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Splendour of the Sun: A history of the house of York-Plantagenet. Intro and Chapter One:
Introduction:
"A House United"
It has long been accepted that the "modern" age as we know it began in the 15th Century. In most English-speaking nations the date given for that is the restoration of Edward IV after the re-adaption of 1471 and his reign which continued until his death in 1492. He is also regarded as the monarch who finally put an end to the dynastic squabbles that had dogged the English Crown during the mid 15th century and helped end their ambitions in France.
He is also the man whose ambition and dynastic planning saw a revival in England's continental ambitions. At his death his family were connected by blood and marriage to the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, the Kingdom of Scotland and the Duchy of Brittany and the Duchy of Brabant.
A man of huge appetites he avoided conflict unless pushed into it, was perceived as dishonourable at his willingness to accept foreign pensions instead of pursuing his political aims against his foreign rivals, but domestically he restored some semblance of political control and order.
A strong personal awareness of the power and prestige of the monarch didn't prevent his hasty and improbable marriage to the commoner widow Elizabeth Wydeville, Lady Grey, but it was a marriage that stood the test of time and he never appears to have regretted his hasty decision, though his adultery is well recorded.
His extravagant building projects, which left a significant mark on the landscape, are still partially visible at Windsor Castle, the York Memorial Chapel at Fotheringhay and at the great Palaces of Sheen, Greenwich and Eltham but the costs meant an empty treasury for his heirs.
The King's early reign and his final victory over the rival House of Lancaster is well recorded in other volumes but it is perhaps 1483 the 21st year of Edward's reign that is perhaps pivotal in the success of the House of York and of Edward himself.
Chapter One: Revenge upon France:
In the winter of 1482/3 the King caught a slight chill he was put to bed at the old Westminster Palace where he would remain through much of the Christmas festivities. The Queen and her younger children had joined the King over Christmas and as he rallied in the days after she returned to her Palace of pleasure at Greenwich with her elder daughter's Elizabeth and Cecily, the younger children returning to their nursery at Eltham.
The King desired that his younger son Richard Duke of York and Norfolk stay with him as to "better aid our recovery". Shortly after the Queen's departure though the King was soon back in bed with a raging fever, Lord Hastings his most respected councillor pushed the council to keep the news of the King's declining health from the Queen and from the Prince of Wales who was in Ludlow under the guardianship of his Uncle the 2nd Earl Rivers.
Much has been written of Hastings actions in January 1483. He had been a long standing friend of the King and was a near neighbour of the Queen's when she was just the attractive Lancastrian widow who would capture a King's hand.
Many have suggested that the Queen blamed Hastings for her husband's many dalliances others suggested she resented the rewards heaped upon him. Whatever the reasons for the coolness between them, Hastings could hardly welcome the death of the King and the accession of his son who was known to be close to his mother's large and influential family. Someone that Hastings did advise of the King's illness was Edward's youngest brother the Duke of Gloucester who immediately travelled south.
It has been suggested that Hastings was preparing to ensure that on Edward's death control of the realm passed to Gloucester who would look more favourably on him than The Queen, her son the Marquess of Dorset and her brother Earl Rivers. It was Hastings bad luck perhaps that the Duke of Gloucester was an honourable man with little personal ambition. He travelled south at a snail's pace, regularly stopping to pray for his brother and sending letters to both the Queen, Lord Rivers and the council, in the end he didn't arrive in London until February by which time his brother was recovering.
In mid January Hastings worst fears were realised the Queen descended on Westminster in a fury - barring Hastings the King's chamber and eventually cajoling a nervous council to agree to his house arrest (She'd pushed for the tower). Declaring that only she could nurse the King to health many of his doctors were even barred the royal presence (which in itself may have saved the King's life).
With his recovery the King seemed to have rediscovered his pleasure in government and no longer where his days given over to the pleasures of food, drink and the less than virtuous ladies of the court. It was noticeable that whilst the King did not summon Hastings back to court he did not keep him under arrest. From now on the King relied more heavily upon certain other members of the court including his two step sons - Lord Dorset and Lord Richard Grey. In contrast to his apparent life of ease he re-entered government in full command - as one chronicler noted it was as if his brush with death had made him more determined to ensure the glory of his house.
It might also be true that the King was fired by anger after his old rival Louis XI of France abandoned plans to marry his heir Charles to Edward's eldest and much loved daughter Elizabeth in late 1482. But the breaking of this match fired a flurry of marriages and new alliances between the Yorkist court and the great houses of Europe.
Louis the Spider had a much stronger match in mind for his heir; the young Archduchess Margaret of Burgundy was the only daughter of the late Mary of Burgundy, her father Maximillian of Austria was struggling to hold the inheritance of his late wife and was forced by Louis into the humiliating Treaty of Arras (December 1482) which saw Louis gain several parts of the great Burgundian inheritance principally Franche Comte and Artois.
However Maximillian had a hidden asset in the wiley Dowager Duchess of Burgundy - Margaret of York - Edward's sister and Mary of Burgundy's step-mother. Margaret was very much the daughter of "Proud Cis" and for many years her relations with her brother had been poor - they'd quarrelled over the execution of George Duke of Clarence and more frequently over the oft late payments or more often no payments of income from her English lands.
But in the Summer of 1483 the Dowager was welcomed back to London with full honour and by the entire Royal family - on the surface it looked like a family reunion but under the surface Margaret had a suggestion from her step son in law.
Maximillian was suggesting that he marry the jilted Elizabeth of York, whilst her younger sister Anne would marry the young Philip of Burgundy. He also proposed a treaty of mutual assurance - Both guaranteed to protect the other in the event of an attack by a third party (clearly intended to be France) - there were further concessions over trade and the position of Flemish merchants in London and Calais and concessions for english merchants in Antwerp.
The resulting Treaty of Bruges was signed in January 1484 (ratified by Edward in February and by Maximilian in April). French chroniclers of the time reported the fury of the French Regent Anne to the news believing the treaty to be directly aimed at France and even worse a distinct betrayal of earlier treaties with England and the treaty of Arras confirmed only a year earlier.
Edward was not neglectful of his heirs marital prospects - for many years he'd hoped that the Prince of Wales would marry the young Anne of Brittany. Anne was the heir of her father and would one day inherit the last semi-autonomous duchy in France - however the Breton Duke had delayed unwilling to offend France or his own fiercely independent people. But his choices were running out - a half tentative offer of the young heiress to the widowed Maximilian was rejected and by late summer 1484 the Duke's emmissaries returned to London to hammer out a formal betrothal.
The details were formalised by the Treaty of Eltham signed in Edward IV's presence in the lavish great hall at Eltham Palace in October 1484. Anne of Brittany was formally betrothed to the Prince of Wales. In the event of Anne's death Edward would marry her younger sister Isabelle should Edward die then Anne would marry his brother Richard Duke of York and Norfolk. The Treaty also settles the future of Brittany - the Dukedom would pass to Edward and Anne's second son. If Anne and Edward were to die childless, Edward was to guarantee that he would support the claims of Isabelle of Brittany to the Duchy.
The Treaty also guaranteed that Isabelle of Brittany would not marry without the consent of both the Breton Duke and the King of England. What wasn't publicised at the time was that in the event of Anne and her sister dying without issue, the Dukedom would pass to Edward IV's descendants.
Edward also guaranteed that he would defend the Duchy in the event of a French invasion. To ensure that Duke Francis couldn't be forced to surrender his daughter to French control, Anne would come to England and be educated with Edward's younger daughters when she reached the age of 10 (in 1487).
Edward ratified the treaty within days and began pressing Duke Francis to do so - however he waivered and pursued other options including the marriage of his daughter to the all ready married Duke of Orleans - he also offered support to the Duke of Orleans in his attempts to wrest the French Regency from Anne of France.
In November 1484 in fullfillment of his obligations under the Treaty of Bruges Edward's daughter Elizabeth of York left England with numerous English lords and ladies for the low countries, she was greated with great estate by the Dowager Duchess, her aunt, and she and Maximillian are married at Mechelin that same month.
The couple seemed content and Elizabeth soon becomes fond of her stepson the young Philip of Burgundy - Maximillian though remained unpopular with the Burgundian subjects of his first wife and the couple face continuing disturbances throughout the low countries.
The Duke of Brittany formally came to a truce with the French regent Anne and publicly refused to ratify the Treaty of Eltham - He and Orleans continue to intrigue though and he continues to imply to the English representatives at his court that he still contemplates approving the Treaty of Eltham.
In January 1486 it was announced that Edward's daughter Elizabeth had given birth to her first child a healthy boy - the Archduke Frederick, was named for his grandfather the Emperor Frederick III. Elizabeth accompanied her husband to Aachen later that year for his election and coronation as King of The Romans.
Towards the end of the year rebellion again breaks out in France fostered by the Duke of Orleans who is still attempting to gain control of the young King - Maximillian I decides to invade desperate to regain territories he was forced to cede to France at the Treaty of Arras (Artois and French Burgundy in particular) though he is pushed back by the French and faces criticism from the dutch estates over his actions.
In January of 1487 facing rebellions at home and the constant threat of a French invasion - The Duke of Brittany still fighting a sporadic battle with France finally formally ratifies the Treaty of Eltham and in March the ten year old Anne of Brittany arrives in England - her entry into London is watched and celebrated by a large crowd - much pleasure is found in the touching greeting offered to the young girl from her future husband the 17 year old Prince Edward.
After the ceremonials Anne, now referred to as Princess of Wales and with precedence immediately after the Queen, joins the rest of the Royal children at the Queen's favourite Palace at Eltham. Prince Edward returns to Ludlow and his governance of Wales under the guidance of his favourite Uncle the Queen's brother Anthony Earl Rivers.
In the Autumn the 12 year old Anne of York followed her elder sisters journey across the channel it had been decided that she should be placed in the household of her sister so as to better know her future husband Philip Duke of Burgundy - her father was also anxious that Maximillian have no chance of repudiating the match at a later date. The young couple appear to get on - considered a good sign by all. Anne of York, now formally styled Duchess of Burgundy etc arrives in the low countries in time for the birth of her sister's second child, the Archduchess Eleanor of Austria.
In France the situation continues to decline - the Duke of Brittany and the Duke of Orleans are declared rebels by the Parlement of Paris in January 1488.
The situation though has changed and France is now encircled by enemies - Anne of France faced with revolts invades Brittany determined to force the Bretons to repudiate the English betrothal - Edward IV determined to prevent that happening despatches an English Army to support the forces of Francis II of Brittany under the command of Richard Duke of Gloucester and his brother in law Anthony Lord Rivers.
A vast English force led by the Duke of Gloucester and the Earl Rivers break a french blockade of the channel and land at the port of St Malo in early July. A few weeks later - the larger English/Breton Army defeats the French at the Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier.
In late August the French agree to the Treaty of Saint Malo fearing that if the war continues Edward's other ally Maximillian of Austria might again invade (they promote a rebellion in Flanders to distract him) - the French are forced to resume payments of their large pension to Edward IV in return Edward is forced to guarantee that Brittany wouldn't be absorbed into the English Throne and that it would continue to be regarded as a French vassal not an English one.
The Treaty of St Malo is regarded as a final settlement but Anne of France's intervening capture and imprisonment of the Duke of Orleans means most observers regard it as a temporary one.
The King's brother Richard warns the King that any attempt to hold Brittany will almost certainly mean continual disputes with France urges him to press their advantage and crush the French. The King prefers his pension and the Duke is again frustrated by his brother's lack of understanding the situation in France.
Edward re-opens negotiations with Ferdinand and Isabella for the marriage of Juan of the Asturias to his younger daughter Catherine - negotiations have been ongoing since her birth in 1479 but had been postponed on numerous times largely over the size of her dower. Edward now believes that expanding the anti French alliance might help and he is aware that Ferdinand in particular has an interest in regaining Rousillon for the Crown of Aragon.
In September the Duke Francis II of Brittany dies and Anne is confirmed as Duchess in the January of 1489. Edward determined to maintain his hold on the Duchy despatches his brother in law Anthony Earl Rivers to govern the Duchy on behalf of the young Duchess. Lord Rivers is well respected both at home and abroad but the Bretons resent being ruled by an Englishman almost as much as they would had he been French.
Also that year James III of Scotland is killed and his 15 year old son James is proclaimed James IV - Edward whose relationship with Scotland has been a story of intermittent wars and border clashes through Edward's support of Alexander Stewart Duke of Albany now sees an opportunity to revive a peace deal - he offers the young King the Princess Cecily as his wife. James hedges things though and looks to the old ally France.
The French regent is keen to revive an alliance with Scotland as she fears the continuing encirclement of France by nations opposed to her. The Regent also opens negotiations with the Spanish Monarchs for the marriage of Charles VIII to one of the infantas implying her willingness to break his betrothal to Margaret of Austria. Ferdinand's demand for Rousillon to be restored to the Aragonese Crown though delays negotiations.
Furious with French interference in Scotland and the continuing French threat to Brittany, Edward IV, finally concludes details of the negotiations with Ferdinand and Isabella over the marriage of his daughter Catherine to Juan Prince of the Asturias and signs the Treaty of Medina del Campo with the Spanish Monarchs in March.
The treaty is a direct threat to France it guarantees aid for England to recover Guyenne and for Aragon to recover Rousillon. However the English court is staggered by the dowry that Ferdinand and Isabella have demanded. In response the French Regent ceases payments of Edward's pension guaranteed under the Treaty of St Malo (Edward had repeatedly renounced his claims to Guyenne)