was the Julfar Emirate, which emerged as a major regional and maritime hub in the Early Modern period. The maritime dominance of the Persian Gulf by Emirati traders led to conflicts with European powers, most notably the Portuguese and British Empires. From the 17th century the region came to be known as the Pirate Coast by British sailors, owing to the persistent attacks on British shipping from raiders based in the area.
British suzerainty over the region began in 1820, when a maritime truce was negotiated between the British Empire and a number of the emirates. This gave rise to the expression “Trucial State” as a description of the region, one which remains common in the Commonwealth and around the world to this day. The terms of the treaty were expanded to include all of the present emirates as protectorates of the United Kingdom by 1892. This protectorate would remain in force until 1981, when it would be abrogated by agreement by both sides, with the Trucial States joining the UN as a full sovereign state the following day.
The Trucial States is a highly federalised system, with the federal government in Muscat having little power other than over international trade, defence and foreign policy. The head of state is the Raʾīs, which translates as the President. He is elected to a five-year term from among the eleven hereditary rulers of the emirates. It has been held by Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa of Bahrain since 2016. Apart from this, the governments of the individual emirates and the state as a whole is modelled on the Westminster system, with parliaments elected by first past the post and prime ministers leading the government. Unlike the Westminster system, however, the monarchs retain a great deal of formal and informal influence over government personnel and policy.
The Trucial States is a mixed economy with major sectors including manufacturing, petroleum refining and financial services. Tourism is the most important sector of the economy, accounting for an estimated 50% of total economic output. Oil extraction and refining was formerly a major player but has declined since the signing of the Shanghai Protocol in 1987. The Trucial States is also a member of the United Nations, ICU and World Bank Group.
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The Copperhead Rebellion (April 6-15, 1863), also known as the Draft Riots and the New York Uprising, was a series of violent disturbances in Lower Manhattan that turned into an armed insurrection aimed at bringing an end to the ongoing American Civil War by means of a negotiated peace. It was the most significant anti-Union insurrection outside of the South during the Civil War and remains the largest civil urban disturbance in American history. The insurrection and subsequent political developments ultimately contributed to an increase in popular support for the Union war effort, the final decline of the Democratic Party outside of the South and an increase in popular anti-Irish racism.
The insurrectionists were overwhelmingly white men, mostly Irish or of Irish descent. The primary causes of the uprising were concerns about the imminent introduction of a national draft to help prosecute the ongoing war against the Confederacy and fear of competition for wages with free black people in the multi-racial republic promised by the Emancipation Act (passed on July 4, 1862, in effect from January 1, 1863). Furthermore, during the antebellum period, a large portion of the economy of New York City was associated with the cotton trade (either processing it in mills or shipping it from the port) and a large number of the city’s citizens believed their business interests to be closely tied to the South. When Southern states began to secede, Mayor Fernando Wood introduced a bill of secession to the city’s Board of Aldermen, which was only narrowly voted down.
Planning for protests had been underway since 1861, under the belief that opposition in major Northern cities would force the federal government to negotiate with the Confederacy. The first disturbances began on April 6, 1863, when agitators disrupted a drawing of draft numbers. This quickly escalated into a series of riots across Lower Manhattan. There were isolated riots elsewhere across the Union, notably in Buffalo, Pittsburgh and Columbus. With the state militia at the front, the New York City Police Department was unable to control the rioters.
On 10 April, however, prominent New York ‘Peace Democrats’ Fernando Wood and Horatio Seymour emerged and attempted to regain control of the uprising and declared that New York City would no longer abide by either federal or state laws and would seek friendly relations with the Confederacy. Debate continues to this day as to the extent to which this was intended to be a declaration of secession or whether it was an attempt by Wood and Seymour to calm the rioting, which had threatened to spin out of control. Either way, the federal government in Philadelphia immediately declared this to be an act of treason and ordered Brigadier General John E. Wool to proceed towards the city to put down the uprising.
The Union brought in thousands of reinforcements as well as artillery and a gunboat. Importantly for Union strategy, the uprising did not spread out of Manhattan, with Brooklyn, Staten Island and Westchester County remaining loyal and bases for the Union reconquest. There was fighting on the docks of New York harbour and in the streets up to Lower Manhattan, where the rebels slowed the Union advance and inflicted many casualties. The main rebel positions, centered around City Hall, were gradually surrounded and bombarded with artillery.
With much greater numbers and heavier weapons, the Union Army eventually suppressed the uprising. Wood agreed to an unconditional surrender on 15 April, although sporadic fighting continued briefly. After the surrender, the city remained under martial law with Wool as the military governor. The Union army arrested around 1,500 people and imprisoned them in internment camps in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Most of the leaders of the uprising, including Wood and Seymour, were arrested and prosecuted for treason.
Of the 746 people killed in the Copperhead Rebellion, 384 were civilians, 202 were rebels, 17 were policemen and 143 were Union soldiers. More than 5,000 were wounded, most of them civilians. Many of the dead civilians were members of New York’s pre-war free-black population, who were murdered by mob action in the first days of the uprising. Others were killed in the crossfire when the Union army re-took the city. In addition, the city suffered an estimated $6million in property damage.
Although at the time presenting a serious challenge to Union control of the city, in the long run the uprising proved to be a negative for the peace cause. The ambiguity of New York Democrats’ response to the initial uprising caused a split amongst the Peace Democrat faction in Philadelphia: with the movement stripped of its leader (Stephen Douglas having died in 1861), associated with violence and mob rule and now divided between those who wanted to achieve peace by constitutional means and those openly supporting the Confederacy, the movement entered a terminal spiral and would not survive the Civil War. The military government installed in New York would also prove to be a trial run for the governments installed in the secessionist states after the Civil War was over.
The insurrectionists were overwhelmingly white men, mostly Irish or of Irish descent. The primary causes of the uprising were concerns about the imminent introduction of a national draft to help prosecute the ongoing war against the Confederacy and fear of competition for wages with free black people in the multi-racial republic promised by the Emancipation Act (passed on July 4, 1862, in effect from January 1, 1863). Furthermore, during the antebellum period, a large portion of the economy of New York City was associated with the cotton trade (either processing it in mills or shipping it from the port) and a large number of the city’s citizens believed their business interests to be closely tied to the South. When Southern states began to secede, Mayor Fernando Wood introduced a bill of secession to the city’s Board of Aldermen, which was only narrowly voted down.
Planning for protests had been underway since 1861, under the belief that opposition in major Northern cities would force the federal government to negotiate with the Confederacy. The first disturbances began on April 6, 1863, when agitators disrupted a drawing of draft numbers. This quickly escalated into a series of riots across Lower Manhattan. There were isolated riots elsewhere across the Union, notably in Buffalo, Pittsburgh and Columbus. With the state militia at the front, the New York City Police Department was unable to control the rioters.
On 10 April, however, prominent New York ‘Peace Democrats’ Fernando Wood and Horatio Seymour emerged and attempted to regain control of the uprising and declared that New York City would no longer abide by either federal or state laws and would seek friendly relations with the Confederacy. Debate continues to this day as to the extent to which this was intended to be a declaration of secession or whether it was an attempt by Wood and Seymour to calm the rioting, which had threatened to spin out of control. Either way, the federal government in Philadelphia immediately declared this to be an act of treason and ordered Brigadier General John E. Wool to proceed towards the city to put down the uprising.
The Union brought in thousands of reinforcements as well as artillery and a gunboat. Importantly for Union strategy, the uprising did not spread out of Manhattan, with Brooklyn, Staten Island and Westchester County remaining loyal and bases for the Union reconquest. There was fighting on the docks of New York harbour and in the streets up to Lower Manhattan, where the rebels slowed the Union advance and inflicted many casualties. The main rebel positions, centered around City Hall, were gradually surrounded and bombarded with artillery.
With much greater numbers and heavier weapons, the Union Army eventually suppressed the uprising. Wood agreed to an unconditional surrender on 15 April, although sporadic fighting continued briefly. After the surrender, the city remained under martial law with Wool as the military governor. The Union army arrested around 1,500 people and imprisoned them in internment camps in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Most of the leaders of the uprising, including Wood and Seymour, were arrested and prosecuted for treason.
Of the 746 people killed in the Copperhead Rebellion, 384 were civilians, 202 were rebels, 17 were policemen and 143 were Union soldiers. More than 5,000 were wounded, most of them civilians. Many of the dead civilians were members of New York’s pre-war free-black population, who were murdered by mob action in the first days of the uprising. Others were killed in the crossfire when the Union army re-took the city. In addition, the city suffered an estimated $6million in property damage.
Although at the time presenting a serious challenge to Union control of the city, in the long run the uprising proved to be a negative for the peace cause. The ambiguity of New York Democrats’ response to the initial uprising caused a split amongst the Peace Democrat faction in Philadelphia: with the movement stripped of its leader (Stephen Douglas having died in 1861), associated with violence and mob rule and now divided between those who wanted to achieve peace by constitutional means and those openly supporting the Confederacy, the movement entered a terminal spiral and would not survive the Civil War. The military government installed in New York would also prove to be a trial run for the governments installed in the secessionist states after the Civil War was over.